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doc-en-9766_0	Jozef Cywinski () (born on 13 March 1936) is a Polish-American scientist, a specialist in the field of biomedical engineering and specifically in electrical stimulation of living organisms. His work has been the subject of 12 patents, two books and over 100 scientific publications. He developed several first-on-the-market electro-medical devices like cardiac stimulators pacemakers, train-of-four nerve stimulators, PACS, EMS, TENS and Veinoplus calf pump stimulators. Biography Early life and education Jozef Cywinski was born in pre-war Warsaw, Poland in 1936. During World War II his family was heavily involved with the underground fighting against the Nazi. Because his family is part of a noble Polish family (using the Puchala coat of arms), the Cywinski family lost their residence and resources in Warsaw and moved to the small city of Bielsko in a mountainous region in the south of Poland. Circumstances like these were common with disastrous effects on millions of Poles. Cywinski, like many others did not receive the typical education most students would receive in school during peaceful times. In 1945, several displaced professors from Lviv and Vilnius Universities settled in Bielsko too, creating an accelerated and highly sophisticated climate in which to learn. They taught Cywinski physics, chemistry and math personally, while he attended the Liceum im. Asnyka. There, he was awarded a Leader in Science and Social Work certificate. Graduating from high school, he won the concourse for admission to the Telecommunications Program at the Warsaw Polytech [Politechnika Warszawska]. At the age of 16 he was one of the youngest students ever admitted there. Graduate work, 1955–1960 Three years later, in 1955, Cywinski enrolled in a newly created graduate program in Medical Electronics, which was a joint venture between the University of Warsaw Medical School (Akademia Medyczna) and the Warsaw Poytech. Here, Cywinski constructed his first invention: a linear-motor automatic scanner for chromatography of blood samples. The analyzer was the first of its kind and type developed at these times in Poland. This instrument was also essential for the graduate diploma work and discovery of light and heavy fractions of myosine (muscle cell proteins) of Cywinski's wife, Hanna Zawistowska, a biochemist herself. Cywinski worked as a full-time engineer in the Laboratory of Applied Physics at the Warsaw Pol where he constructed vacuum-tube electrometers. It was thanks to the use of Cywinski's electrometers that the first European semiconductor-charge copying machine was developed. Later, in 1959 he worked at the Laboratory of Computer Science of the Warsaw University of Technology where he built vacuum-tube registers for the first Polish-made computer. In 1960, Cywinski received a Master of Science degree in Medical Engineering. Postgraduate work, 1960–1967 For Cywinski's doctorate degree, which began in 1962, he continued the joint endeavor with the Medical University of Warsaw and the Warsaw University of Technology. During this time he became the director of the Electronics Laboratory at the Institute of Cardiology, at the Medical University of Warsaw. He wrote papers on the electro-stimulation of organs and a doctorate thesis on automatic analysis radio chromatograms of blood. At the Cardiology Institute, Cywinski created the world's first P-wave controlled external cardiac pacemaker and a new technique for ECG recording. The animal research on this pacemaker was completed in 1964 and Cywinski submitted the project to be presented at the World Congress of Bioengineering in Tokyo, Japan. He was invited to present his paper on P-wave pacemakers in September, 1965 at the plenary session of the Congress. Cywinski was extended an invitation to join the artificial heart program under Professor Leslie Peterson M.D. at the University of Pennsylvania pending the completion of his doctorate studies in Poland. In 1967, he demonstrated his own construction of a working prototype of a Digital Radiochromatograph. A first of its kind, it computed in binary code fractional ratios of blood proteins. He publicly defended his thesis in front of the joint faculty of the Medical University of Warsaw and the Warsaw University of Technology and received a Doctor in Science (Bioengineering) degree (Ph.D./D.Sc.) from the latter. Professional career Poland, 1960–1967 While studying at Warsaw University of Technology, Cywinski co-founded and was partner and R&D Director of the industrial laboratory Ridan Instruments Ltd., where he developed, patented and manufactured Poland's first muscle electro-stimulators (Diadynamic), blood-gas analysers, potentiometric pHmeters and charge-electrometers for diagnostic purposes. France, 1967 Cywinski spent six months in Paris, France waiting for immigration papers to the United States. During this time, Cywinski completed two projects. Firstly, with Professor Renaud Koechlin, at Hopital Foch in Suresnes, Paris, he developed the first satellite transmission interface device for tele-diagnosis of vectorcardiograms. Telediagnosis was made between the University of Tours, France and Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, in the United States via satellite and on-line communication with computer systems. He was asked to demonstrate his work to General Charles de Gaulle and members of the French government. He was then asked to join the Electronique Appliquée Laboratoire (ELA) in Montrouge, France. There he developed the first European prototype of an implantable on-demand cardiac pacemaker. The prototype was implanted in Paris in October 1967 for the first time by dr. Mugica at Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, during a midnight emergency intervention. Despite the lack of animal trials, the pacemaker saved the patient's life and allowed him to live for several more years. Today, Cywinski-type on-demand pacers are still manufactured by the ELA-SORIN factory and widely used throughout the world. United States, 1967–1993 In 1967, Cywinski began work on the NIH-sponsored Artificial Heart Project. After only two years and with a team of two surgeons Waldemar J. Wajszczuk M.D. and Ahmed Kutty, M.D., Cywinski developed and published an analog computer model of the physiologic rate and contractility controls for artificial hearts. However, NIH sponsored work did not continue past this point and artificial heart research shifted to private industry. In 1970, Cywinski accepted a teaching offer as an associate professor of radiology and an associate professor of electrical engineering from the University of Missouri Medical School in Columbia Missouri. He developed and taught a course regarding electro-medical devices for diagnosis and therapy. Additionally, he collaborated with Allan Hahn in the animal laboratory facility developing implantable fuel cells. A year later, he was invited to join the faculty of Harvard Medical School as a principal associate in anesthesia and bioengineering. Simultaneously, he was invited to join the faculty of a newly created program combining the medical curriculum of Harvard Medical School with the graduate program of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He developed a new graduate-level course (HST-510) in medical engineering. For students, this was a five-year program that included medical school, medical engineering lectures and laboratory work. This program was carried out at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston. There, in 1974, Cywinski created the first Department of Medical Engineering in the U.S. as well as taking on the position of director. His activities included planning, development, purchase and service of patient monitoring in this 2000-bed hospital. In his MGH lab he developed electrical devices and methods for patient monitoring, as well the stimulators for pain research and for bone fracture healing. Concurrently, Cywinski's personal research revolved around applications and safety of electrical stimulation. His animal research together with Cardiologist and Professor Paul Zoll at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston has become the basis for the globally accepted Standard for Transcutaneous Electo-Stimulation undersigned by the US National Bureau of Standards (ANBS), AAMI and recognized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States. Cywinski invented and produced devices such as the "train-of-four" method for patient monitoring of depth of muscle relaxation during anesthesia as well as implantable stimulators for brain research and bone fracture healing. While at MGH/MIT, Cywinski developed bio-galvanic implantable cardiac stimulators. In 3- to 5-year tests performed by Professor Allan Hahn and his team at the Animal Research Center of the University of Missouri, the bio-galvanic pacemakers implanted in dogs functioned well with a projected lifespan of over 50 years. This was in the early 1970s when the industry-wide standard was to use mercury batteries in implantable cardiac pacemakers, which lasted only two years. At the same time, the leading manufacturer of pacemakers heavily invested in the development of nuclear batteries with similar projected life spans of 50–80 years. They were quickly abandoned due to nuclear waste handling problems. Cywinski's bio-galvanic pacemakers were not adopted by the industry, either. In the end, all implantable power sources were narrowed down to lithium cells which then became the industry standard. In 1978, for his pioneering work in the field of cardiac pacing and bio-galvanic batteries, Cywinski was nominated as Fellow of the American College of Cardiology. In 1983 during his summer sabbatical leave from Harvard he did joint research with Professor Geoffery Kidd at the Sherrington Laboratory at the University of Liverpool, UK. This joint effort led to many publications and a joint patent on stimulators using Motor Unit Action Potential (MUAP) patterns for neuromuscular stimulation. Additionally, during his time in Boston, he served as a Federal Court-appointed expert in patent litigations between the major manufacturers of cardiac pacemakers. Most of Cywinski's career was in academia, but in 1986 he voluntarily retired from MGH-Harvard-MIT and created a business around one of his inventions for the medical imaging field. Cywinski co-founded Medinet, Inc. in New York. There he developed the world's first computerized medical picture archiving and communication system (PACS) and imaging workstations for Doppler ultrasound scanners. Cywinski then started Corsan Engineering Consulting Co. Inc., a consulting agency for medical technologies in Duxbury, MA and Rockville Centre, NY. The sample list of clients includes Agfa-Matrix, Bio-Medical Research Ltd, Du Pont, IBM-Medical, Med. & Biol. Instruments Inc., Philips-Medical, Siemens-Medical, Sony-Medical, and Vitatron N.V. Simultaneously, in Warsaw, Poland he co-founded in partnership with the Polish American Enterprise Fund (PAEF) and Warsaw Technical University, another company called Secura, Ltd, which developed and marketed ultrafiltration devices for medical, industrial and environmental projects. Switzerland, 1994–2007 In 1994, the Swiss Federation president, Mr. Schmidthalter, asked Cywinski to come to Switzerland and build a medical device business in Sion using the building that had originally been used for Switzerland's artificial heart program. Cywinski took over the building and constructed two ventures; Valmed Ltd and the R&D Institute of Medical Technology (ITM). At Valmed Ltd, Cywinski, as CEO and managing director developed and manufactured neuromuscular stimulators for physiotherapy and sports medicine. The Institute of Medical Technology was a non-profit foundation for R&D in new medical technologies. Within ITM he continued lecturing, conferences and publishing research in the field of neuromuscular stimulation with a particular focus on improvements in sports performance. He pursued his applied research interests with Professor Gerta Vrbova of University College London, Professors Olga Hudlická and Mary Brown of the University of Birmingham and Professor Oona Scott of Imperial College London. Together their research led to the fabrication of neuromuscular stimulators which successfully produced non-fatiguing muscle cell behaviour and increased muscle strength in healthy volunteers and children with muscular dysfunction. The Olympic Committee under Professor Samaranch and Patrick Shamash, MD approved the use of these stimulators for athletes as a natural (non-doping) means of improving muscle performance. Additionally, at the World Olympic Museum in Lausanne (2003–2004), Laurent River organized the exhibition 'Sports Performance et Equilibre' in which Cywinski's stimulators were exhibited. During this time in Switzerland some of Cywinski's projects and highlights included the development of stimulators for functional rehabilitation in cooperation with Professor Charles Gobelet, director of SUVA, a public sector insurer in Switzerland as well as the development of stimulators for skin rejuvenation which was performed in conjunction with Dr. Welli, the medical director of Clinique La Prairie (Clarins, Switzerland). In the years 1999 through 2005 he was invited by Jean-Pierre Rausis and Professor Herve Borland, Ph.D. to serve as one of the directors of the scientific board of the world-famous Dalle Molle Institute of Artificial Intelligence in Martigny, Switzerland. Outside of Switzerland he was an associate professor of the Department of Health Sciences of the University of East London, UK. There, jointly with Professor Matthew Morrissey, he conducted research and doctoral thesis supervision to Dr. A. Man, who for her doctorate work used Cywinski's stimulator to reduce edema in legs. This work was subsequently published in the Journal of Sport Science and Medicine. His institute participated at the inter-university international research programs. This resulted in several publications in the field of electro stimulation. In 1996, he was invited by the Royal Society of Medicine in London to give a lecture on his research interests. France, 2005–present In 2005, Cywinski moved to Paris, France and was a consultant to Ad Rem Technology SARL, where he invented the Veinoplus stimulator to correct impaired blood circulation in leg veins. In September 2010, Cywinski was invited by Peter Glovitzki, director of the Mayo Clinic's Gonda Vascular Institute to lecture on the application of the Veinoplus at the Mayo Clinic Continued Medical Education Seminar in Paris. Currently, with Ad Rem Technology, Cywinski, continues as chief technology officer, the developments and distribution of Veinoplus stimulators and novel nano-stimulation devices for angiology and sports medicine applications as well as for athletic performance improvement. In 2007, Cywinski became manager and sole shareholder of EMSTIM, EURL, in Paris. EMSTIM is a research institute for the development of medical devices and therapeutics. It is currently accredited by the French Ministry of Higher Education as an R&D institute for developments in medical technologies. This resulted in a Veinoplus patent (assigned to Ad Rem Technology) and to more developments of novel electro-stimulation devices/techniques. Hemodynamic research on Cywinski's Veinoplus stimulators was performed and published by Professor Andrew Nicolaides and his team at Imperial College London, England. This research proved that stimulation of the calf muscles by the Veinoplus can be effective in preventing Deep Veinous Thrombosis (DVT) and Pulmonary Emboli (PE). If was also effective at improving circulatory problems in legs (including those of diabetics or those with peripheral artery disease) that if not treated can lead to non-healing ulcers or amputation. Political endeavors, 1979–1994 While continuously active in science, Cywinski's work and contacts led him into politics. In the years from 1979 to 1984 Cywinski was a trustee for the Presidential Committee of Ronald Reagan. In 1987, during the demise of the Communist era in Eastern Europe, Cywinski was asked by Zbigniew Brzezinski, the US Security Advisor to President Carter, to consult with the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations headed by Senator Richard Lugar to develop the economical aid program to Poland. As a result, the Polish-American Enterprise Fund (PAEF) was created. The PAEF brought multimillion-dollar financial aid to assist in creating many new, small, private-capital companies in post-communist Poland. Major professional distinctions 1968: senior member of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc (IEEE) 1974: International Certificate in Clinical Engineering by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) 1978: Fellow of American College of Cardiology (FACC) Cardiac Pacing Society, member New York Science Academy, past member Publications Selected early research papers (1965–1970) J. Cywinski, M. Stopczyk. Differential calculations of biological electrograms in the applications of cardiology. Postepy Hig. Med. Dosw. 19(6), p:789-92, Nov-Dec 1965. J.K. Cywinski and W.J. Wajszczuk. The recording of DC and very low frequency components of ECG. Med. Biol. Eng., 4 :179, 1966 Wajszczuk W.J., Cywinski J.K. Observations on D.C. and very low frequency components of the electrocardiogram. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 123(1), p42-7, Oct 1966 J.K. Cywinski. The digital method of radio-chromatography analysis (in polish) Doctoral thesis at Dept. of Electronics, Technical University of Warsaw, Poland, May, 1967 M. Stopczyk and J.K. Cywinski. An implantable ventricular-controlled cardiac pacemaker. Proc. of 7th Int. Conf. Med. Bio. Eng., p69, Stockholm, Sweden, August, 1967 M. Stopczyk and J.K. Cywinski. The effects of the electrical currents used for stimulation and defibrillation of the heart (in Polish). Pol. Archiw. Med. Wewn. 40 : 131, 1968 J. Cywinski, M. Stopczyk. Adaptation of stimulator controlled by heart impulses for clinical purposes. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 40(1) p:29-33, 1968 J.K. Cywinski, A.C.K. Kutty and W.J. Wajzuck. An analogue of the nervous control of intrinsic cardiac pacemaker. Proc. 8th Int. Conf. On Med. Biol. Eng., p20-25, Chicago, July, 1969 Z. Askanas, J.K. Cywinski, M. Stopczyk, Z. Kraszewski, L. Korczak, B. Bukowiecki. Tele-electrocardiographic equipment and its possibilities. In Materials Reh. Council of Int. Society of Cardiology, p123-130, Hohenried, West Germany, 1969 E.L. Hall, J.K. Cywinski, G.E. Flaishchli and S.J. Dwyer. Digital filters for noise suppression in the exercise electrocardiogram. Proc. San Diego Biomed. Symposium, p23-26, 1970 Selected research papers (1971–1985) J.K. Cywinski, A.W. Hahn and J.B. Cooper. Implantable transmitters powered by bio-galvanic cells. In proceedings of 1972 San Diego Biomedical Symposium, p:113-120, published by San Diego Biomedical Symposium, 1972. J.K. Cywinski. Implantation of microelectronics and biotelemetry. Engineering in the Hospital, NEREM Record, part 2, p 113–117, Boston, Ma. November, 1972 J.K. Cywinski, H.H. Ali, R. Clintron, and R.S. Newbower. Neuromuscular Transmission Monitor. In proceedings of 27 ACEMB, p85, published by the Alliances for Engineering in Medecine and Biology, Chevy Chase, Md, October, 1974. J.K. Cywinski. Advances in Cardiac Pacemakers. New power Sources and Circuit Technology. In IEEE Intercon Conference Record, Session 2 : Electronic Instrumentation in Medecine, p2/4-1 to 2/4-4. Published by IEEE Inc., New-York, 1975. P.B. Kurnik, J.K. Cywinski, L.M. Zir, J.B. Newell, J.W. Harthorne. Frequency and amplitude analysis of endocardial electrograms. Implications for demand pacemaker design. Proceedings of International Conference on Biomedical Transducers, Additif aux actes du Colloque Biocapt 75, p A.I.9, 3–10, Paris, November, 1975. J.K. Cywinski. Biopotentials. Session Chairman at Colloque International sur les Capteurs Biomédicaux, Biocapt. 75, Paris, November 1975 W.H. Harris, E.L. Thrasher, B.J-L. Moyen, R.H. Cobden, L.A. Davis, D.A. Mackenzie, J.K. Cywinski. Stimulation of fracture healing by direct current : an experimental study in dogs. In transactions of 22 Annual Conf. of orthopaedic Research Society, p203, New Orleans, Louisiana, January, 1976. W.H. Harris, B. J-L. Moyen, E.L. Thrasher, L.A. Davis, R.H. Cobden, D.A. MacKenzie, J.K. Cywinski. Differential response to electrical stimulation : a distinction between induced osteogenesis in intact tibiae and the effect on fresh fracture defects in radii. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research p:31-10, 1977 W. Irnich, J.K. Cywinski, P.W. DeSalvo. Clinical Engineering at the Massachusette General Hospital in Boston (in German). Biomedizinische Technik. Band 22 s. 207–211, Heft 12/1977 J.K. Cywinski, A.W. Hahn, F. Nichols and J.R. Easley. Performance of implanted biogalavanic pacemakers. PACE-pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology p:117-125, Vol.1, n°1, Jan. 1978 J.K. Cywinski. Transcutaneous stimulation. Roundtable Chairman, AAMI, 17th annual meeting, San Francisco, May, 1982 J.K. Cywinski, L.M. Cywinski, L. Lee. Medical Image distribution, storageand retrieval network : the M/NET. Proceedings of SPIE vol. 418, p74-79. Publ. by Soc. for optical engineering SPIE May, 1983 L.M. Cywinski, T.R. Cram, J. Cywinski. Medical Image viewing station design in a picture archiving and communication system (PACS). Proc. MEDCOMP 83 IEEE computer Soc. Int. Conf. Sept. 1983, Athens, Ohio J.K. Cywinski, L.M. Cywinski, L. Lee. Medical Image Distribution, Storage, and Retrieval Network : the M/NET. Proceedings of International Conference PACS II on Medical Applications of PACS. SPIE Publications, Vol.418, p74-79, Bellingham, WA. 1983 M. Gray, J.K. Cywinski, L.M. Cywinski. Features of a Networked Medical Image Workstation called M/NET. SPIE Proceedings of Third International Conference on PACS, vol 536, p117/125, Societyy of Photo-Optical Instrument. Engineers, Bellingham. WA. 1985 Selected research papers (last 25 years) J.K. Cywinski. Issues in automated handling and archiving of medical diagnostic images. IEEE Symposium on Policy Issues in Information and Communication Technologies in Medical Applications. IEEE cat N° UH 0181–8, p31-33 Rockville, Md. Sept. 1988 G. Kidd, A. Maher, J.K. Cywinski. Programmable Muscle Stimulator. US patent 4,712,558 1988 J.K. Cywinski, J.A. Vanden Brink. Review of Experience with PACS Cost Analysis Model. SPIE Proceedings, Medical Imaging III. Vol 1093, p535-538. SPIE Publ., Bellingham. WA. fEB. 1989 J.K. Cywinski. Device for trophic stimulation of muscles. US Patent nr. 5,350,415; issued in 1994, European Appl. EP0706 806 Al publ. 1996 Canadian Patent nr. 2,132,157 issued in 1999 A. Höflchner, E. Müller, J. Cywinski. Comparison of training effects on isometric strength of quadriceps femoris after training with electrical stimulation, voluntary exercise training and combined training. Presented and printed (abstract) in the Proceedings of the 4th Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Rome, July, 1999 I.O.W. Man, M.C. Morrissey, J. Cywinski. Effect of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on knee swelling after knee surgery : preliminary findings. Phys. Ther. Vol 86, n°7, July 2000 P. Flaction, J. Cywinski. Effects of Electrostimulation vs. physical training on quadriceps force difference : implications for skiers. p381-390 in Science and skiing, E. Müller et al., eds Verlagkovac, Hamburg, Germany, 2001. I.O.W. Man, G.S. Lepar, M.C. Morrissey, J.K. Cywinski. Effect of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on foot/ankle volume during standing. ''Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 35(4), p:630-4, Apr. 2003 I.O.W. Man, M.C. Morrissey, J.K. Cywinski. Effects of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on ankle swelling in the early period after ankle sprain. Physical therapy. p53-65 Vol. 87, n°1. Jan. 2007 References External links Veinoplus Valmed Secura Medinet Ad Rem Technology 1936 births American bioengineers Living people Polish emigrants to the United States Fellows of the American College of Cardiology Polish electronics engineers People from Warsaw	5,709
doc-en-9773_0	Fins are distinctive anatomical features composed of bony spines or rays protruding from the body of a fish. They are covered with skin and joined together either in a webbed fashion, as seen in most bony fish, or similar to a flipper, as seen in sharks. Apart from the tail or caudal fin, fish fins have no direct connection with the spine and are supported only by muscles. Their principal function is to help the fish swim. Fins located in different places on the fish serve different purposes such as moving forward, turning, keeping an upright position or stopping. Most fish use fins when swimming, flying fish use pectoral fins for gliding, and frogfish use them for crawling. Fins can also be used for other purposes; male sharks and mosquitofish use a modified fin to deliver sperm, thresher sharks use their caudal fin to stun prey, reef stonefish have spines in their dorsal fins that inject venom, anglerfish use the first spine of their dorsal fin like a fishing rod to lure prey, and triggerfish avoid predators by squeezing into coral crevices and using spines in their fins to lock themselves in place. Types of fins For every type of fin, there are a number of fish species in which this particular fin has been lost during evolution. Bony fishes Bony fishes form a taxonomic group called Osteichthyes. They have skeletons made of bone, and can be contrasted with cartilaginous fishes which have skeletons made of cartilage. Bony fishes are divided into ray-finned and lobe-finned fish. Most fish are ray-finned, an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 30,000 species. It is the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. In the distant past, lobe-finned fish were abundant. Nowadays they are mainly extinct, with only eight living species. Bony fish have fin spines and rays called lepidotrichia. They typically have swim bladders, which allows the fish to create a neutral balance between sinking and floating without having to use its fins. However, swim bladders are absent in many fish, most notably in Lungfishes, which are the only fish to have retained the primitive lung present in the common ancestor of bony fish from which swim bladders evolved. Bony fishes also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to use fins to swim. Lobe-fins Lobe-finned fishes form a class of bony fishes called Sarcopterygii. They have fleshy, lobed, paired fins, which are joined to the body by a single bone. The fins of lobe-finned fish differ from those of all other fish in that each is borne on a fleshy, lobelike, scaly stalk extending from the body. Pectoral and pelvic fins have articulations resembling those of tetrapod limbs. These fins evolved into legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates, amphibians. They also possess two dorsal fins with separate bases, as opposed to the single dorsal fin of ray-finned fish. The coelacanth is a lobe-finned fish which is still extant. It is thought to have evolved into roughly its current form about 408 million years ago, during the early Devonian. Locomotion of the coelacanths is unique to their kind. To move around, coelacanths most commonly take advantage of up or downwellings of the current and drift. They use their paired fins to stabilize their movement through the water. While on the ocean floor their paired fins are not used for any kind of movement. Coelacanths can create thrust for quick starts by using their caudal fins. Due to the high number of fins they possess, coelacanths have high maneuverability and can orient their bodies in almost any direction in the water. They have been seen doing headstands and swimming belly up. It is thought that their rostral organ helps give the coelacanth electroperception, which aids in their movement around obstacles. Lungfish are also living lobe-finned fish. They occur in Africa (Protopterus), Australia (Neoceratodus), and South America (Lepidosiren). Diversity of fins in lobe-finned fishes Ray-fins Ray-finned fishes form a class of bony fishes called Actinopterygii. Their fins contain spines or rays. A fin may contain only spiny rays, only soft rays, or a combination of both. If both are present, the spiny rays are always anterior. Spines are generally stiff and sharp. Rays are generally soft, flexible, segmented, and may be branched. This segmentation of rays is the main difference that separates them from spines; spines may be flexible in certain species, but they will never be segmented. Spines have a variety of uses. In catfish, they are used as a form of defense; many catfish have the ability to lock their spines outwards. Triggerfish also use spines to lock themselves in crevices to prevent them being pulled out. Lepidotrichia are usually composed of bone, but in early osteichthyans such as Cheirolepis, there was also dentine and enamel. They are segmented and appear as a series of disks stacked one on top of another. They may have been derived from dermal scales. The genetic basis for the formation of the fin rays is thought to be genes coded for the production of certain proteins. It has been suggested that the evolution of the tetrapod limb from lobe-finned fishes is related to the loss of these proteins. Diversity of fins in ray-finned fishes Cartilaginous fishes Cartilaginous fishes form a class of fishes called Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The class includes sharks, rays and chimaeras. Shark fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers. Originally the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and puboischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion. Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first direction. As with most fish, the tails of sharks provide thrust, making speed and acceleration dependent on tail shape. Caudal fin shapes vary considerably between shark species, due to their evolution in separate environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is because the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, providing a greater surface area for muscle attachment. This allows more efficient locomotion among these negatively buoyant cartilaginous fish. By contrast, most bony fish possess a homocercal caudal fin. Tiger sharks have a large upper lobe, which allows for slow cruising and sudden bursts of speed. The tiger shark must be able to twist and turn in the water easily when hunting to support its varied diet, whereas the porbeagle shark, which hunts schooling fish such as mackerel and herring, has a large lower lobe to help it keep pace with its fast-swimming prey. Other tail adaptations help sharks catch prey more directly, such as the thresher shark's usage of its powerful, elongated upper lobe to stun fish and squid. Shark finning According to the Humane Society International, approximately 100 million sharks are killed each year for their fins, in an act known as shark finning. After the fins are cut off, the mutilated sharks are thrown back in the water and left to die. In some countries of Asia, shark fins are a culinary delicacy, such as shark fin soup. Currently, international concerns over the sustainability and welfare of sharks have impacted consumption and availability of shark fin soup worldwide. Shark finning is prohibited in many countries. Fin functions Generating thrust Foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved, the lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction. Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving fins back and forth in water. Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins. Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles (cavities) to form in a liquid, which then promptly and violently collapse. It can cause significant damage and wear. Cavitation damage can occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins and tuna. Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is relatively low. Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage. Scombrid fishes (tuna, mackerel and bonito) are particularly high-performance swimmers. Along the margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, known as finlets. There has been much speculation about the function of these finlets. Research done in 2000 and 2001 by Nauen and Lauder indicated that "the finlets have a hydrodynamic effect on local flow during steady swimming" and that "the most posterior finlet is oriented to redirect flow into the developing tail vortex, which may increase thrust produced by the tail of swimming mackerel". Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have a hydrodynamic interaction with another fin. In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the caudal (tail) fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin. In 2011, researchers using volumetric imaging techniques were able to generate "the first instantaneous three-dimensional views of wake structures as they are produced by freely swimming fishes". They found that "continuous tail beats resulted in the formation of a linked chain of vortex rings" and that "the dorsal and anal fin wakes are rapidly entrained by the caudal fin wake, approximately within the timeframe of a subsequent tail beat". Controlling motion Once motion has been established, the motion itself can be controlled with the use of other fins. The bodies of reef fishes are often shaped differently from open water fishes. Open water fishes are usually built for speed, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through the water. Reef fish operate in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs. For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed, so coral reef fish have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction. They outwit predators by dodging into fissures in the reef or playing hide and seek around coral heads. The pectoral and pelvic fins of many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved so they can act as brakes and allow complex manoeuvres. Many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved bodies which are deep and laterally compressed like a pancake, and will fit into fissures in rocks. Their pelvic and pectoral fins have evolved differently, so they act together with the flattened body to optimise manoeuvrability. Some fishes, such as puffer fish, filefish and trunkfish, rely on pectoral fins for swimming and hardly use tail fins at all. Reproduction Male cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays), as well as the males of some live-bearing ray finned fishes, have fins that have been modified to function as intromittent organs, reproductive appendages which allow internal fertilization. In ray finned fish they are called gonopodia or andropodia, and in cartilaginous fish they are called claspers. Gonopodia are found on the males of some species in the Anablepidae and Poeciliidae families. They are anal fins that have been modified to function as movable intromittent organs and are used to impregnate females with milt during mating. The third, fourth and fifth rays of the male's anal fin are formed into a tube-like structure in which the sperm of the fish is ejected. When ready for mating, the gonopodium becomes erect and points forward towards the female. The male shortly inserts the organ into the sex opening of the female, with hook-like adaptations that allow the fish to grip onto the female to ensure impregnation. If a female remains stationary and her partner contacts her vent with his gonopodium, she is fertilized. The sperm is preserved in the female's oviduct. This allows females to fertilize themselves at any time without further assistance from males. In some species, the gonopodium may be half the total body length. Occasionally the fin is too long to be used, as in the "lyretail" breeds of Xiphophorus helleri. Hormone treated females may develop gonopodia. These are useless for breeding. Similar organs with similar characteristics are found in other fishes, for example the andropodium in the Hemirhamphodon or in the Goodeidae or the gonopodium in the Middle Triassic Saurichthys, the oldest known example of viviparity in a ray-finned fish. Claspers are found on the males of cartilaginous fishes. They are the posterior part of the pelvic fins that have also been modified to function as intromittent organs, and are used to channel semen into the female's cloaca during copulation. The act of mating in sharks usually includes raising one of the claspers to allow water into a siphon through a specific orifice. The clasper is then inserted into the cloaca, where it opens like an umbrella to anchor its position. The siphon then begins to contract expelling water and sperm. Other functions Other uses of fins include walking and perching on the sea floor, gliding over water, cooling of body temperature, stunning of prey, display (scaring of predators, courtship), defence (venomous fin spines, locking between corals), luring of prey, and attachment structures. The Indo-Pacific sailfish has a prominent dorsal fin. Like scombroids and other billfish, they streamline themselves by retracting their dorsal fins into a groove in their body when they swim. The huge dorsal fin, or sail, of the sailfish is kept retracted most of the time. Sailfish raise them if they want to herd a school of small fish, and also after periods of high activity, presumably to cool down. The oriental flying gurnard has large pectoral fins which it normally holds against its body, and expands when threatened to scare predators. Despite its name, it is a demersal fish, not a flying fish, and uses its pelvic fins to walk along the bottom of the ocean. Fins can have an adaptive significance as sexual ornaments. During courtship, the female cichlid, Pelvicachromis taeniatus, displays a large and visually arresting purple pelvic fin. "The researchers found that males clearly preferred females with a larger pelvic fin and that pelvic fins grew in a more disproportionate way than other fins on female fish." Evolution Evolution of paired fins There are two prevailing hypotheses that have been historically debated as models for the evolution of paired fins in fish: the gill arch theory and the lateral fin-fold theory. The former, commonly referred to as the “Gegenbaur hypothesis,” was posited in 1870 and proposes that the “paired fins are derived from gill structures”. This fell out of popularity in favor of the lateral fin-fold theory, first suggested in 1877, which proposes that paired fins budded from longitudinal, lateral folds along the epidermis just behind the gills. There is weak support for both hypotheses in the fossil record and in embryology. However, recent insights from developmental patterning have prompted reconsideration of both theories in order to better elucidate the origins of paired fins. Classical theories Karl Gegenbaur's concept of the “Archipterygium” was introduced in 1876. It was described as a gill ray, or “joined cartilaginous stem,” that extended from the gill arch. Additional rays arose from along the arch and from the central gill ray. Gegenbaur suggested a model of transformative homology – that all vertebrate paired fins and limbs were transformations of the Archipterygium. Based on this theory, paired appendages such as pectoral and pelvic fins would have differentiated from the branchial arches and migrated posteriorly. However, there has been limited support for this hypothesis in the fossil record both morphologically and phylogenically. In addition, there was little to no evidence of an anterior-posterior migration of pelvic fins. Such shortcomings of the gill-arch theory led to its early demise in favor of the lateral fin-fold theory proposed by St. George Jackson Mivart, Francis Balfour, and James Kingsley Thacher. The lateral fin-fold theory hypothesized that paired fins developed from lateral folds along the body wall of the fish. Just as segmentation and budding of the median fin fold gave rise to the median fins, a similar mechanism of fin bud segmentation and elongation from a lateral fin fold was proposed to have given rise to the paired pectoral and pelvic fins. However, there was little evidence of a lateral fold-to-fin transition in the fossil record. In addition, it was later demonstrated phylogenically that pectoral and pelvic fins arise from distinct evolutionary and mechanistic origins. Evolutionary developmental biology Recent studies in the ontogeny and evolution of paired appendages have compared finless vertebrates – such as lampreys – with chondricthyes, the most basal living vertebrate with paired fins. In 2006, researchers found that the same genetic programming involved in the segmentation and development of median fins was found in the development of paired appendages in catsharks. Although these findings do not directly support the lateral fin-fold hypothesis, the original concept of a shared median-paired fin evolutionary developmental mechanism remains relevant. A similar renovation of an old theory may be found in the developmental programming of chondricthyan gill arches and paired appendages. In 2009, researchers at the University of Chicago demonstrated that there are shared molecular patterning mechanisms in the early development of the chondricthyan gill arch and paired fins. Findings such as these have prompted reconsideration of the once-debunked gill-arch theory. From fins to limbs Fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians. In particular, terrestrial tetrapods (four-legged animals) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago. They used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion. The pectoral fins developed into forelegs (arms in the case of humans) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs. Much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish. In 2011, researchers at Monash University in Australia used primitive but still living lungfish "to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load-bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved." Further research at the University of Chicago found bottom-walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods. In a classic example of convergent evolution, the pectoral limbs of pterosaurs, birds and bats further evolved along independent paths into flying wings. Even with flying wings there are many similarities with walking legs, and core aspects of the genetic blueprint of the pectoral fin have been retained. The first mammals appeared during the Permian period (between 298.9 and 252.17 million years ago). Several groups of these mammals started returning to the sea, including the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Recent DNA analysis suggests that cetaceans evolved from within the even-toed ungulates, and that they share a common ancestor with the hippopotamus. About 23 million years ago another group of bearlike land mammals started returning to the sea. These were the seals. What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved independently into new forms of swimming fins. The forelimbs became flippers, while the hindlimbs were either lost (cetaceans) or also modified into flipper (pinnipeds). In cetaceans, the tail gained two fins at the end, called a fluke. Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side. Cetacean flukes are horizontal and move up and down, because cetacean spines bend the same way as in other mammals. Ichthyosaurs are ancient reptiles that resembled dolphins. They first appeared about 245 million years ago and disappeared about 90 million years ago. "This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail fin for improved aquatic locomotion. These structures are all the more remarkable because they evolved from nothing — the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor." The biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favorite example of convergent evolution. Fins or flippers of varying forms and at varying locations (limbs, body, tail) have also evolved in a number of other tetrapod groups, including diving birds such as penguins (modified from wings), sea turtles (forelimbs modified into flippers), mosasaurs (limbs modified into flippers), and sea snakes (vertically expanded, flattened tail fin). Robotic fins The use of fins for the propulsion of aquatic animals can be remarkably effective. It has been calculated that some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%. Fish can accelerate and maneuver much more effectively than boats or submarine, and produce less water disturbance and noise. This has led to biomimetic studies of underwater robots which attempt to emulate the locomotion of aquatic animals. An example is the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion. In 2005, the Sea Life London Aquarium displayed three robotic fish created by the computer science department at the University of Essex. The fish were designed to be autonomous, swimming around and avoiding obstacles like real fish. Their creator claimed that he was trying to combine "the speed of tuna, acceleration of a pike, and the navigating skills of an eel." The AquaPenguin, developed by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front flippers of penguins. Festo also developed AquaRay, AquaJelly and AiraCuda, respectively emulating the locomotion of manta rays, jellyfish and barracuda. In 2004, Hugh Herr at MIT prototyped a biomechatronic robotic fish with a living actuator by surgically transplanting muscles from frog legs to the robot and then making the robot swim by pulsing the muscle fibers with electricity. Robotic fish offer some research advantages, such as the ability to examine an individual part of a fish design in isolation from the rest of the fish. However, this risks oversimplifying the biology so key aspects of the animal design are overlooked. Robotic fish also allow researchers to vary a single parameter, such as flexibility or a specific motion control. Researchers can directly measure forces, which is not easy to do in live fish. "Robotic devices also facilitate three-dimensional kinematic studies and correlated hydrodynamic analyses, as the location of the locomotor surface can be known accurately. And, individual components of a natural motion (such as outstroke vs. instroke of a flapping appendage) can be programmed separately, which is certainly difficult to achieve when working with a live animal." See also Cephalopod fin Fin and flipper locomotion Fish locomotion Polydactyly in early tetrapods RoboTuna Shark fin soup Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water Undulatory locomotion References Citations Bibliography Further reading Hall, Brian K (2007) Fins into Limbs: Evolution, Development, and Transformation University of Chicago Press. . Helfman G, Collette BB, Facey DE and Bowen BW (2009) "Functional morphology of locomotion and feeding" Chapter 8, pp. 101–116. In:The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, John Wiley & Sons. . External links Homology of fin lepidotrichia in osteichthyan fishes The Fish's Fin Earthlife Web Can robot fish find pollution? HowStuffWorks. Accessed 30 January 2012. Fish anatomy	5,455
doc-en-6716_0	The Four Branches of the Mabinogi or Pedair Cainc Y Mabinogi are the earliest prose stories in the literature of Britain. Originally written in Wales in Middle Welsh, but widely available in translations, the Mabinogi is generally agreed to be a single work in four parts, or "branches." The interrelated tales can be read as mythology, political themes, romances, or magical fantasies. They appeal to a wide range of readers, from young children to the most sophisticated adult. The tales are popular today in book format, as storytelling or theatre performances; they appear in recordings and on film, and continue to inspire many reinterpretations in artwork and modern fiction. Overview The Mabinogi are known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, or Pedair Cainc y Mabinogi in Welsh. The tales were compiled from oral tradition in the 11th century. They survived in private family libraries via medieval manuscripts, of which two main versions and some fragments still survive today. Early modern scholarship of the Mabinogi saw the tales as a garbled Welsh mythology which prompted attempts to salvage or reconstruct them. Since the 1970s the tales have become recognised as a complex secular literature, though rooted in and containing elements of Welsh Mythology, with powerfully explored characters, political, ethical and gendered themes, as well as imaginative fantasies. The style of writing is admired for its deceptive simplicity and controlled wordpower, as well as intricate doublets where mirrorings have been compared to Celtic knotwork. The world displayed within the Mabinogi extends across Wales, to Ireland, and into England. It presents a legendary Britain as a united land under a king, yet with powerful separate princedoms, where native Welsh law, hud (magic), and romance, combine in a unique synergy. Possible authors who have been proposed for the Four Branches include Rhigyfarch and Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd. Each Branch contains several tale episodes in a sequence, and each Branch is titled with the name of a leading protagonist. These titles are Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan and Math, but this is a modern custom: the Branches are not titled in the mediaeval manuscripts. Only one character appears in all four Branches, Pryderi, though he is never dominant or central to any of the Branches. Pwyll Prince of Dyfed tells of the heroic and magical sojourn of Pwyll in Annwfn, his shapeshifting, chastity and a duel, which all establish a mighty alliance. The formidable Rhiannon courts him, and he helps her win her freedom to marry him. The strange abduction at birth of their baby son follows, with his rescue, fostering and restoration by the good lord Teyrnon of the Kingdom of Gwent. The child is named Pryderi. Branwen Daughter of Llŷr follows Branwen's marriage to the King of Ireland, who abuses her due to insult by her half brother, Efnysien. A tragically genocidal war develops fomented by Efnysien, in which a Cauldron which resurrects the dead figures, and the giant king Bran's head survives his death in an enchanted idyll. Pryderi is merely named as a war survivor, and Branwen dies heartbroken. Manawydan Son of Llŷr brother of Branwen, heir to the throne of Britain, becomes Pryderi's good friend during the war. Pryderi arranges his friend's marriage to Rhiannon. The land of Dyfed is devastated. Journeys in England setting up craft businesses follow. An enchanted trap removes Pryderi and Rhiannon: Manawydan becomes a farmer. He cannily negotiates their release, as well as the restoration of the land, by confronting the villain behind it all. Math Son of Mathonwy is a dark sequence of deception and treachery: war with Dyfed, the death of Pryderi, the double rape of a virgin girl, and the rejection of an unwanted hero son by proud Arianrhod. Gwydion her magician brother is the architect of all these destinies. He adds an artificially incubated pregnancy, and a synthetic woman. She, Blodeuwedd, creates a treacherous love triangle, murder in a peculiar manner. Gwydion makes a shamanic journey of redemption. The Branches First branch: Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed Pwyll Pendefeg Dyfed, "Pwyll Prince of Dyfed", hunting on his own land, meets the shining Cŵn Annwn or "Hounds of Annwfn", and takes another man's kill, a stag, for himself. Arawn, the king of Annwfn, is greatly offended. As recompense, Pwyll switches bodies with Arawn and dwells in Annwfn to vanquish Arawn's adversary. Pwyll chastely shares the queen's bed for a year. Pwyll defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan, and is then rewarded with an alliance between his land of Dyfed, and Annwfn. Pwyll then returns home to Dyfed where he finds it has been well ruled by Arawn in the past year. Next, Pwyll encounters Rhiannon, a beautiful and powerful maiden on a shining magical horse. They are strangely unreachable by anyone, for as they attempt to approach, Rhiannon and her horse get farther away. Finally, they ask her to stop in which she complies and it is revealed that Rhiannon has chosen Pwyll as her husband, which he welcomes. On Rhiannon and Pwyll's wedding day in the court of Hyfaidd Hen, Gwawl vab Clud appears in disguise and tricks Pwyll into giving him the entire wedding feast and Rhiannon. Rhiannon then guides Pwyll through a cunning strategy using her magic bag which can never be filled, to extricate her from her betrothal to the princely Gwawl. Gwawl is trapped in the bag and beaten by Pwyll's men until he agrees to Rhiannon's terms, including foregoing vengeance. Rhiannon eventually bears Pwyll a son and heir, but the child disappears the night he is born. Rhiannon's maids, in fear of their lives, accuse her of killing and eating her own baby. Rhiannon negotiates a penalty where she must sit at the castle gate every day for seven years telling her terrible tale to strangers and offer them a ride on her back. Meanwhile, the child is rescued from its monstrous abductor by Teyrnon Twrf Lliant. He and his wife adopt the boy who grows heroically apace, and adores horses. They called him Gwri Wallt Evryn (Gwri 'Golden Hair', ). Teyrnon sees the boy's resemblance to Pwyll, so he restores the boy to Dyfed for a happy ending. Rhiannon is vindicated as is Pwyll's loyalty to her. Their son is renamed Pryderi "Loss", as is custom from his mother's first words to him: "Pryderi" puns on anxiety and labour. In due course, Pryderi inherits the rule of Dyfed. Second Branch: Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr In the second branch, Branwen, sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is requested by and given in marriage to Matholwch, king of Ireland. Bran's half-brother Efnysien, angered that no one consulted him, insults Matholwch by mutilating all his valuable horses so horribly they become useless. Brân the Blessed gives Matholwch compensation in the form of new horses and treasure, then added a magical cauldron which can restore the dead to life, although the revived persons will always remain unable to speak. The legend of this cauldron, when the two kings compare its lore, is that it came from Ireland. In Ireland, Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern. The Irish nobles continue to be hostile because of what Efnysien did. Matholwch allows them to sway him, and casts Branwen away to skivvy in the kitchens, struck on the face every day by a low-caste butcher. Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Brân across the Irish Sea. He musters his host and crosses the sea to war on Matholwch. Brân is so huge he wades across with his ships beside him. Branwen persuades the Irish to sue for peace by building a colossal building to house Brân, which he has never had before. The Irish hide two hundred warriors in the house, hanging in bags on its pillars. Efnysien shrewdly suspects treachery and disbelieves the Irish story these are bags of flour. He crushes the skull of each hidden warrior, singing after he does it. Later, at the feast, Efnysien deliberately seeks to create discord. He throws his infant nephew Gwern on the fire and kills him. Fighting breaks out and the Irish use the Cauldron to revive their dead. Efnysien hides among the corpses to get in the Cauldron, stretches and cracks it, dying as he does so. The war had become a genocide. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. Only Seven Survivors remained of the British host, besides Branwen. One is Manawydan, Branwen's other brother, and his good friend Pryderi. Brân, mortally wounded by a poisoned spear, bids the survivors to cut off his head, and take it to bury at the White Tower in London. He prophesies his head will be their good companion and advise them, while they will sojourn for many years of idyllic feasting, first at Harlech in Gwynedd, then on the isle of Gwales in Dyfed. But on arriving back in Britain, Branwen dies of grief for the many who have died. Brân means "raven". Branwen means "White Raven". Efnysien means "trouble, strife". Third Branch: Manawydan, son of Llŷr Pryderi of Dyfed returns from the Irish War as one of its few survivors, to reunite with his mother Rhiannon, and his wife Cigfa. He brings with him his beloved war comrade, Manawydan, the heir to the kingship of all Britain. But Manawydan's rights as heir to Britain have been usurped by Caswallon, and he does not want more war. Pryderi establishes him as the lord of Dyfed, including marriage to Rhiannon, a union which both partners welcome. The four of them, Pryderi, his wife Cigfa, Rhiannon and her new husband Manawydan, become very good friends indeed, and travel the land of Dyfed admiring how bountiful it is. Together they sit the Gorsedd Arberth, as Pwyll once did. A clap of thunder, a bright light, and magical mist descend. Afterwards the land is devastated of all other life except wild animals. The four live by hunting, but after two years they want more, so they travel to England. In three towns in turn they craft saddles, shields and shoes of such quality that the local craftsmen cannot compete, so their envy becomes dangerous. Pryderi dislikes the lower class way of life, and Manawydan stops him from fighting their enemies. Instead Manawydan insists on moving away. After three attempts like this, they return to Dyfed. Once more living as hunters Pryderi and Manawydan follow a shining white boar to a strange castle. Pryderi, against Manawydan's advice, follows his hounds inside to become trapped there by a golden bowl. Manawydan waits, then reports to Rhiannon who rebukes his failure to rescue his friend. But when she follows her son she too becomes trapped. Alone with Cigfa, Manawydan reassures her he will respect her virtue. After another attempt in England as shoemakers, the pair return to Dyfed, and Manawydan farms three fields of wheat next to Gorsedd Arberth. But his first field's harvest is cut down by thieves, and his second. He sits vigil at night, and sees a horde of mice eating the ripe corn. He catches a slow, fat one. Against Cigfa's protest he sets up a miniature gibbet to hang it as a thief. A scholar, a priest and a bishop in turn offer him money if he will spare the mouse which he refuses. When asked what he wants for the mouse's life he first demands an explanation. The bishop tells him he is Llwyd, friend of the wronged Gwawl, the mouse is Llwyd's shapeshifted wife, and the devastation of Dyfed is to avenge Gwawl. Manawydan bargains to release of Pryderi and Rhiannon, and the lifting of the curse on Dyfed. Fourth Branch: Math, son of Mathonwy Gwynedd in north Wales is ruled by the magician king Math fab Mathonwy, whose feet must be held by a virgin at all times except while he is at war. Math's nephew Gilfaethwy is infatuated with Goewin, the royal maiden foot-holder, so Gilfaethwy's brother Gwydion plots to aid him. He deceives Pryderi of Dyfed with magical sham gifts of horses and dogs, in exchange for Pryderi's valuable pigs, a gift from Annwfn. Dyfed makes war in revenge, so Math leaves Goewin without his protection. Gwydion and Gilfaethwy rape her, and Gwydion kills Pryderi in single combat. Math marries Goewin in compensation for her rape. He punishes the two brothers by shapeshifting them into animal pairs who must mate and bear young; first deer, then boars, then wolves. The sons they bear become Math's foster sons, and after three years the brothers are reconciled with Math. Gwydion suggests his sister Arianrhod as the new footholder. Math magically tests her virginity requiring her to step over his wand. She immediately gives birth to a son, Dylan ail Don, who takes to the sea. She also drops a scrap of life which Gwydion scoops up and incubates in a chest by his bed. Arianrhod is deeply shamed and angered so she utterly rejects the boy. She swears a destiny upon him that he cannot have name, nor warrior arms, except she gives them to him. Gwydion tricks her into naming the boy Lleu Llaw Gyffes (Bright Skillful Hand) by speaking to him, not knowing who he is as he is shapeshifted. More shapeshifting fakes a military attack so Arianrhod gives them arms. Arianrhod's third curse is Lleu may not marry a human woman. Gwydion and Math construct a beautiful wife for him from oak, broom, and meadowsweet, naming her Blodeuwedd, "Flower Face". But Blodeuwedd and Gronw Pebr fall deeply in love. Gronw tells her to find out the secret of Lleu's protected life, which she does in the trust of her marriage bed. She begs Lleu to explain so she can know how to protect him. The method is complicated, taking a year of almost impossible effort but Goronwy completes it and Lleu falls to his spear. Blodeuwedd and Gronw then live together. Gwydion pursues a quest to find Lleu, who far away has shifted to eagle form and perches up a tree, dying. Gwydion tracks a sow which he finds eating maggots falling from Lleu's rotting body. Gwydion sings a magical englynion ("poem") gradually bringing Lleu back to humanity. Gronw offers to compensate Lleu; but Lleu insists on returning the blow as it was struck against him. Gronw is cowardly and attempts to evade it using a stone shield. Lleu kills Gronw with his spear, which pierces him through the stone. Gwydion punishes Blodeuwedd by shapeshifting her into an owl, a pariah among birds. Animals in the Mabinogi Throughout the text, there are several instances in which animals or the treatment of animals play an important role. There are mythical or seemingly magical animals as well as frequent shape shifting that illustrate an overall closeness with an otherworld. The mistreatment of animals in the text tends to correspond with misfortune. First Branch Pwyll sets his dogs on Arawn's kill. This is a great injustice to both Arawn and Arawn's hounds. Rhiannon's horse is somewhat mythical in that it seems to be uncatchable until Rhiannon is asked to stop. When Gwawl is beaten in a bag, this is referred to as “Badger-in-the-Bag”. In order to frame Rhiannon for eating her child, the maids kill a puppy and cover Rhiannon in its blood. Prior to Pryderi being found, there is a monster that keeps stealing foals. Second Branch Efnysien brutally mutilates Matholwch's horses in an effort to sabotage Branwen's engagement. Branwen trains a starling to send a letter to her brother Bendigeidfran. Third Branch Pryderi and Manawydan are led into a thicket by a silver boar. A horde of mice eats Manawydan's corn. The mice are discovered to be shape-shifted people who seek vengeance for the wrongness dealt to Gwawl. Fourth Branch Gilfaethwy and Gwydion plot to steal Pryderi's pigs; they conjure horses and hounds to exchange for the pigs. As punishment for raping Goewin, Gilfaethwy and Gwydion are turned into animals (deer, boar, then wolves) that must mate. Lleu Llaw Gyffes is given his name after skillfully shooting down a wren. Lleu shape shifts into an eagle. Blodeuwedd is transformed into an owl. See also Mabinogion, a larger collection of British/Welsh medieval literary tales Resources Introductory Recommended for those new or newish to the Mabinogi. There is no need to use all of these; the list is a choice: start with any that appeal. ONLINE - FREE translation in English, a page for each Branch, by Will Parker. Good for quick checks on who did what when, and has interesting footnotes. BOOK John Bollard's lovely edition in English, 'Legend and Landscape of Wales: The Mabinogi' 2007. Skilfully translated, and illustrated with photographs of the sites in the tales. This author led the modern period understanding the Mabinogi as fine literature. (See Translations) BOOK Sioned Davies recent translation 'The Mabinogion' 2008. A recognised Mabinogi authority, and a practical small book, Davies interest is in the art of the storyteller. (See Translations) VIDEO Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on YouTube, fuller version of the retelling on DVD, by Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream. RECORDING Jones, Colin. 2008. “Mabinogion, the Four Branches.” Recordings of the Guest text, with atmospheric background music. The first episode is free on the site. Ifor Williams, 'Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi, Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhydderch' 1930, 1951. In Welsh. Scanned at online. Tales from the Mabinogion, trans. Gwyn Thomas. Illustrated by Margaret Jones. 2006. Key Resources for Study Morgain, Shan. (2013) The Mabinogi Bibliography. Comprehensive annotated bibliography, searchable on tags; can derive citations. Includes much material on the wider Mabinogion, and some background context e.g. history, language. Parker, Will. (2002) “Bibliographic Essay. The Four Branches of the Mabinogi, A Medieval Celtic Text; English Language Scholarship 1795-1997.” Mabinogi.net. An excellent survey of Mabinogi scholarship from the 19thC to the end of the 20thC. Repays re-reading. Parker, Will. (2003) Annotated translation of the Four Branches. Mabinogi.net. Translations made for his book (Parker, Will. (2005) The Four Branches of the Mabinogi. Dublin: Bardic Press. Very useful for quick checks online on exactly what happened when, and a free read for newcomers. See www.mabinogi.net for Parker's articles. Welsh sources For the Welsh text in Middle Welsh spelling see Williams, Ifor. (1930, 1951). Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi. Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhydderch. CUP. Classic text for modern students, and Welsh speakers, based on all the surviving MSS. This was the first modern use of the title Pedair Keinc y Mabinogi. For the Welsh text in modernised spelling see J. M. Edwards, Mabinogion (o Lyfr Coch Hergest): Pwyll, Pendefig Dyfed, Branwen Ferch Llyr, Manawyddan fab Llyr, Math fab Mathonwy (Wrecsam: Hughes A'i Fab, 1921) The Four Branches are edited individually in Middle Welsh with English glossary and notes as follows: First Branch: R. L. Thomson, Pwyll Pendeuic Dyuet. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1957. Second Branch: D. S. Thomson, Branwen Uerch Lyr. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1976. Third Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Manawydan uab Llyr. Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 2000. Fourth Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Math uab Mathonwy. Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 1999. For the Middle Welsh text closely copied from the mediaeval manuscripts (diplomatic editions) see: Rhys, John; and Evans, John Gwenogvryn. 1907,1973, 2010. The White Book of the Mabinogion: Welsh Tales and Romances Reproduced from the Peniarth Manuscripts. Series of Welsh Texts 7. Pwllheli. Also Evans transcript of the Llyfr Coch 1887. The three mediaeval manuscripts which have survived into modern times, were scribed in the 13th and 14th centuries, later than the compilation period of the work in the 11th century. The text in all three does not greatly differ, but it is thought that they are not copies of each other, but of lost earlier originals. The oldest is only a fragment; Peniarth 6, c. 1225; containing parts of the Second and Third Branches. The other two are named by the colour of their covers: LLyfr Gwyn ("White Book") and Llyfr Coch ("Red Book"). The oldest complete version is the "White Book of Rhydderch" (Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch), one of the Peniarth Manuscripts. It was scribed c. 1350 by five different writers, probably commissioned by Ieuan ab Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd near Ceredigion. It was then copied and studied by various Welsh scholars. About 1658, it was acquired by the antiquary Robert Vaughan and preserved in his famous library of Hengwrt near Dolgellau, Gwynedd. In 1859 it was passed to the Peniarth library by William Watkin Edward Wynne. Finally, John Williams presented it to the National Library of Wales in 1904, where it can be viewed today in two volumes. The second complete version which has survived is the "Red Book of Hergest" (Llyfr Coch Hergest). The scribing was c. 1382–1410, in a time of unrest culminating in Owain Glyndŵr's uprising. The scribe has been identified as Hywel Fychan fab Hywel Goch of Buellt, who worked for Hopcyn ap Tomas ab Einion (fl. 1337–1408) near Swansea. The Hopcyn library changed hands due to war and politics several times, with owners including the Vaughans of Hergest. The MS. wandered on, sometimes slightly dubiously via 'borrowing'. Edward Lhuyd is one of many who copied it to study. In 1701 it was donated to Jesus College Oxford where it remains today. Here it was copied by the young Ioan Tegid when a student at University of Oxford c. 1815-17 for Charles Bosanquet. Later Tegid, as a senior bard and scholar, assisted Lady Charlotte Guest in her bilingual publication series, The Mabinogion, which brought the tales to the modern world. Her volume containing the Mabinogi was published in 1845, and her work is still popular today. Welsh Icons United a 2014 exhibition at the National Library of Wales, guested the Llyfr Coch, the Red Book, as part of its display; thus bringing the two main Mabinogi MSS. under one roof for the first time. (12 October – 15 March 2014) Translations into English Pughe, William Owen. 1795. “The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, Being Ancient Welsh Romances.” Cambrian Register, 177–87. First publication, and English trans. of the first story in the First Branch. Also: Pughe, William Owen. 1829. “The Mabinogi: Or, the Romance of Math Ab Mathonwy.” The Cambrian Quarterly Magazine and Celtic Repository 1: 170–79. English trans. of the First Branch. Guest, Charlotte; aka Charlotte Schreiber, trans. and editor. The Mabinogion. (1845 part of a series, bilingual; 1849 part of 3 vols bilingual; 1877 one vol. English only.) Llandovery, Wales; and London; simultaneously. Guest's trans. continue to introduce many to the stories today in her characteristically flowing style. Ellis, Thomas Peter., and Lloyd, John; trans. (1929) The Mabinogion: A New Translation by T.P. Ellis and John Lloyd. Oxford: Clarendon Press. An accurate and useful edition for students. Jones, Gwyn and Thomas Jones; trans. (1949) The Mabinogion. Everyman's Library, 1949; revised 1974, 1989, 1993. The first major edition to supplant Guest. 2001 Edition, (Preface by John Updike), . Gantz, Jeffrey; trans. (1976) The Mabinogion. London and New York: Penguin Books. . A popular edition for many years, still very readable pocket edition. Ford, Patrick K. ; trans. (1977)The Mabinogi and Other Medieval Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University of California Press. . Focuses on the native tales of the Mabinogion, including the Mabinogi. Parker, Will. 2003. “Mabinogi Translations." Very useful free online resource for instant access, and quick checks. Bollard, John K. trans, and Griffiths, Anthony; photog. (2006) The Mabinogi: Legend and Landscape of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul. . An excellent introduction, clear, beautifully designed, with photographs of the Mabinogi sites today. Davies, Sioned. (2007) The Mabinogion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . A modern edition in practical format, backed by solid scholarship. J. R. R. Tolkien began work on a translation of Pwyll Prince of Dyfed. His translation is held at the Bodleian Library. Modern Interpretations Walton, Evangeline. "The Mabinogion Tetralogy." Prose retelling. "The Island of the Mighty" 1970, first publ. as "The Virgin and the Swine" 1936; "The Children of Llyr" 1971; "The Song of Rhiannon" 1972; "Prince of Annwn" 1974. As a tetralogy New York: Ballantine Books. . Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on YouTube and a fuller version of the retelling on DVD, by Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream. A lovely intro. Hayes, Derek W. (2007). Otherworld. S4C / BBC Wales. Animation and video with leading musicians and actors, using cutting edge CGI tech. of the time, an impressive work. See artwork on the site. Arberth Studios. (2008) Rhiannon: Curse Of The Four Branches (PC DVD). Not very closely based, more loosely inspired. Eames, Manon. (2008) Magnificent Myths of the Mabinogi. Stage performance of the full Mabinogi, in Aberystwyth. Staged in a slightly abridged version by Jill Williams at the Pontardawe Arts Centre, 2009. Each was performed by youth theatre. Jones, Colin. 2008. Mabinogion, the Four Branches. Recordings of the Guest text, with atmospheric background music. The first episode is free on the site. In 2009 Seren Books began publishing a radical new interpretation of the tales, as a series, setting them in modern times and in different countries. The series completed 2014. See here. References Medieval Welsh literature Mabinogion Welsh-language literature Welsh mythology gl:Mabinogion	6,625
doc-en-9796_0	This is a list of foreign players (players from outside of the island of Ireland) to have played for League of Ireland clubs. Only players not from the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland are eligible for this list. Africa (CAF) Angola Manuel Kaguako – Dundalk, Drogheda United José Quitongo – Waterford Rudy – Waterford Benin Romuald Boco – Sligo Rovers Burundi Aime Kitenge – St Patrick's Athletic Cameroon Joseph N'Do – St Patrick's Athletic, Shelbourne, Shamrock Rovers, Bohemians, Sligo Rovers, Limerick Maxim Kouogun – UCD, Waterford, Shelbourne George Mukete – Athlone Town Cape Verde Roberto Lopes – Bohemians, Shamrock Rovers Central African Republic Wilfried Zahibo – Dundalk Congo Gaius Makouta – Longford Town DR Congo Patrick Kanyuka – Limerick Christian Lotefa – Cabinteely, Athlone Town Lido Lotefa – Dundalk, Longford Town Paul Matondo – Drogheda United Harlain Mbayo – Cobh Ramblers Patrick Nzuzi – Limerick, Sligo Rovers Equatorial Guinea Baba Issaka – Kildare County, Athlone Town Ghana Ali Abbas – Limerick Prince Agyemang – Limerick Guinea Bissau Junior Quitirna – Waterford Ivory Cost Moussa Bakayoko – Derry City Kenya Jonah Ayunga – Sligo Rovers, Galway United Henry Ochieng – Cork City Liberia George Miller – St Patrick's Athletic Garmondeh Ta-Uway – Athlone Town Libya Muhanned Bukhatwa – Shamrock Rovers B Éamon Zayed – Bray Wanderers, Drogheda United, Sporting Fingal, Derry City, Shamrock Rovers, Sligo Rovers Madagascar Bastien Héry – Limerick, Waterford, Bohemians, Derry City, Finn Harps Morocco Sami Ben Amar – Dundalk Samir Boughanem – Shamrock Rovers Khalid El Khaliffi – Sligo Rovers Niger Karim El-Khebir – St Patrick's Athletic Nigeria Ola Adeyemo – UCD, Wexford Ismahil Akinade – Bray Wanderers, Bohemians, Waterford Victor Ekanem – Longford Town, Drogheda United, Cabinteely, Athlone Town Efan Ekoku – Dublin City Willie Enubele – Galway United James Igwilo – Shelbourne Dominic Iorfa – Cork City, Waterford Oladapo Kayode – Derry City Tzee Mustapha – St Patrick's Athletic, Athlone Town, Waterford United Michael Nwankwo – Cork City Nathan Oduwa – Dundalk Jason Oladele – Longford Town Promise Omochere – Bohemians Emeka Onwubiko – Bray Wanderers, Athlone Town, Shamrock Rovers B Michael Osobe – Dundalk Ajibula Sule – Shelbourne, Cabinteely Fuad Sule – St Patrick's Athletic, Bohemians Marco Tagbajumi – Dundalk Senegal Ibrahima Thiam – Drogheda United Sierra Leone Mamoud Mansaray – Athlone Town South Africa BJ Banda – Finn Harps Owen Da Gama – Derry City Katlego Mashigo – Waterford, Athlone Town Reyaad Pieterse – Shamrock Rovers Tumelo Tlou – Longford Town, Athlone Town Carlton Ubaezuono – Dundalk, Galway United, Longford Town Togo Moise Assogba – Galway United Cyril Guedjé – St Patrick's Athletic, Limerick Tunisia Ayman Ben Mohamed – UCD, Longford Town, Bohemians Uganda Melvyn Lorenzen – Sligo Rovers Charles Livingstone Mbabazi – St Patrick's Athletic Zaire José Mukendi – Derry City, Finn Harps Zimbabwe Nathaniel Gumbo – Cobh Ramblers Henry McKop – Shelbourne Prince Mutswunguma – Waterford Oscar Sibanda – Galway United Asia (AFC) Australia Tomislav Arčaba – Sligo Rovers Harry Ascroft - Finn Harps Dimitri Brinias – Galway United Sean Eve - Wexford Adam Hughes – Sligo Rovers, Drogheda United Brad Jones – Shelbourne Robert Markovac – Waterford United James Meredith – Sligo Rovers Dylan Mernagh – Waterford United Chris O'Connor – Bray Wanderers, Bohemians Andrew Packer – Cork City Andy Petterson – Derry City John Tambouras – Drogheda United Guam Ryan Guy – St Patrick's Athletic Hong Kong John Moore – St Patrick's Athletic David Williamson – Sligo Rovers, Bohemians, Bray Wanderers Iraq Zein Albehadlie – Bohemians Japan Kaito Akimoto – Cabinteely Ryusei Kojima – Cabinteely Yuta Sasaki – Cabinteely Hisanori Takada – Drogheda United South Korea Jeongwoo Han – Dundalk Jingu Kim – Galway United Yob Son – Galway United Lee-Cheol Sung – Athlone Town Europe (UEFA) Albania Alessio Abibi – Dundalk Marlon Marishta – Bohemians, Bray Wanderers Austria Tobias Kainz – Limerick Maximilian Karner – Derry City Alexander Kogler – Finn Harps Lukas Schubert – Derry City Orhan Vojic - Shamrock Rovers Belgium Axel Bossekota – Limerick Stanley Aborah – Waterford Faysel Kasmi – Waterford Danny Lupano – Derry City Tunde Owolabi – Finn Harps, St Patrick's Athletic Dominique Wouters – Waterford United, St Patrick's Athletic Bosnia and Herzegovina Fahrudin Kuduzović – Sligo Rovers, Drogheda United, Cork City, Dundalk Admir Softić – Cork City Bulgaria Yani Georgiev – Bray Wanderers Croatia Filip Mihaljević – Finn Harps Czech Republic Vítězslav Jaroš – St Patrick's Athletic Michal Macek – St Patrick's Athletic Denmark Morten Nielsen – Sligo Rovers Jesper Jørgensen – Galway United Jonas Piechnik – Cork City Niclas Vemmelund – Derry City, Dundalk England Chris Adamson – St Patrick's Athletic Tobi Adebayo-Rowling – Sligo Rovers, Cork City James Akintunde – Derry City Sam Allardyce – Limerick Joseph Anang – St Patrick's Athletic Nigel Aris – Waterford Chris Armstrong – St Patrick's Athletic, Galway United Gordon Banks – St Patrick's Athletic Lewis Banks – Sligo Rovers Keith Barker – St Patrick's Athletic Peter Barnes – Drogheda United Shane Barrett – Drogheda United, Sporting Fingal, Cork City, Monaghan United Guy Bates – Drogheda United Jack Baxter – Cork City Ashley Bayes – Bohemians Darren Beasley – Drogheda United Paul Beavers – Shelbourne Mitchell Beeney – Sligo Rovers Dean Bennett – Dundalk Neil Bennett – Drogheda United, Derry City Richard Blackmore – Dundalk, Galway United Matthew Blinkhorn – Sligo Rovers Sam Bone – Shamrock Rovers, Waterford, St Patrick's Athletic, Dundalk Rob Bowman – Bohemians Leon Braithwaite – St Patrick's Athletic Barry Bridges – St Patrick's Athletic, Sligo Rovers Louis Britton – Waterford Trevor Brooking – Cork City Richard Brush – Sligo Rovers, Shamrock Rovers, Finn Harps Jack Burkett – St Patrick's Athletic Dennis Burnett – Shamrock Rovers Charlie Burns – Galway United Ian Butterworth – Cobh Ramblers Ian Callaghan – Cork United Greg Challender – Finn Harps Bobby Charlton – Waterford Kieran Coates – Cork City John Cofie – Derry City Gerry Coyne – Limerick, Cork Hibernians Craig Curran – Limerick Blain Curtis – Finn Harps Deshane Dalling – Cork City Luke Danville – Dundalk Dixie Dean – Sligo Rovers Adam Dempsey – Wexford, Bray Wanderers John Dillon – Sligo Rovers, Dundalk Reyon Dillon – Cork City Kieran Djilali – Sligo Rovers, Limerick, Cork City Alan Dodd – Cork City Sean Doherty – Sligo Rovers Mark Doninger – Sligo Rovers Gareth Downey – Finn Harps, Shelbourne, Monaghan United Glen Downey – Shelbourne Jack Doyle – Derry City Eddie Dsane – Longford Town, Finn Harps Robert Dunne – Cabinteely Anthony Elding – Sligo Rovers, Cork City, Derry City Lee Ellington – Finn Harps Kit Elliott – Cork City Andy Estel – Home Farm, Drogheda United Jake Evans – Waterford Scott Fenwick – Cork City Walter Figueira – Waterford, Derry City, Sligo Rovers Neil Fitzhenry – Finn Harps Alan Fletcher – Sligo Rovers Jordan Flores – Dundalk, Bohemians George Forrest – Waterford Martin Garratt – St Patrick's Athletic Brendan Gallen – Sligo Rovers, Drogheda United Steven Gaughan – Cork City Jordan Gibson – St Patrick's Athletic, Sligo Rovers Kerrea Gilbert – Shamrock Rovers Matty Gillam – Cork City Matthew Gledhill – Sligo Rovers, Cork City Jaanai Gordon – Sligo Rovers Matt Gregg – Bray Wanderers, Bohemians, UCD, Dundalk Tom Grivosti – St Patrick's Athletic Greg Halford – Waterford Adam Hammill – Derry City Ray Hankin – Shamrock Rovers Alf Hanson – Shelbourne Allan Harris – St Patrick's Athletic Jimmy Harris – St Patrick's Athletic Bob Hatton – Dundalk Wayne Hatswell – Dundalk Omar Haughton – Sligo Rovers Lorcan Healy – UCD George Heaven – Cork City Max Hemmings – Galway United Jeff Henderson – Sligo Rovers James Henshall – Shelbourne Jak Hickman – St Patrick's Athletic Michael Holt – St Patrick's Athletic, Derry City, Dublin City Tony Hopper – Bohemians Grant Horton – Bohemians Michael Howard – Cork City Jamie Hughes – Derry City Jackson Hulme – Athlone Town Paul Hunt – St Patrick's Athletic, Longford Town, Cobh Ramblers, Cork City Geoff Hurst – Cork Celtic Christian Hyslop – Waterford United Benny Igiehon – Sligo Rovers, Finn Harps Pat Jennings Jr. – UCD, Derry City, Sligo Rovers, Shamrock Rovers, Athlone Town, St Patrick's Athletic Daniel Jones – Bray Wanderers, Longford Town Jimmy-Lee Jones – St Patrick's Athletic Tony Kelly – Sligo Rovers Brenton Leister – St Patrick's Athletic Alfie Lewis – St Patrick's Athletic Andrew Lewis – Bray Wanderers Adam Liddle – Derry City Sam Long – Drogheda United Will Longbottom – Waterford Jason Lydiate – Finn Harps Niall Maher – Longford Town Darren Mansaram – Sligo Rovers, Bohemians, Dundalk Paul Marney – St Patrick's Athletic, Dundalk Lewis Macari – Dundalk James Marrow – Finn Harps Adam Martin – Bohemians Jamie Mascoll – Waterford Terry McDermott – Cork City Michael McGinlay – Bohemians, Dundalk Michael McGrath – Galway United, Sligo Rovers Cameron McJannet – Derry City Nahum Melvin-Lambert – St Patrick's Athletic Jeremie Milambo – Waterford Tom Miller – Dundalk Lee Molyneaux – Derry City Andy Moran – Derry City Adam Morgan – Sligo Rovers Scott Morgan – Galway United Tom Morris – Longford Town Dave Morrison – Bohemians Peter Mumby – Shamrock Rovers, Limerick Danny Murphy – Cork City, Shamrock Rovers John Murphy – St Patrick's Athletic Dan Murray – Cork City, Shamrock Rovers Jordan Mustoe – Finn Harps Jennison Myrie-Williams – Sligo Rovers Liam Nash – Cork City Alex Nesovic – Finn Harps, Bohemians, Dundalk, Shelbourne, Derry City, Dublin City Danny North – St Patrick's Athletic, Sligo Rovers, Shamrock Rovers Colum Nugent – Waterford Scott Oakes – Shelbourne Eric Odhiambo – Sligo Rovers Akin Odimayo – Waterford Junior Ogedi-Uzokwe – Derry City, Sligo Rovers, Dundalk, Bohemians Neil Ogden – Sligo Rovers, Shelbourne, Galway United Sam Oji – Limerick, Galway United Joseph Olowu – Cork City Stuart Parker – Drogheda United Will Patching – Dundalk, Derry City Greg Peel – Waterford Evan Pierce – Athlone Town Derek Possee – St Patrick's Athletic Vill Powell – Derry City Sam Ramsbottom – Galway United Mark Rees – Shamrock Rovers Nicky Reid – Sligo Rovers Jordan Richards – Sligo Rovers Rohan Ricketts – Shamrock Rovers Daryl Robson – Galway United, Bray Wanderers Craig Roddan – Sligo Rovers Dave Rogers – Shelbourne, Derry City, St Patrick's Athletic, Sporting Fingal, Dundalk, Cork City, Limerick, Monaghan United, Drogheda United, Bohemians Bradley Rolt – Bohemians Richard Rose – Longford Town Adam Rundle – Dublin City, Cork City Mark Rutherford – Shelbourne, Bohemians, Shamrock Rovers, St Patrick's Athletic, Longford Town Darragh Ryan – UCD, Cork City, St Patrick's Athletic Bill Sampy – Waterford Lawrie Sanchez – Sligo Rovers Cameron Saul – Finn Harps Danny Seaborne – Derry City Jack Serrant-Green – Finn Harps Peter Shevlin – Shelbourne Aaron Simpson – Waterford Connor Simpson – Cork City Harpal Singh – Sligo Rovers, Bohemians, Dundalk Mike Skivington – Dundalk Dan Smith – Cork City David Smith – Drogheda United Tom Smith – Waterford Danny Spiller – Longford Town Kyron Stabana – Cork City Jack Stafford – Waterford Matty Stevens – Sligo Rovers Bobby Tambling – Cork Celtic, Waterford, Shamrock Rovers, Cork Alberts Richard Taylor – Waterford James Tilley – Cork City Mike Turner – Finn Harps Scott Twine – Waterford Terry Venables – St Patrick's Athletic Danny Ventre – Sligo Rovers, Derry City Mickey Walker – Sligo Rovers Ray Wallace – Drogheda United Sid Wallace – Waterford Dan Ward – St Patrick's Athletic Niall Watson – Sligo Rovers Vinny Whelan – Shelbourne Lee Williams – Shamrock Rovers Robbie Williams – Limerick, Cork City, Galway United Tony Witter – Bohemians Anthony Wordsworth – Waterford Andre Wright – Bohemians, Sligo Rovers Ollie Younger – St Patrick's Athletic Estonia Sander Puri – Sligo Rovers, Waterford Faroe Islands Sonni Nattestad – Dundalk Finland Jonas Häkkinen – Cork City Hugo Keto – Waterford Lasse Peltonen – UCD Teemu Penninkangas – Sligo Rovers Sami Ristilä – Drogheda United Tomi Saarelma – Galway United Mikko Vilmunen – Drogheda United France Maxime Blanchard – Shamrock Rovers Achille Campion – Sligo Rovers, Cork City, St Patrick's Athletic Damien Dupuy – UCD, Galway United Vincent Escudé-Candau – Cork City Ibrahim Keita – Finn Harps Osvaldo Lopes – Cork City Etanda N'Kololo – Salthill Devon, Mervue United, Longford Town, Athlone Town Yann M'Vita – Longford Town Christophe Rodrigues Silva – Athlone Town Gianni Seraf – Derry City Wilfried Tagbo – Finn Harps Isaac Tshipamba – Waterford Pascal Vaudequin – Derry City, Shelbourne, Finn Harps, Bohemians, Shamrock Rovers Mickaël Wolski – Shamrock Rovers Georgia Nika Kalandarishvili – Athlone Town, Cabinteely Germany Eric Abulu – Shamrock Rovers, Longford Town Franz-Josef Hönig – Cork Celtic Leon Pöhls – Shamrock Rovers Sinisa Savic – Longford Town Uwe Seeler – Cork Celtic Hungary Krisztián Adorján – Dundalk Peter Berki – Limerick Róbert Kovácsevics – Drogheda United Israel Alon Netzer – Derry City Italy Luciano Masiello – Athlone Town Christian Nanetti – Cork City Vito Tamburro – Cabinteely Latvia Gints Freimanis – St Patrick's Athletic Kirils Grigorovs – Athlone Town Raivis Jurkovskis – Dundalk Igors Labuts – Sporting Fingal, Athlone Town Roberts Mežeckis – Cork City Andrejs Perepļotkins – Bohemians Renārs Rode – Waterford Guntars Silagailis – Cork City David Titov – St Patrick's Athletic Lithuania Arminas Balevicius – Waterford United Karolis Chvedukas – Dundalk, Waterford Mindaugas Kalonas – Bohemians Vilius Labutis – Cabinteely Danielus Niekis – Wexford Youths Sigitas Olberkis – Sligo Rovers Rimvydas Sadauskas – Cork City Malta Jacob Borg – Finn Harps Luke Dimech – Shamrock Rovers Kyrian Nwoko – St Patrick's Athletic Moldova Dragos Mamaliga – Bray Wanderers Netherlands Jordi Balk – St Patrick's Athletic Youri Habing – Athlone Town Barry Maguire – Limerick Quincy Nkansah – Athlone Town Regillio Nooitmeer – Galway United John Powell – Shelbourne, Drogheda United Jermaine Sandvliet – Drogheda United Eddie van Boxtel – Dundalk, Galway United, Drogheda United, Monaghan United, Bray Wanderers Carel van der Velden – Shelbourne, Sligo Rovers Noah van Geenen – Athlone Town Norway Stanley Anaebonam – Shelbourne Glen Atle Larsen – St Patrick's Athletic Ole Erik Midtskogen – Dundalk Tim Nilsen – Derry City Poland Piotr Bajdziak – Sligo Rovers Jarosław Białek – St Patrick's Athletic Piotr Krzanowski – Cork City Krystian Lamberski – Waterford Arek Mamala – Galway United Michal Sadys – Cobh Ramblers Łukasz Skowron – St Patrick's Athletic Piotr Suski – Waterford Marcin Szymański – Galway United Portugal Mauro Almeida – Sligo Rovers Dery Hernandez – Athlone Town Adalberto Pinto – Shelbourne Carlos Rocha – Kilkenny City José Viegas – Athlone Town Nelson Vieira – Sligo Rovers Romania Victor Collins – Salthill Devon, Galway United Andrei Georgescu – Bray Wanderers, Shelbourne, Athlone Town, Drogheda United Marco Chindea – St Patrick's Athletic, Waterford, Athlone Town, Bohemians Cristian Magerusan – Bohemians Bogdan Oprea – UCD Gabriel Sava – Bray Wanderers, Drohgheda United, Monaghan United, Dundalk Dragoș Sfrijan – Athlone Town Scotland Jordan Allan – Derry City Scott Allardice – Bohemians, Waterford Chris Bennion – Shelbourne, Dundalk, Athlone Town, St Patrick's Athletic, Monaghan United, Longford Town Steven Bradley – Dundalk Liam Buchanan – Sligo Rovers Francis Burns – Shamrock Rovers Liam Burt – Bohemians Tommy Callaghan – Galway Rovers Colin Cameron – Sligo Rovers Greg Cameron – Shamrock Rovers Chic Charnley – Cork City Peter Cherrie – Dundalk, Bray Wanderers, Cork City, Derry City Ross Chisholm – Shamrock Rovers Darren Cole – Derry City John Colrain – St Patrick's Athletic Alex Cooper – Sligo Rovers Ali Coote – Waterford, Bohemians James Creaney – Dundalk, Galway United Dixie Deans – Shelbourne Kevin Docherty – Finn Harps Kyle Ferguson – Waterford Billy Findlay – Sligo Rovers Danny Galbraith – Limerick Stuart Gauld – St Patrick's Athletic, Derry City, Finn Harps Billy Gibson – St Patrick's Athletic John Gibson – Sligo Rovers Ally Gilchrist – Shamrock Rovers, Derry City, Shelbourne, Cork City Grant Gillespie – Derry City Ian Gilzean – Sligo Rovers, Drogheda United, St Patrick's Athletic, Shelbourne Dale Gray – Sligo Rovers Stewart Greacen – Derry City Martin Gritton – Shelbourne Alex Hair – Shelbourne David Herd – Waterford David Hopkirk – Derry City Max Hutchison – Waterford Jimmy Johnstone – Shelbourne Josh Kerr – Derry City Billy King – St Patrick's Athletic Cameron King – Shamrock Rovers Jim Lauchlan – Sligo Rovers Steven Lennon – Dundalk Nicky Low – Derry City Stephen Manson – Sligo Rovers Neil Martin – St Patrick's Athletic Alex Massie – Dolphin John Paul McBride – Derry City Rhys McCabe – Sligo Rovers, St Patrick's Athletic Vinny McCarthy – Waterford, Shamrock Rovers, Cobh Ramblers Allan McClory – Brideville Pat McCluskey – Sligo Rovers John McCole – Shelbourne, Cork Hibernians, Dundalk Marc McCulloch – Shelbourne, Galway United Patrick McDonagh – Sligo Rovers Kevin McDonald – Drogheda United John McFarlane – Shelbourne Tommy McGrain – Galway Rovers, Sligo Rovers Jon-Paul McGovern – Derry City Thomas McGunnigle – Cork Kevin McHattie – Derry City Jim McInally – Sligo Rovers Joe McKee – Dundalk Jamie McKenzie – Sligo Rovers, Galway United Kevin McKinlay – Dundalk Brian McLaughlin – Finn Harps Gerry McLoughlin – Waterford United Tam McManus – Derry City, Limerick Gary McPhee – St Patrick's Athletic Willie McStay – Sligo Rovers Harry Monaghan – Derry City Jordan Moore – Limerick Lewis Morrison – Sligo Rovers Keigan Parker – Cork City Jim Paterson – Shamrock Rovers Phoenix Patterson – Waterford Martin Rennie – St Patrick's Athletic Mark Roberts – Shelbourne Paul Rudden – Waterford Mark Russell – Finn Harps Ryan Shanley – Finn Harps Craig Sives – Shamrock Rovers Mike Skivington – Dundalk Cammy Smith – Dundalk Gordon Smith – Drumcondra Matty Smith – Waterford, St Patrick's Athletic, Derry City Aaron Splaine – Derry City Sam Stanton – Dundalk Mark Stewart – Derry City Jered Stirling – Waterford United Stuart Taylor – Drogheda United Joe Thompson – Derry City Jonathan Tiffoney – Limerick Gary Twigg – Shamrock Rovers Rab Walls – Waterford Tom Walsh – Limerick Calum Waters – Sligo Rovers Tony Weldon – Dundalk Alex Williams – Dundalk, St Patrick's Athletic Cameron Yates – Dundalk Serbia Aleksandar Krstić – Derry City Stefan Čolović – Dundalk Slovakia Jozef Dolný – Derry City Róbert Klučiar – Limerick Slovenia Uros Hojan – Cork City Spain Alvarito – Shelbourne Félix Bape – Athlone Town Javier Barba – Galway United Alberto Cabanyes – Galway United Cristian Castells – Derry City José García – Galway United José Carrillo - Finn Harps Manu Dimas – Galway United Yael Haro – Drogheda United, UCD Diego Portilla – Galway United Pablo Rodríguez – Bray Wanderers Manu Tejero – Shelbourne Sweden Armin Aganovic – Galway United, Derry City Kemajl Avdiu – Finn Harps Markus Gustavsson – Cobh Ramblers Oscar Jansson – Shamrock Rovers Ola Tidman – Derry City Switzerland Maxime Vuille – Shamrock Rovers B Turkey Erol Erdal Alkan – Finn Harps Wales Joe Adams – Dundalk Tony Bird – St Patrick's Athletic, Drogheda United Jamie Egan – Cabinteely Cameron Evans – Waterford Brian Flynn – Limerick City Jamie Harris – Bohemians, St Patrick's Athletic, Shelbourne, Drogheda United Dan Hawkins – Finn Harps, Shelbourne Trevor Hockey – Athlone Town David Partridge – St Patrick's Athletic Christian Roberts – Drogheda United Wayne Russell – Bohemians, Derry City, Waterford United Nathan Shepperd – Dundalk Dai Thomas – Drogheda United Matthew Tipton – Dundalk James Waite – Waterford Lewis Webb – Shelbourne Daniel Williams – Dundalk Steve Williams – Dundalk, Shelbourne, Bray Wanderers, Sporting Fingal, Drogheda United Yugoslavia Aleksandar Krstić – Derry City North and Central America, Caribbean (CONCACAF) Bahamas Ronaldo Green – Waterford Barbados Eric Lavine – Galway United, Longford Town, Athlone Town Ryan Lucas – Galway United Llewellyn Riley – Galway United, Sligo Rovers Alvin Rouse – Sligo Rovers, Monaghan United, Galway United, Longford Town Luther Watson – Galway United Bermuda Freddy Hall – Limerick Dante Leverock – Sligo Rovers Canada Tomer Chencinski – Shamrock Rovers Jeff Clarke – St Patrick's Athletic, Longford Town Tyson Farago – St Patrick's Athletic Graham Fisher – Finn Harps Ben Fisk – Derry City Jordan Hamilton – Sligo Rovers Joseph Jackson – Drogheda United David Norman – UCD Terique Mohammed – Dundalk, Athlone Town Dylan Sacramento – Galway United Kosovar Sadiki – Finn Harps Matthew Srbely – Cork City Kris Twardek – Sligo Rovers, Bohemians Curaçao Raymond Roos – Kilkenny City Haiti Pascal Millien – Sligo Rovers, Finn Harps Jamaica Dwight Barnett – Dundalk Michael Hector – Dundalk Ryan Thompson – Shamrock Rovers Romeo Parkes – Sligo Rovers Mexico David Alejandro Rojina – Bray Wanderers Montserrat Kaleem Simon – UCD, Longford Town, Bohemians, Cabinteely, Athlone Town, Wexford, Drogheda United Puerto Rico Kupono Low – Sligo Rovers Saint Kitts and Nevis Andre Burley – Waterford Michael Crawford – Bohemians Austin Huggins – Bohemians Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Wesley Charles – Sligo Rovers, Bray Wanderers, Galway United Rodney Jack – Waterford Marlon James – Bray Wanderers Trinidad and Tobago Daniel Carr – Shamrock Rovers, Shelbourne Avery John – Bohemians, Shelbourne, Longford Town Derek Phillips – Derry City, Shamrock Rovers United States Jon Akin – Kilkenny City Nicky Broujos – Bray Wanderers, Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic, Sligo Rovers Max Cream – Wexford Youths Luke Dennison – Longford Town, Galway United David D'Errico – Dundalk Taner Dogan – Dundalk, Athlone Town Shane Doherty – Galway United Jamie Duffy – Kilkenny City, Shamrock Rovers, Longford Town, Dundalk, Drogheda United Lance Friesz – St Patrick's Athletic Kevin Garcia – Galway United Josh Gatt – Dundalk Ed Greene – Shamrock Rovers Kevin Jones – Shelbourne Jake Keegan – Galway United, St Patrick's Athletic Brendan King – Bray Wanderers Chris Konopka – Sporting Fingal, Waterford Morgan Langley – St Patrick's Athletic Patrick McCann – Finn Harps, Sligo Rovers Andrew McConville – Monaghan United Rory McCullough – Athlone Town Ed McIlvenny – Waterford United Kirk Miller – Galway United Matt Nelson – Kilkenny City Ciaran Nugent – Sligo Rovers, Galway United Ata Ozbay – Finn Harps Russell Payne – Derry City, Shamrock Rovers Jesús Pérez – Dundalk Charles Sanders – Waterford United Will Seymore – Sligo Rovers, Finn Harps Bobby Smith – Dundalk Joshua Smith – Finn Harps, Galway United Matthew Taylor – Shelbourne Oliver White – Cabinteely Shane Watkins – Galway United Jamesun Wunsch – Limerick South America (CONMEBOL) Argentina Santiago Falbo – Bohemians Ivan Gamarra – Galway United Juan Sara – Shelbourne Gerardo Bruna – Derry City, Shelbourne Brazil David da Silva – Shelbourne Luís Sacilotto – St Patrick's Athletic Rodrigo Tosi – Limerick Pablo Cavalcante – Dundalk Eduardo Pincelli – Sligo Rovers Hernany Macedo Marques – Dundalk, St Patrick's Athletic Chile Lawrence Vigouroux – Waterford Uruguay Héctor Acuña – Shelbourne Walter Invernizzi – Athlone Town Oceania (OFC) New Zealand Jason Batty – Bohemians Che Bunce – Drogheda United Sean Byrne – St Patrick's Athletic, Dundalk Henry Cameron – Limerick Billy de Graaf – Shelbourne Raf de Gregorio – Bohemians Ryan De Vries – Sligo Rovers Dean Dodds – Bohemians Lee Jones – Drogheda United Max Mata – Sligo Rovers Heremaia Ngata – Bohemians Nando Pijnaker – Sligo Rovers Adam Thomas – Shelbourne Gavin Wilkinson – Kilkenny City Darren Young – Limerick, Waterford United, Athlone Town, Mervue United References League of Ireland players Ireland Association football player non-biographical articles Expatriate association footballers in the Republic of Ireland	7,758
doc-en-9803_0	In South Africa, as elsewhere in the world, the railways played a huge part in development and growth on nearly all terrains in the country. Conversely, events in South Africa and its neighbours over the years had a huge influence on the development of railways. When the articles on the locomotives of South Africa are read sequentially in the order of their years of entering railway service, much of the history of the country becomes apparent between the lines. At the same time, the development of steam locomotives can be followed from the basic 0-4-0 to the mighty wheel arrangements, and articulated steam locomotives from the Fairlies and the Kitson-Meyer to the Mallets and ultimately to the Garratts. Likewise with the development of modern traction such as electric, gas-electric, diesel-hydraulic, electro-diesel and diesel-electric locomotives. This article consists of links to articles on South African locomotives, arranged in the order of their years of entering service, with the links embedded in the applicable pictures. In addition, the opening dates of new railway lines are shown. Railway construction In South Africa and South West Africa, where the South African Railways operated, all early mainline railway construction took place working inland from harbours and ports. Construction on these lines began in the years from 1859 to 1887 in South Africa and from 1897 to 1908 in South West Africa. Cape Western – The Cape Town–Wellington line in 1859. Namaqualand – The Port Nolloth–O'okiep line in 1869. Cape Midland – The Port Elizabeth–Uitenhage line in 1872. Cape Midland – The Swartkops–Alicedale line in 1875. Natal – The Durban–Pietermaritzburg line in 1876. Cape Eastern – The East London–King William's Town line in 1876. Kowie – The Port Alfred–Grahamstown line in 1881. Transvaal – The Delagoa Bay–Pretoria line in 1887. South West Africa Central – The Swakopmund–Windhoek line in 1897. South West Africa Northern – The Swakopmund–Otavi line in 1903. South West Africa Southern – The Lüderitz–Keetmanshoop line in 1908. The 1850s 1859 On 8 September the first railway locomotive arrives in South Africa. The 1860s 1860 New lines opened: Natal – Durban to Point on 26 June. 1862 New lines opened: Cape Western – Cape Town to Stellenbosch on 1 May. The first gauge locomotive arrives in South Africa when the Table Bay Harbour Board acquires a single broad gauge locomotive, builder or appearance unknown, for excavation and breakwater construction work. 1863 New lines opened: Cape Western – Stellenbosch to Wellington on 4 November. The Cape Town and Green Point Tramway introduces horse-drawn trams from Adderley Street to Green Point. 1864 New lines opened: Cape Western – Salt River to Wynberg on 19 December. 1865 1867 New lines opened: Natal – Durban to Umgeni on 4 April. 1869 The first rails of the Namaqualand Railway from Port Nolloth to O'okiep are laid. The 1870s 1870 A second broad gauge locomotive is observed at Table Bay Harbour, a 0-4-0 saddle-tank engine built by Hughes's Locomotive & Tramway Engine Works which had entered service between 1863 and 1870. 1871 New lines opened: Namaqualand – Port Nolloth to Muishondfontein on 18 February. The first gauge locomotives arrive in South Africa. 1872 The Cape Government Railways is established and takes over the operation of all public railways in the Colony, consisting of altogether 63 route miles of track from Cape Town via Stellenbosch to Wellington and via Salt River to Wynberg. 1873 New lines opened: Namaqualand – Muishondfontein to Kookfontein. The first Cape gauge locomotives arrive in South Africa. 1874 The railway line from Port Elizabeth to Uitenhage is partially opened. 1875 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Port Elizabeth to Addo on 26 July and Swartkops to Uitenhage on 22 September. Cape Western – Wellington to Wolseley on 3 November. 1876 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – East London to Blaney on 18 December. Cape Midland – Addo to Sand Flats on 1 April. Cape Western – Wolseley to Worcester on 16 June and Bellville to Muldersvlei on 14 September. Namaqualand – Kookfontein to O'okiep on 1 January. The ship Memento sinks off East London with two Cape 2nd Class 2-6-2TT locomotives for the Eastern System. Construction begins on the Cape Town Central Station as hub to the Cape Government Railways. The Hex River tunnel on the railway line between Osplaas and Matroosberg is completed. Construction begins on the Cape gauge railway line from Durban to Pietermaritzburg in Natal. 1877 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Blaney to King William's Town and to Kei Road, both on 1 May. Cape Midland – Uitenhage to Glenconnor on 1 May and Sand Flats to Alicedale on 27 May. Cape Western – Worcester to Kleinstraat on 7 November and Kraaifontein to Malmesbury on 12 November. 1878 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Kei Road to Döhne on 15 August. Cape Midland – Glenconnor to Mount Stewart on 1 August. Cape Western – Kleinstraat to Koup on 4 November. Natal – Umgeni to Avoca on 25 May and Durban to Pinetown on 4 September. 1879 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Döhne to Cathcart on 3 November. Cape Midland – Mount Stewart to Graaff-Reinet on 26 August, and Alicedale to Grahamstown on 3 September and to Middleton on 17 September. Cape Western – Koup to Fraserburg Road on 11 August. Natal – Pinetown to Botha's Hill in March and Avoca to Verulam on 1 September. The 1880s 1880 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Cathcart to Queenstown on 5 May. Cape Midland – Middleton to Cookhouse on 2 March. Cape Western – Fraserburg Road to Beaufort West on 5 February. Natal – Rossburgh to Isipingo on 1 February and Botha's Hill to Pietermaritzburg on 1 December. 1881 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Cookhouse to Cradock on 1 June. 1882 New lines opened: Cape Western – Wynberg to Muizenberg on 15 December. 1883 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Queenstown to Sterkstroom on 15 October. Cape Midland – Cradock to Colesberg on 16 October. Cape Western – Muizenberg to Kalkbaai on 5 May and Beaufort West to Victoria West Road on 14 May. 1884 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Sterkstroom to Molteno on 16 September. Cape Midland – Noupoort to De Aar on 31 March, to link with the Cape Western. Cape Western – Victoria West Road to Oranjerivier on 3 November. Kowie – Port Alfred to Grahamstown on 1 December. Natal – Pietermaritzburg to Merrivale in May. 1885 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Molteno to Aliwal North on 2 September. Cape Western – Oranjerivier to Kimberley on 28 November. Natal – Merrivale to Estcourt on 21 December. 1886 New lines opened: Natal – Estcourt to Ladysmith on 21 June. 1887 New lines opened: Cape Central – Worcester to Roodewal in October. 1888 1889 New lines opened: Cape Western – Eerste River to Somerset West on 21 October. Namaqualand – Braakpits Junction to Flat Mine on 23 April. Natal – Ladysmith to Glencoe on 4 September. The 1890s 1890 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Colesberg Junction to Norvalspont on 17 December. Cape Western – Somerset West to Sir Lowry's Pass Village on 1 February, Kalkbaai to Simon's Town and Kimberley to Vryburg, both on 1 December. Free State – Norvalspont to Bloemfontein on 17 December. Natal – Glencoe to Talana on 28 March and to Newcastle on 15 May. Transvaal – Braamfontein to Springs on 13 October and to Roodepoort on 17 November. 1891 New lines opened: Natal – Newcastle to Charlestown on 7 April. Transvaal – Roodepoort to Krugersdorp on 10 February and Mozambique border near Komatipoort to Malelane on 28 December. 1892 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Dreunberg Junction to Bethulie Bridge on 21 May. Cape Midland – Rosmead to Stormberg Junction on 8 February, to link with the Cape Eastern. Free State – Bloemfontein to Vaal River Bridge on 7 May, Bethulie Bridge to Springfontein on 21 May and Natal-Free State border to Harrismith on 12 July. Natal – Danskraal to Natal-Free State border on 12 July. Transvaal – Malelane to Nelspruit on 20 June and Vaal River Bridge to Germiston on 15 September. 1893 New lines opened: Transvaal – Germiston to Pretoria on 1 January and Nelspruit to Airlie on 30 December. 1894 New lines opened: Cape Western – Vryburg to Mafeking on 3 October. Transvaal – Airlie to Pretoria on 18 November. 1895 New lines opened: Natal – Charlestown to Natal-Transvaal border on 1 December. Transvaal – Natal-Transvaal border to Union Junction near Alberton on 15 December, linking Natal to Transvaal. The railways of the Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange Free State, the South African Republic and southern Mozambique are all linked at Union Junction near Alberton on 15 December. 1896 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Sterkstroom to Indwe on 1 February. Transvaal – Kaapmuiden to Barberton on 1 April and Krugersdorp to Frederikstad on 2 November. Cape Town's first electric tram service begins operating along Adderley Street to Mowbray Hill. 1897 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Rosmead to Middelburg on 1 October. Cape Western – Mafeking to Ramatlabama at the Bechuanaland Protectorate border on 13 March. Natal – Isipingo to Park Rynie on 1 December, Verulam to Tongaat on 3 December and Thornville to Richmond on 15 December. Transvaal – Frederikstad to Klerksdorp on 3 August. The Pretoria-Pietersburg Railway purchases a locomotive named Portuguese from Mozambique. 1898 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Middelburg to Graaff-Reinet on 3 March and Bamboo Junction to Cape Collieries. Free State – Theunissen to Winburg on 1 November. Namaqualand – Garracoop Junction to Nababeep on 15 October. Natal – Clairwood to Wests in Durban on 13 June and Tongaat to Tugela on 1 December. Transvaal – Pretoria to Potgietersrus on 1 October. 1899 New lines opened: Cape Central – Roodewal to Swellendam on 12 April. Free State – Wolwehoek to Heilbron on 31 January. Natal – Pietermaritzburg to New Hanover on 25 October. Transvaal – Potgietersrus to Pietersburg on 1 May. Walvis Bay - Walvis Bay to Plum. The 1900s 1900 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Bowker's Park to Tarkastad on 5 December. Natal – New Hanover to Greytown on 25 July, Park Rynie to Umzinto and Kelso Junction to Mtwalume, both on 8 August. 1901 New lines opened: Cape Western – Malmesbury to Moorreesburg on 9 September. Natal – Stanger to Kearsney on 13 March and Mtwalume to North Shepstone on 27 July. The electric tramline in Cape Town is extended from Sea Point to Camps Bay. 1902 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Cookhouse to Somerset East and Klipplaat to Willowmore, both on 1 August. Cape Western – Sir Lowry's Pass Village to Caledon on 1 August and Moorreesburg to Eendekuil on 15 November. Free State – Bloemfontein to Sannaspos on 1 May. Natal – Tugela to Mhlatuze on 18 July. 1903 New lines opened: Cape Central – Swellendam to Riversdale on 19 February. Cape Eastern – King William's Town to Middledrift on 14 December. Cape Midland – Cookhouse to Adelaide and Willowmore to Le Roux, both on 14 December. Cape Western – Kalbaskraal to Hopefield on 28 February. Free State – Sannaspos to Thaba 'Nchu on 22 March and Harrismith to Aberfeldy on 1 April. Natal – Mhlatuze to Somkele on 17 September and Talana to Lucas Meyer on 12 November. Transvaal – India Junction to India Junction to Driehoek (avoiding line) on 27 April and to New Canada on 1 November. 1904 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Indwe to Xalanga on 17 August, Amabele to Komga on 7 September and Middledrift to Adelaide on 17 October. Cape Midland – Le Roux to Oudtshoorn on 1 March. Cape Western – Maitland to Ottery on 1 February, Paarl to Franschhoek on 7 June and Ceres Road to Artois in December. Free State – Thaba 'Nchu to Modderpoort on 15 June and Hamilton to Tempe on 1 September. Natal – Pietermaritzburg to Elandskop on 3 November. Transvaal – Langlaagte to Vereeniging on 15 December. 1905 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – Xalanga to Elliot on 18 May, Komga to Eagle on 1 November and Aliwal North to Lady Grey on 2 November. Cape Midland – Humewood Road to Humansdorp on 1 November. Cape Western – Hutchinson to Pampoenpoort on 1 May, De Aar to Prieska on 19 September, Cape Town to Sea Point on 1 December and Van der Stel to Strand on 16 December. Free State – Springfontein to Jagersfontein on 1 February, Aberfeldy to Bethlehem on 1 March, Modderpoort to Ladybrand on 16 December, Marseilles to Maseru in Basutoland on 18 December, and Dover to Parys on 22 December. Natal – Elandskop to Donnybrook on 1 November. Transvaal – Rayton to Cullinan on 27 March, Klerksdorp to Vierfontein, Free State on 1 August and Springs to Breyten on 20 December. 1906 New lines opened: Cape Central – Riversdale to Voorbaai on 22 January. Cape Eastern – Elliot to Maclear on 29 August and Eagle to Butterworth on 17 December. Cape Midland – Port Elizabeth to Humewood Road on 1 April, Humansdorp to Misgund on 1 December and Valley Junction to Walmer on 15 December. Cape Western – Pampoenpoort to Carnarvon on 1 August. Free State – Jagersfontein to Fauresmith on 6 February and Bethlehem to Kroonstad on 21 June. Natal – Donnybrook to Creighton on 16 May and Ennersdale to Loskop on 1 June. Transvaal – Orkney to Fourteen Streams on 6 April, regauged from Pienaarsrivier to Settlers on 21 June, Apex to Witbank on 26 December, Pretoria North to Rustenburg on 27 December and Nancefield to Pimville. 1907 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Knysna to Templeman on 14 July and Mosselbaai to George on 25 September. Cape Western – Misgund to Avontuur on 1 January and Mafeking to Buurman's Drift on 16 May. Free State – Modderpoort to Bethlehem on 2 July. Natal – Estcourt to Weenen on 18 April, Loskop to Winterton on 15 May and North Shepstone to South Shepstone on 2 September. Transvaal – Breyten to Ermelo on 13 March and Krugersdorp to Zeerust on 5 July. 1908 New lines opened: Cape Eastern – West Bank, Buffalo Harbour to Chiselhurst on 4 January. Cape Western – Milnerton to Ascot on 28 May. Free State – Hamilton to Beaconsfield on 8 April. Natal – Esperanza to Donnybrook on 3 June. Transvaal – Machadodorp to Breyten on 6 February. 1909 New lines opened: Cape Midland – Barkly Bridge to Alexandria on 18 May. Natal – Creighton to Riverside in the Eastern Cape on 4 February and Vryheid East to Hlobane on 1 April. The 1910s 1910 New lines opened: Eastern Cape – By the Natal Government Railways from Riverside to Malenge in the Eastern Cape on 21 March. Natal – Utrecht Junction to Utrecht on 27 April. Transvaal – Belfast to Lydenburg on 29 April, Komatipoort to Newington on 15 May and Dunswart to Cranbourne on 4 July. 1911 New lines opened: Cape – Eendekuil to Graafwater on 31 May and Lady Grey to Melk on 1 December, Hopefield to Bergrivier (Narrow gauge) on 21 August. Free State – Sannaspos to Jammerdrif on 4 September and Bethlehem to Reitz on 2 December. Natal – Umlaas Road to Mid Illovo on 13 April, Merrivale to Howick on 7 October and Port Shepstone to Paddock on 8 November. Transvaal – India Junction to Alberton on 1 March, Welverdiend to Lichtenburg on 11 May, Welgedag to Modderbee on 2 July, Ermelo to Piet Retief on 31 July, Pietersburg to Bandelierkop on 15 August and Coligny to Delareyville on 4 December. A passenger train from Port Alfred derails on Blaauwkrantz Bridge and plunges into the ravine below. 1912 New lines opened: Cape – Wolseley to Ceres on 20 May, Malenge to Franklin on 1 August, Schoombee to Hofmeyr and Ottery to Dieprivier on 2 December, Bergrivier to Vredenburg on 16 December and Melk to Motkop on 20 December. Free State – Jammerdrif to Wepener on 7 February and Firham, Transvaal to Vrede on 1 May. Transvaal – Buurman's Drift to Ottoshoop on 15 April, Zeerust to Ottoshoop on 4 November and Newington to Tzaneen on 9 November. The South African Railways reclassify and renumber the rolling stock of its three constituent railways. 1913 New lines opened: Cape – Butterworth to Idutywa on 15 July, George to Oudtshoorn on 6 August, Graafwater to Kleipan on 3 November, Vredenburg to Saldanha on 5 March. Natal – Greytown to Ahrens on 1 December and Tendeka to Piet Retief in Transvaal on 15 December. Free State – Arlington to Senekal on 15 May and Reitz to Marsala on 3 November. Transvaal – Nelspruit to Sabie on 10 November and Bandelierkop to Lilliput on 5 December. 1914 New lines opened: Cape – Kleipan to Birdfield on 1 January, Gamtoos to Patensie on 3 April and Caledon to Klipdale on 6 April. Natal – Winterton to Bergville on 5 January, Ixopo to Madonela on 2 February, Ahrens to Kranskop on 23 February and Newleigh to Estcourt deviation in September. Free State – Marsala to Frankfort on 4 March. Transvaal – Lilliput to Messina on 5 May, Sabie to Graskop on 18 May, Cranbourne to Modderbee on 25 May and Bethal to Morgenzon on 21 December. 1915 New lines opened: Cape – Klipdale to Protem on 30 June, Prieska to South West Border on 1 August, Birdfield to Klawer on 15 November, Motkop to New England on 29 November and Carnarvon to Williston on 1 December. Free State – Westleigh to Vierfontein and Fauresmith to Koffiefontein, both on 31 May. Natal – Dalton to Glenside on 12 April, Paddock to Izingolweni on 16 August and Schroeders to Bruyns Hill on 5 October. Transvaal – Tzaneen to Soekmekaar on 4 August. Cape (Walvisbaai) – Walvisbaai to Swakop River on 1 August. The SAR purchases six Rhodesian 7th Class locomotives and designate them Class 7D and Class 7B. Thirteen Mozambican Falcon 4-4-0 locomotives are acquired to relieve engines for service in South West Africa. 1916 New lines opened: Cape – Idutywa to Umtata on 18 September, Williston to Kootjieskolk on 2 October and Ascot to Tygerberg in November. Free State – Aliwal North to Zastron on 30 June and Vierfontein to Bothaville on 31 July. Natal – Boughton to Cedara deviation on 25 May and Donnybrook to Underberg on 24 November. Transvaal – Morgenzon to Amersfoort on 18 February, Volksrust to Amersfoort on 5 June and Delareyville to Pudimoe on 18 October. 1917 New lines opened: Natal – Izingolweni to Harding on 5 March and Gingindlovu to Eshowe on 20 June. 1918 New lines opened: Cape – Kootjieskolk to Calvinia on 2 February and to Sakrivier on 16 September. 1919 New lines opened: Natal – Deviation from Umlaas Road to Pentrich on 9 January. The 1920s 1920 1921 New lines opened: Transvaal – Pretoria West to Roberts Heights on 1 November. Natal – Booth Junction to Cato Ridge on 28 November. 1922 New lines opened: South West Africa – Kolmanskop to Bogenfels on 1 April. The South African Railways inherits all railway in South West Africa. 1923 New lines opened: Cape – Kamfersdam to Winter's Rush on 6 August and Belmont to Douglas on 9 August. Transvaal – Settlers to Tuinplaas on 30 October. 1924 New lines opened: Cape – Klipdale to Bredasdorp on 19 April, Pinelands to Langa on 16 June, Franklin to Kokstad on 3 November, Franklin to Matatiele on 4 November, Oudtshoorn to Calitzdorp on 14 November and Touws River to Kareevlakte on 15 December. Free State – Wepener to Zastron on 16 April and Heilbron to Petrus Steyn on 24 July. South West Africa – Gobabis Junction in Windhoek to Ondekaremba on 19 September. Transvaal – Balfour North to Grootvlei on 1 May, Lydenburg to Steelpoort on 10 September, Naboomspruit to Singlewood on 22 September and Hercules to Schoemansville on 15 December. 1925 New lines opened: Cape – Kareevlakte to Ladismith on 19 October and Fort Beaufort to Katberg on 1 December. Free State – Senekal to Marquard on 14 October and Frankfort to Villiers on 26 November. Natal – Eshowe to Extension on 26 June. Transvaal – Rustenburg to Boshoek on 21 January, Magaliesburg to Schoemansville on 26 May, Ermelo to Lothair on 1 September, Elandshoek to Solarvale on 25 September and Nylstroom to Vaalwater on 1 October. The New Cape Central Railway and its line from Worcester to Voorbaai is taken over by the South African railways. 1926 New lines opened: Cape – Upington to Kakamas on 18 August, Addo to Sunland on 1 September, Katberg to Seymour on 19 November and Klawer to Landplaas on 8 December. Free State – Harrismith to Warden on 7 June. Natal – Mtubatuba to Candover on 15 September. Transvaal – Villiers, Free State to Grootvlei on 18 January and Citrus to Plaston on 22 November. 1927 New lines opened: Cape – Sunland to Kirkwood on 7 January, Landplaas to Bitterfontein on 27 April and Imvani to Qamata on 14 September. Natal – Candover to Golela, Transvaal on 4 July. Transvaal – Solarvale to Mount Carmel on 10 February and Makwassie to Vermaas on 1 July. 1928 New lines opened: Cape – Winter's Rush to Koopmansfontein on 31 January and George to Knysna on 1 May. Free State – Bothaville to Wesselsbron on 18 July. South West Africa – Ondekaremba to Seeis on 9 July. Transvaal – Klerksdorp to Ottosdal on 24 February, Potchefstroom to Fochville on 14 April, Brits to Beestekraal on 11 June and Singlewood to Zebediela on 2 July. 1929 New lines opened: Cape – Hermon to Porterville on 3 April, Ceres to Prince Alfred Hamlet on 10 April, and the line from Monument to Sea Point is uplifted on 17 April. Free State – Wesselsbron to Bultfontein on 16 April and Arlington to Lindley on 31 July. South West Africa – Seeis to Witvlei on 1 December. Transvaal – Boshoek to Middelwit on 12 August, Messina to Beitbridge on 31 August and Derwent to Stoffberg on 14 November. The 1930s 1930 New lines opened: Cape – Fort Knokke to Woltemade no. 1 on 14 April, Koopmansfontein to Postmasburg on 1 November and New England to Barkly East on 10 December. Free State – Parys to Vredefort on 24 April and Petrus Steyn to Lindley on 14 May. Natal – Empangeni to Nkwalini on 19 September. South West Africa – Witvlei to Gobabis on 6 November. 1931 New lines opened: Cape – Molteno to Jamestown on 3 June. Natal – Chailey to Mount Alida and Greyville Cabin to Berea Road, both on 1 July. 1934 New lines opened: Cape – Kleinstraat to Matroosberg on 15 October. Transvaal – Northam Junction to Thabazimbi on 26 February, Germiston to Elsburg on 29 July and Tuinplaas to Marble Hall on 21 September. 1935 New lines opened: Transvaal – Springs to Kaydale on 19 October. 1936 New lines opened: Cape – Palingpan to Manganore on 15 June and Postmasburg to Lohatla on 30 June. Natal – Point to Congella on 1 May. 1937 1938 New lines opened: Transvaal – Midway to Bank on 6 November. 1939 The 1940s 1940 New lines opened: Transvaal – Crown to Langlaagte on 12 January and Germiston to Jupiter on 2 December. 1943 New lines opened: Transvaal – New Canada to Phomolong on 29 January and Hercules to Koedoespoort on 7 June. 1945 New lines opened: Transvaal – Village Main to Faraday on 4 June. 1946 New lines opened: Transvaal – Ogies to Vandyksdrif on 1 June. 1947 1948 New lines opened: Free State – Whites to Odendaalsrus on 7 June. 1949 The 1950s 1950 New lines opened: Transvaal – Vandyksdrif to Broodsnyersplaas on 2 October. 1951 New lines opened: Transvaal – Grootvlei to Redan on 13 June and Springs to Welgedag on 21 December. 1952 New lines opened: Free State – Odendaalsrus to Allanridge on 18 December. 1953 New lines opened: Cape – Lohatla to Sishen on 14 October. 1954 1955 1957 1958 1959 The 1960s 1963 1964 1965 At least 150 are killed when a commuter train derails at the outskirts of Durban. 1966 1968 1969 The 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 The Sishen-Saldanha iron ore line is opened. 1975 1976 1977 1978 The South African Railways sets a still unbeaten world rail speed record. 1979 The 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 The South African Railways inaugurates the MetroBlitz interurban train service between Pretoria and Johannesburg. 1985 1987 1989 The 1990s 1990 South African Transport Services become Transnet and the South African Rail Commuter Corporation, with Spoornet and Metrorail as respective railway operators. 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 A locomotive falls into a mine shaft onto an ascending cage and both plunge to the bottom of the shaft, killing 104. The 2000s 2000 2001 2006 2009 The 2010s 2010 Gautrain SGR opened in Gauteng Provence June 8 2011 2013 2014 2015 References Locomotives of South Africa History of South Africa South Africa transport-related lists Railway locomotive-related lists	7,130
doc-en-9810_0	John Maxwell Roxburgh (February 14, 1901February 27, 1975) was a Canadian ice hockey administrator and politician. He organized minor ice hockey in his hometown of Simcoe, Ontario, co-founded the Ontario Juvenile Hockey Association in 1934, and the Ontario Minor Hockey Association in 1940. He served as president of the Ontario Hockey Association from 1950 to 1952, improved its finances to become profitable, and appointed Bill Hanley as a full-time manager to operate the association as a business. Roxburgh served as president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association from 1960 to 1962, arranged exhibition games between Canada and the Soviet Union amid an increased rivalry between the respective national teams, and pushed for the separation of politics and sport when the Cold War threatened to cancel the 1962 Ice Hockey World Championships. He was opposed to changes in the Olympic Oath and the international definition of amateurism, and later recommended the formation of a student-athlete team coached by Father David Bauer to become the Canada men's national ice hockey team. Roxburgh graduated from Ontario Agricultural College and farmed before he venturing into municipal and federal politics. He served as a Liberal Party of Canada member of the House of Commons of Canada for the Norfolk electoral district from 1962 to 1968. He was elected three times, defended the Canadian tobacco industry, pushed for university students registering as voters, and lobbied for increased grants to promote physical fitness in Canada. During the Great Canadian Flag Debate of 1964, Roxburgh introduced legislation to declare ice hockey as the national game of Canada after he disproved the myth that lacrosse held the distinction. He was a life member of multiple hockey organizations and received the Order of Merit from the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association. He died from injuries sustained in a boating accident in 1975, and was posthumously inducted into the Norfolk County Sports Hall of Recognition. Early life John Maxwell Roxburgh was born on February 14, 1901, in Phoenix, Arizona. His family was temporarily living in Arizona, until his parents relocated the family to Cache Bay, Ontario while Roxburgh was a youth. He attended secondary school in Sturgeon Falls, Ontario. He graduated from Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph in 1926, with a degree in horticulture, and played on ice hockey and rugby teams in college. Roxburgh worked at a cannery in Wellington County, Ontario, for a year, then relocated to Norfolk County, Ontario, in 1928. He worked for a year at the Government of Ontario turkey farm, near Turkey Point, Ontario. In 1929, he purchased a farm in Woodhouse Township, and began breeding a flock of 1700 turkeys which won prizes at the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair and the 1933 Chicago World's Fair. During the 1930s, he served as president of the Ontario Turkey Breeders Association for three years, operated a life insurance business, and served as a Woodhouse Township Council member and deputy reeve. By 1941, he began cultivating orchards of cherries, apples, peaches and strawberries, and served as secretary of the Norfolk Federation of Agriculture. Ontario hockey career Roxburgh assisted in organizing a Sunday school league in 1934, in Simcoe, Ontario. Later that year, Roxburgh and Roger Matchett organized the Ontario Juvenile Hockey Association (OJHA) in southwestern Ontario, and Roxburgh volunteered to manage and coach of the Simcoe juveniles team. He served as secretary-treasurer of the OJHA from 1934 to 1936, and then as its president from 1936 to 1938. His team evolved into the Tiger Cub Juveniles, then was later known as Roxy's Reformer Cubs. The team's players were chosen from the Sunday school league, and reached the Ontario Hockey Association (OHA) junior ice hockey semifinals during the 1937–38 season. Roxburgh's OJHA operated with four teams, and he sought to increase the numbers of teams and competition level. He arranged games with the Ontario Midget and Bantam Hockey Association based in St. Catharines, Ontario. Roxburgh was involved in negotiations for the two organizations to merge, founding the Ontario Minor Hockey Association (OMHA) on November 30, 1940. The new league began its first season with eight teams, and Roxburgh convinced the new OMHA to sign an affiliation agreement with the OHA in 1940. Roxburgh later became a convenor and an executive within the OHA, then served as OHA president from 1950 to 1952. Historian and writer Scott Young credited Roxburgh for being an astute businessman and improving the OHA's finances by increasing profits from the playoffs in junior ice hockey. In 1951, Roxburgh appointed Bill Hanley to become the full-time manager of the OHA to assist in running the association as a business. In 1951, the OHA was faced with a mutiny in the senior ice hockey ranks in Kingston, Ontario. After an inquiry, Roxburgh and fellow OHA executives George Dudley, Frank Buckland and W. A. Hewitt, handed out a lifetime suspension to George Patterson who coached Kingston's senior B-level team, for conspiring to deliberately lose a playoff series to avoid moving into a higher-level of playoffs, rather than staying in a lower level and potentially make more profits at home playoff games than on the road. Roxburgh was succeeded as OHA president by S. E. McTavish, and later represented the OHA at the national level as its past president. CAHA vice-president Roxburgh was elected second vice-president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) on May 30, 1957, and served in the role for two years until 1959. He chaired the minor ice hockey committee which organized Minor Hockey Week in Canada in 1958 and 1959, and oversaw scheduling at the 1959 Memorial Cup. He was elected first vice-president of the CAHA in 1959. He remained chairman of the minor hockey committee, and reported at the 1959 annual general meeting that minor hockey registrations had increased by 2700 players from the previous season. He remained in charge of scheduling for the 1960 Memorial Cup playoffs, and directed the referees to be tougher on physical play and stick-swinging in the 1960 finals, due to aggressive and dangerous play. CAHA president First term Roxburgh was elected CAHA president on May 28, 1960, at the annual general meeting in Sydney, Nova Scotia, and succeeded Gordon Juckes, who had stepped down as president to be appointed a full-time secretary and employee of the CAHA. Roxburgh was subsequently elected a director of the Amateur Hockey Association of the United States (AHAUS) later in 1960. As CAHA president, Roxburgh arranged exhibition games between Canada and the Soviet Union, and represented the CAHA at the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). Roxburgh and fellow CAHA executives were tasked with choosing which club would represent the Canada men's national ice hockey team at the Ice Hockey World Championships and in ice hockey at the Olympic Games. The CAHA felt that the Winnipeg Maroons were Canada's strongest team to win the 1961 Ice Hockey World Championships, but the Maroons could not play a three-week exhibition tour in Switzerland due to work commitments. Roxburgh later announced the Trail Smoke Eaters were chosen to represent Canada, and would participate in a profitable exhibition tour. He also admitted that Soviet teams were faster and stronger than before, and that Canada needed to improve to win against them in the World Championships. Roxburgh travelled with Trail on the exhibition tour of Europe, and felt they were a balanced team that could play physical hockey. After games with in Sweden, Herman Carlsson of the Swedish Ice Hockey Association said that Canadian players were intent on injuring Sweden's best players in advance of the 1961 World Championships. Roxburgh responded by calling the Swedish players weak, and offered to arrange to a trip to Canada where Sweden could learn how to play hockey. The tour continued into the Soviet Union, and after Trail lost to HC Dynamo Moscow by a 3–2 score, Roxburgh said, "the Russians have come a long way and are able to give and take body checks just as we do". He told reporters in Czechoslovakia that either Canada or the Soviet Union national ice hockey team would win the gold medal at the 1961 World Championship. His prediction proved correct when Canada won the gold medal over the Czechoslovakia men's national ice hockey team. Roxburgh chose to share profits from the television rights of the exhibition series with members of the Trail Smoke Eaters, after it was mistakenly reported that the team would get a share of the profits instead of just the CAHA retaining the profits. After the tour completed, Roxburgh stated he was opposed to more exhibition games in Sweden in the upcoming winter season due to issues regarding physical play, and didn't want to risk more problems. At the 1961 CAHA annual general meeting in Port Arthur, Ontario, Roxburgh stated that the recent Memorial Cup and Allan Cups were the more financially successful in recent times. Delegates to the meeting pushed for more say about rules of play on the joint committee with the National Hockey League (NHL) and other professional leagues. Roxburgh challenged delegates to choose a consistent refereeing system to be used in national playoffs. Until then, the playoff format had been an executive choice, lacking consistency across the nation. Delegates voted to have one referee and two linesmen at all games, as opposed to two referees without linesmen. Second term Roxburgh was reelected CAHA president on May 26, 1961. In August 1961, the OHA's junior division was reduced to only five teams when the Toronto area teams formed the Metro Junior A League. OHA president Lloyd Pollock applied to the CAHA to permit the Montreal Junior Canadiens from the Quebec Amateur Hockey Association to play in the OHA as its sixth team. Roxburgh denied the request, stating that CAHA rules do not allow en masse transfers between provincial associations. The Canadiens transfer to the OHA's junior division was later approved when the CAHA branch presidents voted in its favour. In September 1961, Earl Dawson of the Manitoba Amateur Hockey Association sought approval for the Manitoba Junior Hockey League to use international ice hockey rules, Roxburgh approved of the change and was quoted as saying that "certain formalities had to be taken care of". Also in September 1961, the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in Toronto. Roxburgh felt that there was no place for two halls of fame in Canada, referring to the Original Hockey Hall of Fame which had yet to be built in Kingston, Ontario, and stated it was a "tragedy nothing was done" while James T. Sutherland was alive. The CAHA formally withdrew its support of Kingston in January 1962, in favour of Toronto. 1962 Ice Hockey World Championships In the international game, Roxburgh nominated Vic Lindquist to represent Canada as a referee at the 1962 Ice Hockey World Championships, and that the Galt Terriers were chosen to represent Canada at the World Championships. Roxburgh stated the CAHA had dropped out of the bid to host the 1962 World Championships when AHAUS proposed to subsidize the cost for European teams to travel to Colorado. An exhibition tour was approved for the Trail Smoke Eaters, and Roxburgh accompanied the team to Europe. The CAHA considered sending a team to a junior World Championships in Prague, but later declined to send a team. The 1962 Ice Hockey World Championships were scheduled to be hosted in Colorado Springs, Colorado, but the event was placed in jeopardy due to the political situation in Europe. When the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961, NATO responded with travel restrictions which prevented the East Germany national ice hockey team from attending the World Championships. Roxburgh felt that politics should not affect sports, and the decision went against the goodwill and relations established by Canadian teams travelling behind the Iron Curtain. He called for the IIHF to unite in opposition to the NATO decision. Roxburgh was committed to Canada playing in the event, and stated that he would do anything in his power to keep it alive. He sent a cable to Czechoslovak officials urging for their team to participate, and not boycott due to East German travel issues. He appealed to Prime Minister of Canada John Diefenbaker, and Secretary of State for External Affairs of Canada, Howard Charles Green to pressure on NATO on its decision, but both declined to be involved. Teams from the Soviet Union and other communist countries ultimately chose to withdraw in protest of the NATO decision. The CAHA went ahead with the Galt Terriers North American tour, and hoped to benefit from ticket sales at exhibition games. Roxburgh travelled with the team, even though he failed to secure extra funding from Kenneth Farmer and the National Advisory Council on Fitness and Amateur Sport. Canada placed second overall at the World Championships, due to a 5–3 loss to the Sweden men's national ice hockey team. Roxburgh defended the choice of the Galt as Canada's representative, and stated that the team was just as good as the Trail Smoke Eaters, but was disappointed by the number of penalties Galt took against Sweden. Despite the disappointing result, he announced that exhibition tours for the following season were already being planned. After the Trail Smoke Eaters won the 1962 Allan Cup, the team was approved to represent Canada at the 1963 World Ice Hockey Championships, and Roxburgh requested permission to let the CAHA executive chose a replacement team if necessary. 1962 Memorial Cup In April 1962, Roxburgh announced the schedule for the 1962 Memorial Cup between the Hamilton Red Wings and the Edmonton Oil Kings, with all games played at Maple Leaf Gardens and broadcast by CFTO-TV. The CAHA was threatened with legal action by K.D. Soble who owned both the Red Wings and CHCH-TV in Hamilton, Ontario, if the CAHA did not share the broadcast profits. The dispute was resolved with games moved to the Hamilton Forum, Guelph and Kitchener, Ontario. CFTO would no longer broadcast the series, and CHCH would cover all games. Roxburgh reaffirmed that the CAHA controlled broadcast rights for its games, and not the individual arenas. As a result of the change, the teams received a share of the television revenue. In May, the CAHA approved a recommendation by Roxburgh to set a up a committee to explore balanced competition in the Memorial Cup playoffs in the wake of regional disparities across Canada. Canada men's national ice hockey team debate At the 1962 annual general meeting of the CAHA, delegates had lengthy discussions on the future of the Canadian national team at the Winter Olympics and World Championships. Roxburgh had previously stated opposition to the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) definition of amateur, and felt that Canada could not abide by the new Olympic code. He felt the new IOC amateur eligibility requirements were "a return to the horse and buggy days", and stating the "rule of amateurism was made years ago when the rich could send their sons and daughters into Olympic competition". He motioned not to send a team to the 1964 Winter Olympics on the basis of disagreeing with changes to the Olympic Oath and the definition of amateurism. He explained that since Canada pays its hockey players an allowance to compensate for lost salary it violated the oath, and that by the CAHA turning a blind eye to regulations, it set a bad example for youth. His motion was defeated by a vote of delegates. Another resolution was submitted by the Alberta Amateur Hockey Association to have the Canadian Army train the players. Previously, the CAHA had approved an affiliation with the Canadian Army hockey team as of January 1962. The Thunder Bay Amateur Hockey Association submitted a resolution to have all-star teams from each member of the CAHA play a tournament, with the best team representing Canada. Roxburgh mentioned a proposal from Father David Bauer to form a hockey team of the best student players available, and to train and complete schooling at the University of British Columbia. Bauer had recently coached the Toronto St. Michael's Majors to the 1961 Memorial Cup championship, and won the 1944 Memorial Cup as a player. Roxburgh, Juckes and Bauer were in attendance at the 1962 World Championships, and discussed ideas for a national team. Roxburgh invited Bauer to the 1962 general meeting to present the idea, which was tentatively approved by the delegates. Journalist Jim Coleman reported that consensus at the time was "for Canada to embark on a radical new course", even if it included establishing a team of university students to represent Canada at international hockey events. Past-president Roxburgh was succeeded by Art Potter as president of the CAHA in 1962. Roxburgh intended to stay involved with the CAHA as its past-president, despite having political aspirations. Father Bauer's national team process was implemented at the CAHA executive meeting in August 1962. The CAHA and the team were criticized by Maury Van Vliet, who led the Alberta Golden Bears. He was opposed to a stacked team competing in the Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union. Roxburgh responded stating that the team would not be competing in a league, but rather represent Canadian college hockey as a whole. He further defended the decision and said, "Father Bauer is one of the greatest coaches in Canada". In advance of the upcoming Soviet Union winter tour of Canada in 1962, Roxburgh stated the junior Russian team would be tough competition for Canada, and the next generation of homegrown Russian players. Member of parliament 25th parliament Roxburgh began his political aspirations while still president of the CAHA, and skipped the 1962 Memorial Cup banquet due to preparations for the 1962 Canadian federal election. He was elected to the 25th Canadian Parliament on June 18, 1962, as the Liberal Party of Canada candidate in the riding of Norfolk, earning 10,882 votes. He said his opponent John Evans Knowles was a good man and good friend. After being elected, Roxburgh said he intended to be vocal about the Sports Advisory Council run by Jay Monteith, and how its committee members were chosen without input from Canadian sports associations like the CAHA. When parliament opened, Roxburgh took his seat as a backbencher. He was not the only hockey person in the Liberal caucus, which included Red Kelly of the Toronto Maple Leafs, and ice hockey referee Rodger Mitchell. During the 25th parliament, Roxburgh was a member of the Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization, and the Standing Committee on Miscellaneous Private Bills. He urged fellow members of parliament to keep politics out of the national fitness program, which saw the budget reduced to $1,000,000 from the $5,000,000 promised. He also lobbied to see more grants to promote physical fitness within Canada. 26th parliament Roxburgh was reelected in the 1963 Canadian federal election to represent the Norfolk riding on April 8, with 10,862 votes. During the first and second sessions of the 26th Canadian Parliament, he was a member of the Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization; the Special Committee on Food and Drugs; the Standing Committee on Mines, Forests and Waters; the Standing Committee on Privileges and Elections; the Standing Committee on Miscellaneous Private Bills; and the Standing Committee on Estimates. In the third session, he was a member of the Special Committee on Food and Drugs; the Standing Committee on Indian Affairs, Human Rights and Citizenship and Immigration; and the Standing Committee on Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development. In September 1964, Roxburgh supported legislation by Harry Hays, the Minister of Agriculture of Canada, to guarantee loans for groups of three or more farmers buying farm machinery. He stated, "farmers are the greatest group of co-operators in the world, and the only group for which this kind of legislation would really work". Since his Norfolk riding is the heart of the Ontario tobacco belt, he also sought larger federal grants for production and processing for the Canadian tobacco industry. In November 1964, a parliamentary committee was considered to investigate the structure of professional and amateur hockey relationship with respect to the contracts of junior-aged players. Red Kelly supported an inquiry saying that many Canadians opposed a system that tied a young man to an NHL team for life. Roxburgh defended the system stating that, an inquiry would "set the facts straight", and "might be of value in pointing out to the public the facts of the matter". Canada's national game debate In May 1964, Roxburgh did extensive research to find if Canadian parliament had ever declared a national game, and specifically looked into whether lacrosse was officially declared. After going through parliamentary records, he found no law was ever enacted. The Canadian Press reported at the time that the myth of lacrosse as Canada's national game possibly came from a book published in 1869 titled Lacrosse, the National Game of Canada, and that the Canadian Lacrosse Association was founded in 1867. His endeavour to declare hockey as Canada's national game coincided with the Great Canadian Flag Debate of 1964. On October 28, 1964, Roxburgh moved to introduce Bill C–132, with respect to declaring hockey as the national game of Canada, and submitted his opening resolution. Canadian Lacrosse Association members responded to the motion by calling it insulting and "out of line", and vowed to fight it. On June 11, 1965, Bob Prittie replied by introducing a separate bill to have lacrosse declared as Canada's national game and stated that, "I think it is fitting at this time when we are considering national flags, national anthems and other national symbols, that this particular matter should be settled now". The choice of Canada's national game was debated in 1965, but neither bill was passed when parliament was dissolved. In 1967, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson proposed to name national summer and winter games, but nothing was resolved. Finally in April 1994, Bill C–212 was passed to recognize hockey as Canada's official winter game, and lacrosse as its summer game. 27th parliament Roxburgh was reelected in the 1965 Canadian federal election to represent the Norfolk riding on November 8, with 9,833 votes. During the first and second sessions of the 27th Canadian Parliament, he was a member of the Standing Committee on Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development; the Standing Committee on Northern Affairs and National Resources; the Standing Committee on Indian Affairs, Human Rights and Citizenship and Immigration; the Special Joint Committee on Immigration; the Special Committee on Drug Costs and Prices; the Standing Committee on Miscellaneous Estimates; and the Special Joint Committee on the National and Royal Anthems. He also served as vice-chairman of the Standing Committee on Indian Affairs, Human Rights and Citizenship and Immigration. In April 1967, Roxburgh introduced Bill C–289, to amend the Canada Elections Act in favour of university students registering as voters. He stated that during the 1965 general election, students were unable to register in a new constituency when relocating for studies. He compared this to ministers and teachers being able to move into a new constituency between the beginning of the campaign period and polling day, and register as voters. The bill sought for registered university students be given the same privilege. Roxburgh campaigned for the 1968 Canadian federal election in the redistributed Norfolk—Haldimand riding, as part of the Pierre Trudeau Liberal team. Roxburgh positioned himself as a self-described federalist, working for the farming community and encouraging youth to become involved. He received 13,132 votes, but was defeated by William David Knowles who was elected with 14,908 votes. Roxburgh's political career ended after the election, and 6 years and 7 days of service to the House of Commons of Canada. Personal life Roxburgh met his wife Marion Seldon while they attended Ontario Agricultural College. They later married and had two sons. He was known locally as "Roxy", and was a member of the Simcoe Kinsmen Club, the Simcoe Rotary Club, and St. James United Church. He nominated fellow farmer and municipal politician, John E. Cooper for the Haldimand—Norfolk riding in the 1963 Ontario general election. After retiring, Roxburgh spent winters in Englewood, Florida. He and his wife were returning from an evening fishing trip on January 18, 1975, when their boat collided with a retaining wall in the dark. Roxburgh sustained internal injuries and was hospitalized. Plans were made for him to return to Canada in mid-February, but his condition worsened. He died on February 27, 1975, at a hospital in Venice, Florida at age 74. He was interred at Oakwood Cemetery in Simcoe, Ontario. Legacy and honours The Canadian Press reported Roxburgh as a man with a booming voice, and not known to be the silent type. After his election as CAHA president, he was honoured with a banquet organized by the Simcoe Minor Hockey Association to recognize his contributions to local and national ice hockey, and received a congratulatory telegram from the Soviet Union Ice Hockey Federation. He received the OHA Gold Stick in 1961, in recognition of contributions to hockey, and received the similar AHAUS citation award in 1962. Roxburgh received the CAHA's Order of Merit in 1971, for a lifetime of work in hockey. He was made a life member of the OHA in 1973, was also a life member of the OMHA, and is the namesake of the Jack Roxburgh Trophy for the OMHA Juvenile C playoff championship. He was posthumously inducted into the Norfolk County Sports Hall of Recognition in 1996. References Bibliography 1901 births 1975 deaths 20th-century Canadian businesspeople Accidental deaths in Florida Animal breeders Boating accident deaths Canadian Amateur Hockey Association presidents Canadian Amateur Hockey Association vice-presidents Canadian orchardists Canadian sports builders Canadian sports executives and administrators Canadian sportsperson-politicians Farmers from Ontario Ice hockey people from Ontario International Ice Hockey Federation executives Liberal Party of Canada MPs Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario Ontario Agricultural College alumni Ontario Hockey Association executives Ontario municipal councillors People from Englewood, Florida People from Phoenix, Arizona People from West Nipissing Sportspeople from Norfolk County, Ontario	5,565
doc-en-7345_0	This is a list of 1301 game titles released for the Commodore 64 personal computer system, sorted alphabetically. 0–9 $100,000 Pyramid 007: Licence to Kill 10 Knockout! 10-Pin Bowling 10th Frame 10000 Meters 180 19 Part One: Boot Camp 1942 1943: One Year After 1943: The Battle of Midway 1985: The Day After 1994: Ten Years After 1st Division Manager 2001 221B Baker Street 3-D Breakout 3-D Labyrinth 3-D Skramble 3D Construction Kit 3D Glooper 3D Tanx 4 Soccer Simulators 4th & Inches 4x4 Off-Road Racing 50 Mission Crush 5th Gear 720° 720° Part 2 A Aaargh! Aardvark ABC Monday Night Football Abrakadabra Accolade's Comics ACE - Air Combat Emulator Ace 2 ACE 2088 Ace Harrier Ace of Aces Acrojet Action Biker Action Fighter Action Force Adam Norton's Ultimate Soccer The Addams Family Addicta Ball ADIDAS Championship Football Adrenalin Adult Poker Advance to Boardwalk Advanced Dungeons & Dragons: Heroes of the Lance Advanced Basketball Simulator Advanced Pinball Simulator Adventure Construction Set Adventure Master Adventure Quest Adventureland Adventures in Narnia: Dawn Treader Adventures in Narnia: Narnia Aegean Voyage After Burner After The War Afterlife Afterlife II Afterlife v1.0 Afterlife v2.0 Aftermath Agent Orange Agent USA Agent X Agent X II: The Mad Prof's Back Ah Diddums Aigina's Prophecy Air Support Airborne Ranger Airwolf Airwolf II Alcazar: The Forgotten Fortress ALF: The First Adventure Alf in the Color Caves Alice in Videoland Alice in Wonderland Alien (graphics adventure) Alien Alien 3 Alien Storm Alien Syndrome Aliens: The Computer Game Alter Ego Alleykat Altered Beast Alter Ego: Female Version Alter Ego: Male Version Alternate Reality: The City Alternate Reality: The Dungeon Alternative World Games Amadeus Revenge Amaurote The Amazing Spider-Man Amazon Warrior Amazon America's Cup American Tag-Team Wrestling Amnesia Anarchy Andy Capp: The Game Annals of Rome Annihilator Annihilator II Another World (1990) (Double Density) Another World (1991) (CP Verlag) Another World (1992) (X-Ample) Ant Attack Antimonopoly Antiriad Apache Apache Gold Apache Strike Apocalypse Now Apollo 18: Mission to the Moon Apple Cider Spider Arabian Arabian Nights Arac Arachnophobia Arcade Classics Arcade Flight Simulator Arcade Fruit Machine: Cash 'n' Grab Arcade Game Construction Kit Arcade Pilot Arcade Trivia Quiz Arcade Volleyball Arcadia Arcana Archipelago Archon: The Light and the Dark Archon II: Adept Archon III: ExciterD ArciereD ArcoD ARCOSD Arctic ShipwreckD Arctic Wastes!D Arc of Yesod Arcticfox ArdantD Ardok the BarbarianD Ardy the Aardvark Area 13D Area EstimationD AreasD AreeD ArenaD Arena 3000D Arena Football ArenumD ArexD ArgoD ArgonD Argon - L'Orrore di ProvidenceD The Argon FactorD ArgosD The Argos ExpeditionD Arhena! The AmazonD Arithme-SketchD The Arithmetic GameD ArithmeticianD ArizonaD Arizona - The Boy in the BubbleD The Ark of ExodusD Ark PandoraD Arkanoid Arkanoid: Revenge of Doh Armageddon The Armageddon Files The Armageddon Man Armalyte Armalyte - Competition Edition Armalyte II Armourdillo Army Moves Army Moves II Arnie Arnie II Arnie Armchair's Howzat Artillery Duel Artura Asterix and the Magic Cauldron The Astonishing Adventures of Mr. Weems and the She Vampires Astro-Grover Asylum The Attack of the Phantom Karate Devils Ataxx ATC - Air Traffic Controller ATF Athena Atlantis Atlantis Lode Runner Atomic Robo-Kid Atomino Atomix Attack Chopper! Attack of the Mutant Camels Attack of the PETSCII Robots ATV Simulator Auf Wiedersehen Monty Auf Wiedersehen Pet Aufstand der Sioux Auggie Doggie and Doggie Daddy Aussie Games Auto Mania Autoduel Avenger Avenger (Way of the Tiger II) Avengers Avoid the Noid Aztec Aztec Challenge Aztec Tomb Aztec Tomb Revisited B B-1 Nuclear Bomber B-24 B.A.T. B.C. Bill B.C.'s Quest for Tires B.C. II: Grog's Revenge Baal Back to the Future Back to the Future Part II Back to the Future Part III Backgammon Bad Blood Bad Dudes Vs. Dragon Ninja Bad Street Brawler Badballs Badlands Bagitman Ballblazer Ballistix Balloonacy Ballyhoo Baltic 1985: Corridor to Berlin Bandits Bangers and Mash Bangkok Knights Barbarian Barbarian II: The Dungeon of Drax Barbarian: The Ultimate Warrior Barbie The Bard's Tale The Bard's Tale II: The Destiny Knight The Bard's Tale III: Thief of Fate Barry McGuigan World Championship Boxing Basil the Great Mouse Detective Basket Master Batalyx Batman Batman: The Caped Crusader Battle Chess (1989) by Interplay Battle Chess (1992) Battle Through Time Battle Valley Battles of Napoleon Battleships BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception Battlezone Batty Bay Street Bazooka Bill Beach Buggy Simulator Beach-Head Beach Head II: The Dictator Strikes Back Beach Head III Beach Volley Beaky and the Egg Snatchers Beamrider Bear Bovver Beat-it Beatle Quest Bee 52 Beer Belly Burt's Brew Biz Below the Root Benji: Space Rescue Betrayal Better Dead Than Alien Beverly Hills Cop Beyond Castle Wolfenstein Beyond Dark Castle Beyond the Black Hole Beyond the Forbidden Forest Beyond the Ice Palace Big Bird's Special Delivery 1984 Big Deal, The Big Game Fishing Biggles Big Mac Big Trouble in Little China Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure Bilbo the Hobbit Bionic Commando by Go! Bionic Commando (USA Version) by Capcom Bionic Granny The Birds and the Bees II: Antics Black Crystal Black Gold (1983) by Photronics Black Gold (1989) by reLINE Software Black Gold (1992) by Starbyte Software Black Hawk Black Lamp Black Magic Black Tiger Blackwyche The Blade of Blackpool Blade Runner Blades of Steel Blagger Blagger Construction Set Blagger goes to Hollywood Blasteroids Blinky's Scary School Blitzkrieg Blockout Blood Brothers Blood Money Bloodwych Blue Encounter, The Blue Max Blue Max 2001 Blue Moon Blue Thunder Blues Brothers, The BMX Kidz BMX Simulator BMX Racers by Mastertronic BMX Trials Bobby Bearing The Boggit Bomb Jack Bomb Jack 2 Bombo Bombuzal Bonanza Bros. Bonecruncher Bonka Booty Bop'n Rumble Bop'n Wrestle Border Zone Bored of the Rings Borrowed Time Bosconian Boss Boulder Dash Boulder Dash II: Rockford's Revenge Boulder Dash III Boulder Dash Construction Kit Bounces Bounder Bounty Bob Bounty Bob Strikes Back! Bozo's Night Out Bram Stoker's Dracula BraveStarr Break Dance Breakout Breakout Construction Kit Breakstreet Breakthrough in the Ardennes Breakthru Brian Bloodaxe Brian Jacks Superstar Challenge Brian Jack's Uchi Mata BrickFast Bride of Frankenstein Bristles Broadsides Bruce Lee Bubble Bobble Bubble Dizzy Bubble Ghost Buck Rogers: Planet of Zoom Buck Rogers: Countdown to Doomsday Budokan - The Martial Spirit Bugaboo (The Flea) Bug Bomber Buggy Boy Bugs Bunny Private Eye Bugsy Bumpin' Buggies Bump Set Spike Bundesliga 98/99 Bundesliga Live Bundesliga Manager Bundesliga Manager v2.0 Bundesliga Manager v3.0 Bundesliga Manager Polish Version BurgerTime Burger Time '97 Burnin' Rubber Bushido Buster Bros (also known as Pang) Butasan Butcher Hill By Fair Means or Foul C Cabal California Games Camelot Warriors Campaign Manager Captain America in: The Doom Tube of Dr. Megalomann Captain Blood Captain Dynamo Captain Fizz Captain Power The Captive Capture The Flag Captured Card Sharks Carnage Carrier Command Castle Master Castle Nightmare Castle of Terror Castle Wolfenstein The Castles of Dr. Creep Castlevania Catalypse Catastrophes Cauldron Cauldron II: The Pumpkin Strikes Back Cave Fighter Cave of the Word Wizard Cavelon Cavelon II Caveman Games Caveman Ughlympics Centipede Challenge of the Gobots Chambers of Shaolin Championship 3D Snooker Champions of Krynn Championship Baseball Championship Lode Runner Championship Lode Runner: Extended Edition Championship Lode Runner: Training Missions Championship Sprint Championship Wrestling Chase H.Q. Chernobyl Cheese Graphics Editor Chess 7.0 Chess 7.5: How About a Nice Game of Chess! Chess Analyse Chess Champion Chess Grand Master Chess Quarto The Chessmaster 2000 Chicago Chiller Chimera China Miner Chinese Juggler Chip's Challenge ChipWits Cholo Choplifter Chubbie Chester Chubby Gristle Chuck Norris Superkicks Chuck Rock Chuck Yeager's Advanced Flight Trainer Chuck Yeager's Flight Trainer Chuckie Egg Chuckie Egg 2 Circus Charlie Circus Games Cisco Heat Citadel CJ in the USA CJ's Elephant Antics Classic Concentration Classic Snooker Clever & Smart Cliffhanger Cliffhanger: A Perilous Climb Cloud Kingdoms Clowns Clue Master Detective Clue! 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Games that may not be notable enough for Wikipedia can often be found there. See also List of Commodore 64 games References A-M Commodore 64: A-M ca:Llista de videojocs de Commodore 64 de:Liste bekannter C64-Spiele it:Videogiochi per Commodore 64 tr:Commodore 64 Oyunları	7,562
doc-en-7643_0	The Kalenjin people are an ethnolinguistic group indigenous to East Africa, with a presence, as dated by archaeology and linguistics, that goes back many centuries. Their history is therefore deeply interwoven with those of their neighboring communities as well as with the histories of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Sudan, and Ethiopia. Origins Genetic studies of Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations are in general agreement with archaeological evidence and linguistic studies that argue for a Nilo-Saharan homeland in eastern Sudan before 6000 BCE, with subsequent migration events northward to the eastern Sahara, westward to the Chad Basin, and southeastward into Kenya and Tanzania. Linguist Roger Blench has suggested that the Nilo-Saharan languages and the Niger–Congo languages may be branches of the same macro–language family. Earlier proposals along this line were made by linguist Edgar Gregersen in 1972. These proposals have not reached a linguistic consensus, however, and this connection presupposes that all of the Nilo-Saharan languages are actually related in a single family, which has not been definitively established. Linguist Christopher Ehret has made a case that a proto-Nilotic language was spoken by the third millennium B.C. He cites the eastern Middle Nile Basin south of the Abbai River as the supposed urheimat of the speakers of this language, that is to say south-east of present-day Khartoum. Beginning in the second millennium B.C., particular Nilotic communities began to move southward into far South Sudan, where most settled. However, the societies today referred to as the Southern Nilotes pushed further on, reaching what is present-day north-eastern Uganda by 1000 B.C. The earliest area in the Great Lakes region that is recognized as inhabited by the Southern Nilotic speakers lies in the present day Jie and Dodoth country in Uganda. Early presence in East Africa Ehret postulates that between 1000 and 700 BC, the Southern Nilotic speaking communities, who kept domestic stock and possibly cultivated sorghum and finger millet, lived next to an Eastern Cushitic speaking community with whom they had significant cultural interaction. The general location of this point of cultural exchange was somewhere near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and Ethiopia. This corresponds with a number of historical narratives from the various Kalenjin sub-tribes, which point to Tulwetab/Tuluop Kony (Mount Elgon) as their original point of settlement in Kenya. There are also accounts from Kalenjin speaking communities, in particular, the Sebeii, living near Mt. Elgon, who point to Kong'asis (the East), and more specifically the Cherangani Hills, as their original homelands in Kenya. The impact of the cultural exchange that occurred around the Mt. Elgon region was most notable in borrowed loan words, adoption of the practice of circumcision, and the cyclical system of age-set organisation. Neolithic The arrival of the Southern Nilotes on the East African archaeological scene is correlated with the appearance of the prehistoric lithic industry and pottery tradition referred to as the Elmenteitan culture. The bearers of the Elmenteitan culture developed a distinct pattern of land use, hunting, and pastoralism on the western plains of Kenya during the East African Pastoral Neolithic. Its earliest recorded appearance dates to the ninth century BC (i.e. 900 to 801 BC). It is thought that around the fifth and sixth centuries BC, the speakers of the Southern Nilotic languages split into two major divisions: the proto-Kalenjin and the proto-Datooga. The former took shape among those residing to the north of the Mau range, while the latter took shape among sections that moved into the Mara and Loita plains south of the western highlands. While few large-scale excavations have been done on sites outside the Central Rift, regional surveys indicate that the population was far denser in the southern highlands during this time. The Datooga were specialized pastoralists on considerable scale, spreading their settlements westward after 400BC across the Mara plains and as far as southeastern Lake Nyanza. Their presence on the Mara and Loita plains would continue through to the seventeenth century AD when they were driven south by the Maasai during the Il-Tatua wars. Archaeological and linguistic evidence point to significant differences in ways of life between the Elmenteitan culture and the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic cultures that had preceded them in Kenya. Lithic industry For both the Elmenteitan and SPN producing societies, obsidian was the dominant source of lithic raw material for tool production, though lower quality alternatives were used occasionally. The obsidian was sourced at two discrete points with the Elmenteitan culture sourcing their obsidian from an outcrop of green obsidian on the northeast slope of Mt. Eburu. Social organisation The Southern Nilotes of this time, like some of their neighbors, practiced circumcision of both sexes though significant differences in practice are discerned through linguistics. Unlike the Southern Cushities and somewhat like the early Bantu, they initiated circumcised men into age-sets. The age-sets, however, were quite different from those of the Bantu of the time in that they formed a cycling system which in its early form comprised both age-sets as well as a generational component. It is thought that the eight age-sets in the system were grouped into two generations, each comprising four of the sets. Within the system, a man and his son would belong to age-sets that were of alternate generations. Alongside the age-sets there was an age grade system which had been simplified to a two-tier system by the early stages of the Sirikwa era. By that time, a young man when initiated would join an age-set while simultaneously joining the first age-grade known as muren. At the same time, his father would join the senior age-grade known as payyan. It is speculated, though yet unproven, that the age-grade system of the Southern Nilotic period comprised four pairs of age-grades to match the four stages of each generation in the age-set system. The full complexity of this system would breakdown differently in the descendant communities with the Kalenjin retaining the age-sets and losing the age-grades while the Datooga dropped the age-sets and retained the age-grades as central to social cohesion. Burials The Southern Nilotic speakers cremated their deceased in caves as at Njoro River cave, Keringet caves and possibly Egerton caves, much unlike the Southern Cushitic speakers who buried their dead in cairns. Both however had similar grave goods, which typically included stone bowls, pestle rubbers and palettes. Pastoral iron age Early iron age Linguistic studies indicate separate and significant interaction between the Southern Nilotic speakers and Bantu speaking communities. Word evidence shows that in this interaction, there was highly gendered migration from the Bantu speaking communities into Southern Nilotic-speaking areas during the period, ca. 500-800 A.D., with Luhya women being the migrants. The evidence for this lies in the words that passed from the Bantu language into the Southern Nilotic language during this period. In contrast to the wide variety of Kalenjin loanwords in Luhya today, all but one of the words that were adopted from Luhya relate to cultivation and cooking, which were traditionally women's duties in ancient Luhya society. It has been suggested that the social institution of marriage led to the select migration. In that, whereas the Southern Nilotic speaking pastoralists contracted marriage through payment of cattle and other livestock by the groom's family to the prospective bride's family, the Bantu of 1500 to 2000 years ago likely contracted marriage through bride service, whereby the prospective groom would work in the potential bride's household for a period of time. This arrangement, therefore, served to make men the migrants in contrast to payment of bride price which made women the migrants. The marrying of Luhya women to Kalenjin men would have conferred benefits to men of both societies at the time since for the Kalenjin, Luhya women would have contributed expanded agricultural variety and productivity to the homestead. On the other hand, a Luhya father, by marrying his daughter to a Kalenjin man could increase his own wealth and position within Luhya society. Over the long term such relations, by increasing men's wealth in cattle, undoubtedly helped bring into being new customary balance's between men and women's authority and status in Luhya society. These societies are today patrilineal unlike the ancient Luhya societies which appear to have been matrilineal. Late iron age From the archaeological record, it is postulated that the emergence and early development of the Sirikwa culture occurred in the central Rift Valley i.e. Rongai/Hyrax Hill, not later than the 12th century A.D. Between this period and about the 17th century i.e prior to the Loikop expansion -the Sirikwa pioneered an advanced form of pastoral management. They were not the first culture to herd cattle, goats and sheep in the high grasslands; this having happened at least two thousand years previously. The achievement of the Sirikwa culture, sometime after 1000AD, was the introduction of a more efficient exploitation of the lush pastures through less emphasis on beef and more on dairy production. For this purpose they perfected a small breed of Zebu cattle - what is essentially now known as the Maasai breed - whose milk yield though modest in volume is rich in quality. With herds of sufficient size and mobility, combined with sheep and goat for a regular meat supply, the bearers of the Sirikwa culture pioneered an efficient way of exploiting unenclosed tracts of high grassland. This innovation likely allowed for the expansion, as attested archaeologically, from the central Rift Valley into the western highlands, the Mt. Elgon region and possibly into Uganda. For several centuries, the bearers of the Sirikwa culture would be the dominant population of the western highlands of Kenya. At their greatest extent, their territories covered the highlands from the Chepalungu and Mau forests northwards as far as the Cherangany Hills and Mount Elgon. There was also a south-eastern projection, at least in the early period, into the elevated Rift grasslands of Nakuru which was taken over permanently by the Maasai, probably no later than the seventeenth century. Here Kalenjin place names seem to have been superseded in the main by Maasai names notably Mount Suswa (Kalenjin - place of grass) which was in the process of acquiring its Maasai name, Ol-doinyo Nanyokie, the red mountain during the period of European exploration. Archaeological evidence indicates a highly sedentary way of life and a cultural commitment to a closed defensive system for both the community and their livestock during the Sirikwa period. Family homesteads featured small individual family stock pens, elaborate gate-works and sentry points and houses facing into the homestead; defensive methods primarily designed to proof against individual thieves or small groups of rustlers hoping to succeed by stealth. Links with external trade networks are indicated by caravan routes from the Swahili coast that led to, or cut through the territories of the bearers of the Sirikwa culture. Pre-19th century A body of oral traditions from various East African communities points to the presence of at least four significant Kalenjin-speaking population groups present prior to the 19th century. Meru oral history describes the arrival of their ancestors at Mount Kenya where they interacted with a community referred to as Lumbwa. The Lumbwa occupied the lower reaches of Mount Kenya though the extent of their territory is presently unclear. North-east of this community, across the Rift Valley, a community known as the Chok (later Suk) occupied the Elgeyo escarpment. Pokot oral history describes their way of life, as that of the Siger (or Sengwer), a community that appears to have lived in association with the Chok. The name Siger was used by the Karamojong and arose from a distinctive cowrie shell adornment favored by this community. The area occupied by the Sekker stretched between Mount Elgon and present-day Uasin Gishu as well as into a number of surrounding counties. Far west, a community known as the Maliri occupied present day Jie and Dodoth country in Uganda. The Karamojong would eject them from this region over the course of the century and their traditions describe these encounters with the Maliri. The arrival in the district of the latter community is thought by some to be in the region of six to eight centuries ago. Bordering these communities were two distinct communities whose interactions and those with the Kalenjin-speaking communities would lead to notable cultural change. The Maliri in Uganda were neighbored by the Karamojong, an Iron Age community that practiced a pastoral way of life. To the north of the Sekker and Chok were the Oropom (Orupoi), a late neolithic society whose expansive territory is said to have stretched across Turkana and the surrounding region as well as into Uganda and Sudan. Wilson (1970) who collected traditions relating to the Oropom observed that the corpus of oral literature suggested that, at its tail end, the society "had become effete, after enjoying for a long period the fruits of a highly developed culture". Towards the end of 18th century and through the 19th century, a series of droughts, plagues of locusts, epidemics, and in the final decades of the 19th century, a rapid succession of sub-continental epizootics affected these communities. There is an early record of the great Laparanat drought c.1785 that affected the Karamajong. However, for communities then resident in what is present-day Kenya many disaster narratives relate the start with the Aoyate, an acute meteorological drought that affected much of East and Southern Africa in the early nineteenth century. 19th century Nile records indicate that the three decades starting about 1800 were marked by low rainfall levels in regions south of the Sahara. East African oral narratives and the few written records indicate peak aridity during the 1830s resulting in recorded instances of famine in 1829 and 1835 in Ethiopia and 1836 in Kenya. Among Kenyan Rift Valley communities this arid period, and the consequent series of events, have been referred to as Mutai. A feature of the Mutai was increased conflict between neighboring communities, most noted of these has been the Iloikop wars. Earlier conflicts preceding the Iloikop wars appear to have brought about the pressures that resulted in this period of conflict. Von Höhnel (1894) and Lamphear (1988) recorded narratives concerning conflict between the Turkana and Burkineji or at least the section recalled as Sampur that appear to have been caused by even earlier demographic pressures. Turkana - Burkineji conflict Turkana narratives recorded by Lamphear (1988) provide a broad perspective of the prelude to the conflict between the Turkana and a community he refers to as Kor, a name by which the Turkana still call the Samburu in the present day. Lamphear notes that Tukana traditions aver that a dreamer among them saw strange animals living with the people up in the hills. Turkana warriors were thus sent forward to capture one of these strange beasts,which the dreamer said looked 'like giraffes, but with humps on their backs'. The young men therefore went and captured one of these beasts - the first camels the Turkana had seen. The owners of the strange beasts appear to have struck the Turkana as strange as well. The Turkana saw them as 'red' people, partly because of their lighter skin and partly because they daubed their hair and bodies with reddish clay. They thus gave them the name 'Kor'. Lamphear states that Turkana traditions agree that the Kor were very numerous and lived in close pastoral association with two other communities known as 'Rantalle' and 'Poran', the names given to the Cushitic speaking Rendille and Boran communities. According to Von Höhnel (1894) "a few decades" prior, the Burkineji occupied districts on the west of the lake and that they were later driven eastwards into present day Samburu. He later states that "some fifty years ago the Turkana owned part of the land on the west now occupied by the Karamoyo, whilst the southern portion of their land belonged to the Burkineji. The Karamoyo drove the Turkana further east, and the Turkana, in their turn, pushed the Burkineji towards Samburuland". Collapse of Siger community Lamphear states that Turkana narratives indicate that at the time of interaction with the 'Kor', the Turkana were in even closer proximity to a community referred to as Siger. This was the Karamoja name for the community and derived from an adornment that this community favored. The Siger like the Kor, were seen as a 'red' people, they are also remembered as a 'heterogeneous, multi-lingual confederation, including Southern and Eastern Nilotic-speakers, and those who spoke Cushitic dilects'. According to Turkana traditions the Siger once held most of the surrounding country 'until the Kor and their allies came up from the south and took it from them. In the process, the Kor and Siger had blended to some extent'. According to Lamphears account, Turkana traditions directly relate the collapse of the 'Siger' to the Aoyate. He notes that; The collapse of the Siger/Sengwer community is generally believed to have seen the rise of a prophet-diviner class among many pastoral communities and a period marked by reformation. Cultural changes, particularly the innovation of heavier and deadlier spears amongst the Loikop led to significant changes in methods and scale of raiding. The change in methods introduced by the Loikop also consisted of fundamental differences of strategy, in fighting and defense, and also in organization of settlements and of political life. The cultural changes played a part in significant southward expansion of Loikop territory from a base east of Lake Turkana. This expansion led to the development of three groupings within Loikop society. The Sambur who occupied the 'original' country east of Lake Turkana as well as the Laikipia plateau. The Uasin Gishu occupied the grass plateaus now known as the Uasin Gishu and Mau while the Maasai territory extended from Naivasha to Kilimanjaro. This expansion was subsequently followed by the Iloikop wars. The expansion of Turkana and Loikop societies led to significant change within the Sirikwa society. Some communities were annihilated by the combined effects of the Mutai of the 19th century while others adapted to the new era. Iloikop wars Members of collapsing communities were usually assimilated into ascending identities. Significant cultural change also occurred. Guarding cattle on the plateaus depended less on elaborate defenses and more on mobility and cooperation. Both of these requiring new grazing and herd-management strategies. The practice of the later Kalenjin – that is, after they had abandoned the Sirikwa pattern and had ceased in effect to be Sirikwa – illustrates this change vividly. On their reduced pastures, notably on the borders of the Uasin Gishu plateau, when bodies of raiders approached they would relay the alarm from ridge to ridge, so that the herds could be combined and rushed to the cover of the forests. There, the approaches to the glades would be defended by concealed archers, and the advantage would be turned against the spears of the plains warriors. More than any of the other sections, the Nandi and Kipsigis, in response to Maasai expansion, borrowed from the Maasai some of the traits that would distinguish them from other Kalenjin: large-scale economic dependence on herding, military organization and aggressive cattle raiding, as well as centralized religious-political leadership. The family that established the office of Orkoiyot (warlord/diviner) among both the Nandi and Kipsigis were migrants from northern Chemwal regions. By the mid-nineteenth century, both the Nandi and Kipsigis were expanding at the expense of the Maasai. The Iloikop wars ended in the 1870s with the defeat and dispersal of the Laikipiak. However, the new territory acquired by the Maasai was vast and left them overextended thus unable to occupy it effectively. This left them open to encroachment by other communities. By the early 1880s, Kamba, Kikuyu and acculturating Sirikwa/Kalenjin raiders were making inroads into Maasai territory, and the Maasai were struggling to control their resources of cattle and grazing land. The latter decades of the nineteenth century, saw the early European explorers start advancing into the interior of Kenya. Many present-day identities were by then recognized and begin to appear in the written record. In the introduction to Beech's account on the Suk, Eliot notes that they seemed "unanimous in tracing their origin to two tribes called Chôk(or Chũk) and Sekker (and that) at present they call themselves Pôkwut...', he also recognizes five dialects, "Nandi, Kamasia, Endo (and) Suk, the difference being the greatest between the first and the last. The Maragwet language, which is presumably akin, appears not to have been studied, and there are probably others in the same case". About the time contacts were being made this time, two instances of epizootics broke out in the Rift Valley region. In 1883, bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia spread from the north and lingered for several years. The effect of this was to cause the Loikop to regroup and to go out raiding more aggressively to replenish their herds. This was followed by a far more serious outbreak of Rinderpest which occurred in 1891. This period - characterized by disasters, including a rinderpest epidemic, other stock diseases, drought, mass starvation, and smallpox was referred to as a Mutai. 20th century Resistance to British rule By the latter decades of the nineteenth century, the Kalenjin - more so the Nandi, had acquired a fearsome reputation. Thompson was warned in 1883 to avoid the country of the Nandi, who were known for attacks on strangers and caravans that would attempt to scale the great massif of the Mau. Nonetheless, trade relations were established between the Kalenjin and incoming British. This was tempered on the Kalenjin side by the prophesies of various seers. Among the Nandi, Kimnyole had warned that contact with the Europeans would have a significant impact on the Nandi while Mongo was said to have warned against fighting the Europeans. Matson, in his account of the resistance, shows 'how the irresponsible actions of two British traders, Dick and West, quickly upset the precarious modus vivendi between the Nandi and incoming British'. Conflict, led on the Nandi side by Koitalel Arap Samoei - Nandi Orkoiyot at the time, was triggered by West's killing in 1895. The East Africa Protectorate, Foreign Office, and missionary societies administrations reacted to West's death by organizing invasions of Nandi in 1895 and 1897. Invading forces were able to inflict sporadic losses upon Nandi warriors, steal hundreds of livestock, and burn villages, but were not able to end Nandi resistance. 1897 also saw the colonial government set up base in Eldama Ravine under the leadership of certain Messrs. Ternan and Grant, an intrusion that was not taken to kindly by the Lembus community. This triggered conflict between the Lembus and British forces which included Maasai and Nubian soldiers and porters. The British eventually overcame the Lembus following which Grant and Lembus elder's negotiated a peace agreement. During the negotiations, the Lembus were prevailed upon by Grant to state what they would not harm nor kill, to which the response was women. As such, they exchanged a girl from the Kimeito clan while Grant offered a white bull as a gesture of peace and friendship. This agreement was known as the Kerkwony Agreement. The negotiations were held where Kerkwony Stadium stands today. On October 19, 1905, on the grounds of what is now Nandi Bears Club, Arap Samoei was asked to meet Col Richard Meinertzhagen for a truce. A grand-nephew of one of Arap Samoei's bodyguards later noted that “There were about 22 of them who went for a meeting with the (European) that day. Koitalel Arap Samoei had been advised not to shake hands because if he did, that would give him away as the leader. But he extended his hand and was shot immediately". Koitalel's death led to the end of the Nandi resistance. Kalenjin identity Until the mid-20th century, the Kalenjin did not have a common name and were usually referred to as the 'Nandi-speaking tribes' by scholars and colonial administration officials. Starting in the 1940s, individuals from the various 'Nandi-speaking tribes' who had been drafted to fight in World War II (1939–1945) began using the term Kale or Kore (a term that denoted scarification of a warrior who had killed an enemy in battle) to refer to themselves. At about the same time, a popular local radio broadcaster by the name of John Chemallan would introduce his wartime broadcasts show with the phrase Kalenjok meaning "I tell You" (when said to many people). This would influence a group of fourteen young 'Nandi-speaking' men attending Alliance School and who were trying to find a name for their peer group. They would call it Kalenjin meaning "I tell you" (when said to one person). The word Kalenjin was gaining currency as a term to denote all the 'Nandi-speaking' tribes. This identity would be consolidated with the founding of the Kalenjin Union in Eldoret in 1948 and the publication of a monthly magazine called Kalenjin in the 1950s. In 1955 when Mzee Tameno, a Maasai and member of the Legislative Assembly (LEGCO) for Rift Valley, tendered his resignation, the Kalenjin presented one candidate to replace him; Daniel Toroitich arap Moi. By 1960, concerned with the dominance of the Luo and Kikuyu, Arap Moi and Ronald Ngala formed KADU to defend the interests of the countries smaller tribes. They campaigned on a platform of majimboism (devolution) during the 1963 elections but lost to KANU. Shortly after independence in December 1963, Kenyatta convinced Moi to dissolve KADU. This was done in 1964 when KADU dissolved and joined KANU. 21st century The Kalenjin have been called by some "the running tribe." Since the mid-1960s, Kenyan men have earned the largest share of major honours in international athletics at distances from 800 meters to the marathon; the vast majority of these Kenyan running stars have been Kalenjin. From 1980 on, about 40% of the top honours available to men in international athletics at these distances (Olympic medals, World Championships medals, and World Cross Country Championships honours) have been earned by Kalenjin. In 2008, Pamela Jelimo became the first Kenyan woman to win a gold medal at the Olympics; she also became the first Kenyan to win the Golden League jackpot in the same year. Since then, Kenyan women have become a major presence in international athletics at the distances; most of these women are Kalenjin. Amby Burfoot of Runner's World stated that the odds of Kenya achieving the success they did at the 1988 Olympics were below 1:160 billion. Kenya had an even more successful Olympics in 2008. A number of theories explaining the unusual athletic prowess among people from the tribe have been proposed. These include many explanations that apply equally well to other Kenyans or people living elsewhere who are not disproportionately successful athletes, such as that they run to school every day, that they live at relatively high altitude, and that the prize money from races is large compared to typical yearly earnings. One theory is that the Kalenjin has relatively thin legs and therefore does not have to lift so much leg weight when running long distances. References Kalenjin History of Kenya	6,236
doc-en-9908_0	The 1978–79 NBA season was the 9th season of the team formerly known as the Buffalo Braves in the NBA. They had moved from Buffalo, New York to San Diego, California and rechristened themselves as the San Diego Clippers. Draft picks Roster {\| class="toccolours" style="font-size: 95%; width: 100%;" \|- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #87CEEB; color: #FF8C00; text-align: center;" \| San Diego Clippers roster \|- style="background-color: #FF8C00; color: #87CEEB; text-align: center;" ! Players !! Coaches \|- \| valign="top" \| {\|class="sortable" style="background:transparent; margin:0px; width:100%;" ! Pos. !! # !! Nat. !! Name !! Ht. !! Wt. !! From \|- Roster notes This was Kevin Kunnert's second stint with the franchise; he previously played for the Buffalo Braves in 1973–74. Regular season Game log \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 1 \|\| October 13 \|\| @ Suns \|\| L 114–128 \|\| Kermit Washington (25) \|\| Kermit Washington (11)\|\| Randy Smith (11) \|\| Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum 11,217 \|\| 0–1 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 2 \|\| October 14 \|\| @ Warriors \|\| L 89–117 \|\| Tied (21) \|\| Kermit Washington (14)\|\| Randy Smith (7) \|\| Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Arena 10,254 \|\| 0–2 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 3 \|\| October 15 \|\| Nuggets \|\| L 94–98\|\| Randy Smith (28) \|\| Swen Nater (12)\|\| Lloyd Free (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,362 \|\| 0–3 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 4 \|\| October 17 \|\| Bulls \|\| W 99–94 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Tied (14)\|\| Tied (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 4,944 \|\| 1–3 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 5 \|\| October 18 \|\| Spurs \|\| L 125–127 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Kermit Washington (16)\|\| Lloyd Free (8) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 5,614 \|\| 1–4 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 6 \|\| October 20 \|\| @ Bulls \|\| W 110–94 \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (19) \|\| Kermit Washington (13)\|\| World B. Free (9) \|\| Chicago Stadium 12,412 \|\| 2–4 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 7 \|\| October 21 \|\| @ Pacers \|\| L 119–125 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Tied (12)\|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| Market Square Arena 9,243 \|\| 2–5 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 8 \|\| October 24 \|\| Lakers \|\| W 124–123 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (9)\|\| Lloyd Free (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 11,637 \|\| 3–5 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 9 \|\| October 25 \|\| Bucks \|\| W 125–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (38) \|\| Swen Nater (15)\|\| Lloyd Free (9) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,051 \|\| 4–5 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 10 \|\| October 27 \|\| @ Lakers \|\| L 101–113 \|\| Lloyd Free (26) \|\| Swen Nater (10)\|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| The Forum 9,246 \|\| 4–6 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 11 \|\| October 29\|\| SuperSonics \|\| W 103–100 \|\| Randy Smith (26) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (10)\|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 9,469 \|\| 5–6 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 12 \|\| November 2 \|\| Knicks \|\| L 122–127 \|\| Lloyd Free (42) \|\| Kermit Washington (10)\|\| Lloyd Free (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 9,744 \|\| 5–7 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 13 \|\| November 3 \|\| @ Trail Blazers \|\| L 98–119 \|\| Randy Smith (22) \|\| Kermit Washington (11)\|\| Randy Smith (4) \|\| Memorial Coliseum 12,666 \|\| 5–8 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 14 \|\| November 4 \|\| Cavaliers \|\| L 106–112 \|\| Lloyd Free (24) \|\| Kermit Washington (14)\|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 9,791 \|\| 5–9 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 15 \|\| November 7 \|\| @ Jazz \|\| W 121–115 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (16)\|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| New Orleans Superdome 6,411 \|\| 6–9 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 16 \|\| November 8 \|\| @ Spurs \|\| L 125–163 \|\| Lloyd Free (26) \|\| Swen Nater (9)\|\| Tied (5) \|\| HemisFair Arena 11,358 \|\| 6–10 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 17 \|\| November 9 \|\| @ Hawks \|\| L 101–125 \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (25) \|\| Swen Nater (10)\|\| Tied (4) \|\| Omni Coliseum 5,082 \|\| 6–11 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 18 \|\| November 11 \|\| @ Rockets \|\| L 123–136 \|\| Lloyd Free (31) \|\| Tied (6)\|\| Randy Smith (11) \|\| The Summit 9,179 \|\| 6–12 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 19 \|\| November 14 \|\| Pacers \|\| W 109–106 \|\| Kermit Washington (29) \|\| Swen Nater (12)\|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,381 \|\| 7–12 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 20 \|\| November 16 \|\| Warriors \|\| W 112–109 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Kermit Washington (10)\|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,483 \|\| 8–12 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 21 \|\| November 18 \|\| Jazz \|\| W 114–111 \|\| Randy Smith (36) \|\| Swen Nater (17)\|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,151 \|\| 9–12 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 22 \|\| November 21 \|\| Hawks \|\| L 107–113 \|\| Lloyd Free (26) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (13)\|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,730 \|\| 9–13 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 23 \|\| November 24 \|\| @ 76ers \|\| L 120–134 \|\| Lloyd Free (33) \|\| Kermit Washington (11)\|\| Lloyd Free (8) \|\| The Spectrum 18,276 \|\| 9–14 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 24 \|\| November 25 \|\| @ Kings \|\| W 87–86 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (15)\|\| Tied (4) \|\| Kemper Arena 11,320 \|\| 10–14 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 25 \|\| November 26 \|\| Celtics \|\| W 105–103 \|\| LLoyd Free (28) \|\| Kermit Washington (9)\|\| Randy Smith (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 7,042 \|\| 11–14 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 26 \|\| November 30 \|\| Rockets \|\| L 104–113 \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (22) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (11)\|\| Randy Smith (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,597 \|\| 11–15 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 27 \|\| December 2 \|\| Pistons \|\| L 113–120 \|\| Tied (25) \|\| Tied (13)\|\| Randy Smith (9) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,433 \|\| 11–16 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 28 \|\| December 6 \|\| @ Celtics \|\| L 111–117 \|\| Lloyd Free (25) \|\| Tied (11)\|\| Randy Smith (10) \|\| Boston Garden 7,688 \|\| 11–17 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 29 \|\| December 9 \|\| @ Nets \|\| L 120–125 \|\| Lloyd Free (38) \|\| Swen Nater (10)\|\| Lloyd Free (4) \|\| Rutgers Athletic Center 4,286 \|\| 11–18 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 30 \|\| December 10 \|\| @ Bucks \|\| W 107–106 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Tied (12)\|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| MECCA Arena 10,889 \|\| 12–18 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 31 \|\| December 12 \|\| @ Knicks \|\| W 105–103 \|\| Randy Smith (28) \|\| Tied (9)\|\| Lloyd Free (8) \|\| Madison Square Garden 11,981 \|\| 13–18 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 32 \|\| December 13 \|\| @ Bullets \|\| L 117–134 \|\| Randy Smith (29) \|\| Swen Nater (9)\|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| Capital Centre 7,621 \|\| 13–19 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 33 \|\| December 17 \|\| Suns \|\| W 116–100 \|\| Lloyd Free (30) \|\| Swen Nater (13)\|\| Randy Smith (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,068 \|\| 14–19 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 34 \|\| December 19 \|\| 76ers \|\| L 113–124 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Swen Nater (3) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,822 \|\| 14–20 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 35 \|\| December 25 \|\| @ SuperSonics \|\| W 123–118 \|\| Randy Smith (29) \|\| Swen Nater (13) \|\| Randy Smith (12) \|\| Kingdome 11,910 \|\| 15–20 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 36 \|\| December 26 \|\| Bulls \|\| W 115–109 \|\| Lloyd Free (36) \|\| Kermit Washington (10) \|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,582 \|\| 16–20 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 37 \|\| December 28 \|\| @ Cavaliers \|\| L 114–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (36) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (9) \|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| Richfield Coliseum 11,091 \|\| 16–21 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 38 \|\| December 29 \|\| @ Pistons \|\| W 111–107 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Swen Nater (14) \|\| Randy Smith (8) \|\| Pontiac Silverdome 10,284 \|\| 17–21 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 39 \|\| December 30 \|\| @ Pacers \|\| W 114–111 \|\| Lloyd Free (30) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (13) \|\| Sidney Wicks (6) \|\| Market Square Arena 7,263 \|\| 18–21 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 40 \|\| January 2 \|\| Pistons \|\| W 137–119 \|\| Lloyd Free (33) \|\| Kermit Washington (17) \|\| Kermit Washington (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,139 \|\| 19–21 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 41 \|\| January 4 \|\| @ Kings \|\| L 99–108 \|\| Randy Smith (37) \|\| Kermit Washington (15) \|\| Randy Smith (3) \|\| Kemper Arena 6,647 \|\| 19–22 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 42 \|\| January 6 \|\| @ Bucks \|\| L 93–104 \|\| Freeman Williams (26) \|\| Kermit Washington (14) \|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| MECCA Arena 10,938 \|\| 19–23 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 43 \|\| January 9 \|\| @ Jazz \|\| W 114–107 \|\| Lloyd Free (34) \|\| Kermit Washington (10) \|\| Tied (7) \|\| New Orleans Superdome 6,342 \|\| 20–23 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 44 \|\| January 11 \|\| @ Spurs \|\| L 111–140 \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (38) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (9) \|\| Randy Smith (12) \|\| HemisFair Arena 11,008 \|\| 20–24 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 45 \|\| January 13 \|\| @ Hawks \|\| L 119–124 \|\| Lloyd Free (46) \|\| Kermit Washington (17) \|\| Tied (3) \|\| Omni Coliseum 7,681 \|\| 20–25 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 46 \|\| January 14 \|\| @ Bullets \|\| L 91–125 \|\| Randy Smith (24) \|\| Kermit Washington (13) \|\| Randy Smith (8) \|\| Capital Centre 9,588 \|\| 20–26 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 47 \|\| January 17 \|\| Lakers \|\| W 119–117 \|\| Lloyd Free (31) \|\| Tied (11) \|\| Tied (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,073 \|\| 21–26 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 48 \|\| January 24 \|\| Trail Blazers \|\| W 122–121 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (11) \|\| Lloyd Free (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 9,659 \|\| 22–26 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 49 \|\| January 26 \|\| @ Bulls \|\| W 107–91 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Swen Nater (15) \|\| Tied (5) \|\| Chicago Stadium 8,523 \|\| 23–26 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 50 \|\| January 27 \|\| @ Cavaliers \|\| W 111–110 \|\| Lloyd Free (38) \|\| Kermit Washington (15) \|\| Lloyd Free (4) \|\| Richfield Coliseum 10,523 \|\| 24–26 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 51 \|\| January 28 \|\| @ Pistons \|\| L 118–128 \|\| Lloyd Free (23) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Sidney Wicks (6) \|\| Pontiac Silverdome 9,279 \|\| 24–27 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 52 \|\| January 30 \|\| Bucks \|\| W 117–113 \|\| Randy Smith (26) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (14) \|\| Tied (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,431 \|\| 25–27 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 53 \|\| January 31 \|\| Nets \|\| W 112–104 \|\| Lloyd Free (25) \|\| Kermit Washington (14) \|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 7,227 \|\| 26–27 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 54 \|\| February 2 \|\| Nuggets \|\| W 124–100 \|\| Lloyd Free (49) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (12) \|\| Randy Smith (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 11,763 \|\| 27–28 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 55 \|\| February 7 \|\| Spurs \|\| L 113–126 \|\| Lloyd Free (25) \|\| Kermit Washington (10) \|\| Tied (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,498 \|\| 27–28 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 56 \|\| February 9 \|\| @ 76ers \|\| L 106–117 \|\| Randy Smith (25) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (13) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (5) \|\| The Spectrum 15,823 \|\| 27–29 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 57 \|\| February 11 \|\| @ Nets \|\| L 98–104 \|\| Lloyd Free (22) \|\| Swen Nater (18) \|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| Rutgers Athletic Center 14,749 \|\| 27–30 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 58 \|\| February 13 \|\| Bullets \|\| L 136–138 2OT \|\| Lloyd Free (45) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (10) \|\| Lloyd Free (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,111 \|\| 27–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 59 \|\| February 15 \|\| Jazz \|\| W 122–112 \|\| Lloyd Free (30) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Randy Smith (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 5,827 \|\| 28–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 60 \|\| February 16 \|\| @ Nuggets \|\| W 118–104 \|\| Randy Smith (25) \|\| Kermit Washington (14) \|\| Tied (5) \|\| McNichols Sports Arena 15,119 \|\| 29–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 61 \|\| February 18 \|\| Hawks \|\| W 116–101 \|\| Lloyd Free (26) \|\| Sidney Wicks (13) \|\| Randy Smith (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,959 \|\| 30–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 62 \|\| February 23 \|\| 76ers \|\| W 117–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (26) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Tied (3) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,783 \|\| 31–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 63 \|\| February 25 \|\| Celtics \|\| W 131–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (38) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (10) \|\| Tied (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 10,671 \|\| 32–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 64 \|\| February 27 \|\| Pacers \|\| W 124–107 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Tied (9) \|\| Kermit Washington (6) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 6,156 \|\| 33–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 65 \|\| February 28 \|\| Kings \|\| W 122–120 \|\| Randy Smith (22) \|\| Swen Nater (8) \|\| Randy Smith (7) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 9,051 \|\| 34–31 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 66 \|\| March 2 \|\| @ Celtics \|\| W 106–99 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Kermit Washington (15) \|\| Randy Smith (6) \|\| Boston Garden 14,345 \|\| 35–31 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 67 \|\| March 3 \|\| @ Knicks \|\| L 108–111 \|\| Lloyd Free (34) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (23) \|\| Tied (6) \|\| Madison Square Garden 11,488 \|\| 35–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 68 \|\| March 7 \|\| Rockets \|\| W 138–115 \|\| Lloyd Free (34) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Tied (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 19,911 \|\| 36–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 69 \|\| March 10 \|\| Cavaliers \|\| W 121–115 \|\| Lloyd Free (33) \|\| Swen Nater (12) \|\| Tied (3) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,783 \|\| 37–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 70 \|\| March 14 \|\| Trail Blazers \|\| W 110–105 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (12) \|\| Randy Smith (9) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,401 \|\| 38–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 71 \|\| March 17 \|\| Warriors \|\| W 106–103 \|\| Lloyd Free (23) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (11) \|\| Tied (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 11,332 \|\| 39–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 72 \|\| March 18 \|\| Nets \|\| W 110–98 \|\| Lloyd Free (31) \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (17) \|\| Randy Smith (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 18,538 \|\| 40–32 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 73 \|\| March 20 \|\| @ Trail Blazers \|\| L 109–115 \|\| Randy Smith (28) \|\| Swen Nater (12) \|\| Randy Smith (12) \|\| Memorial Coliseum 12,666 \|\| 40–33 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 74 \|\| March 21 \|\| @ Warriors \|\| W 106–103 \|\| Lloyd Free (35) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (17) \|\| Tied (5) \|\| Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Arena 7,813 \|\| 41–33 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 75 \|\| March 23 \|\| @ Lakers \|\| L 119–156 \|\| Randy Smith (33) \|\| Kermit Washington (17) \|\| Kermit Washington (6) \|\| The Forum 14,212 \|\| 41–34 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 76 \|\| March 27 \|\| @ SuperSonics \|\| L 109–115 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Tied (9) \|\| Lloyd Free (4) \|\| Kingdome 20,087 \|\| 41–35 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 77 \|\| March 29 \|\| Kings \|\| L 111–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (37) \|\| Kermit Washington (15) \|\| Brian Taylor (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 13,189 \|\| 41–36 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 78 \|\| March 30 \|\| @ Nuggets \|\| L 121–130 \|\| Lloyd Free (42) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (13) \|\| Lloyd Free (6) \|\| McNichols Sports Arena 17,607 \|\| 41–37 \|\| \|- \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 79 \|\| April 1 \|\| Knicks \|\| W 126–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (28) \|\| Kevin Kunnert (15) \|\| Tied (4) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 8,371 \|\| 42–37 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 80 \|\| April 4 \|\| SuperSonics \|\| L 107–115 \|\| Nick Weatherspoon (25) \|\| Kermit Washington (13) \|\| Randy Smith (5) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 20,087 \|\| 42–38 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" \| 81 \|\| April 6 \|\| @ Suns \|\| L 117–118 \|\| Lloyd Free (29) \|\| Swen Nater (10) \|\| Tied (4) \|\| Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum 12,660 \|\| 42–39 \|\| \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" \| 82 \|\| April 7 \|\| Suns \|\| W 120–116 \|\| Lloyd Free (36) \|\| Swen Nater (12) \|\| Brian Taylor (3) \|\| San Diego Sports Arena 11,614 \|\| 43–39 \|\| \|- Season standings Notes z, y – division champions x – clinched playoff spot Record vs. opponents Player stats Awards and records Lloyd Free, All-NBA Second Team Transactions The Clippers were involved in the following transactions during the 1978–79 season. Coaching Change Trades Free agents Additions Subtractions References Los Angeles Clippers seasons San Diego	5,761
doc-en-9915_0	The Killer () is a 1989 Hong Kong action thriller film written and directed by John Woo, and starring Chow Yun-fat, Danny Lee and Sally Yeh. Chow plays the assassin Ah Jong, who accidentally damages the eyes of the singer Jennie (Sally Yeh) during a shootout. He later discovers that if Jennie does not undergo an expensive operation she will go blind. To get the money for Jennie, Ah Jong decides to perform one last hit. After the financial backing from Tsui Hark became problematic following the release of Woo's film A Better Tomorrow 2, Woo had to find backing through Chow Yun Fat's and Danny Lee's financing companies. Woo went into filming The Killer with a rough draft whose plot was influenced by the films Le Samouraï, Mean Streets, and Narazumono. Woo wanted to make a film about honour, friendship and the relationship of two seemingly opposite people. After finishing filming, Woo referred to The Killer as a tribute to directors Jean-Pierre Melville and Martin Scorsese. The Killer was not an immediate success in Hong Kong, but received critical acclaim in the Western world with reviewers praising the action scenes and its over-the-top style. The film became Woo's stepping stone to making Hollywood films and has been a strong influence on many directors, including Quentin Tarantino, Robert Rodriguez and Johnnie To. Plot Hitman Ah Jong is on his last job for the Hong Kong Triad, but accidentally damages the eyes of a young nightclub singer named Jennie with muzzle flash in a shootout. After the attack, Ah Jong begins to watch Jennie perform at the nightclub and escorts her home when she is attacked by thugs. Jennie and Ah Jong begin to fall in love during his frequent visits to her apartment. Driven to help her secure the money for a corneal transplant, he accepts one final job. Li Ying, a police detective, spots Ah Jong in the middle of the hit, but eventually loses him. Triad boss Wong Hoi double crosses Ah Jong, and instead of paying him, sends a group of hitmen to kill him. During Ah Jong's escape, a young child is injured by a stray bullet. After killing the hitmen, Ah Jong rushes the child to the hospital while being followed by Li and his partner Sgt. Tsang Yeh. Once the child regains consciousness at the casualty ward, Ah Jong escapes Li and Tsang. Li becomes obsessed with Ah Jong's act of good will. He and Tsang find that Ah Jong visits Jennie at her apartment; they plan to arrest him the next time he visits her. Ah Jong visits Jennie and is caught in an ambush from which he manages to escape. Li and Tsang explain to Jennie that Ah Jong was the assassin that blinded her at the nightclub. Ah Jong meets with his manager, Fung Sei, and demands his payment for the job. Fung Sei brings a suitcase for Ah Jong, who discovers it to be filled with sheets of blank paper before finding himself in the middle of a Triad ambush. He kills all of the hitmen, but leaves Fung Sei alive. The next day, Ah Jong does a hit-and-run on Wong Hoi's car, wounding the Triad leader and killing his driver and bodyguard, despite Fung Sei's protests. Li begins to close in on Ah Jong after Tsang follows Fung Sei; Tsang is killed after revealing the location of his home. As Li confronts Ah Jong in his home, they are ambushed by a group of Triad hitmen, and Li gets caught in the middle of the crossfire between Ah Jong and the Triads. Ah Jong and Li flee, and while Ah Jong's wounds are mended, they find themselves bonding and becoming friends. Ah Jong tells Li that should anything happen to him, Li should have Ah Jong's eyes donated for Jennie's surgery or use Ah Jong's money to fly her overseas to have her surgery performed by more experienced doctors. Li, Ah Jong, and Jennie wait in a church for Fung Sei to return with Ah Jong's money. Fung Sei arrives with the money, horribly beaten by Wong Hoi's gangsters who have followed him. After Ah Jong ends Fung Sei's misery with a mercy killing, he and Li engage in a long and bloody shootout with the Triads in the church which culminates in a Mexican standoff between Ah Jong, Li and Wong Hoi. Ah Jong manages to wound Wong Hoi, but the Triad leader lands two bullets in Ah Jong's eye sockets before the latter dies of his wounds. When a police squadron arrives on the scene, Wong Hoi begs to be taken into custody. Frustrated by the outcome of the battle, Li fatally shoots Wong Hoi, and he is subdued by policemen as Li mourns Ah Jong's death as he muttered Ah Jong's nickname Shrimp Head three times. The credits roll with a flashback of Ah Jong playing the harmonica. Cast Chow Yun-fat as Ah Jong (阿莊 Ā Zhuāng, aa3 zong1), an assassin who accidentally blinds singer Jennie when he is on a mission for the Triads. Ah Jong decides to take on one last mission to pay for surgery to repair her eyes. Ah Jong is called John and Jeff in some subtitled prints of the film. The nickname given to Ah Jong by Li is "Har Tau", which roughly translates as "Shrimp Head." In some dubbed and subtitled prints, his nickname is "Mickey Mouse" or "Butthead". Danny Lee as Detective Li Ying (李鷹, Lǐ Yīng, lei5 jing1). Li works with his partner Tsang to find Ah Jong. After his first meeting with him, Li becomes obsessed with Ah Jong's morals and character. The nickname given to Li by Ah Jong is "Ah B" which roughly translates to baby or kid. In some dubbed and subtitled prints, his nickname is "Dumbo" or "Numbnuts". Sally Yeh as Jennie (珍妮 Zhēnnī, zan1 nei4), a nightclub singer who is blinded by Ah Jong in a shootout. Jennie falls in love with Ah Jong, before learning of his profession as a killer. Kenneth Tsang as Sgt. Tsang Yeh, Li's police partner. Tsang helps find the whereabouts of Fung Sei that lead Li to Ah Jong. In some subtitled prints, his name is Randy Chang. Chu Kong as Fung Sei, Ah Jong's Triad manager and close friend. After Ah Jong is spotted on a hit, Fung Sei is ordered to kill Ah Jong. In some subtitled prints, his name is "Sidney Fong." Shing Fui-on as Wong Hoi (汪海 Wāng Hǎi, wong1 hoi2), a ruthless Triad boss and who attempts to tie up loose ends. In some subtitled versions he is "Johnny Weng." Ricky Yi Fan-wai as Frank Chen, a contract killer/assassin hired by Wong Hoi to kill Ah Jong. Themes Director John Woo has described The Killer as being about "honour and friendship", "trying to find out if there is something common between two people" and as a "romantic poem". The structure of the film follows two men on opposite sides of the law who find a relation to each other in their opposition to a greater evil, Wong Hoi, a Triad boss. Li and Ah Jong's relationship was influenced by the Spy vs. Spy comics from Mad Magazine. Woo recalled "When I was young I was fascinated with the cartoon–I love it very much ... the white bird and the black bird are always against each other, but deep in their heart, they are still friendly, and the idea came from that." Woo uses Ah Jong and Li as a central motif to illustrate moral points. Scenes with this reflective doubling include the hospital sequence with Li and Ah Jong on opposite sides of a hospital hall and in the final battle scene where Li and Ah Jong are in a standoff with Wong. The focus on male friendships in Woo's film have been interpreted as homoerotic. Woo has responded to these statements stating "People will bring their own preconceptions to a movie .... If they see something in The Killer that they consider to be homoerotic then that is their privilege. It's certainly not intentional." Woo is a Christian and instills his films with religious imagery while stating that The Killer is "not a religious film". In the opening of The Killer, Ah Jong is found in a church stating he enjoys the "tranquility". Ah Jong is later found in the church again getting several slugs pulled out of his back showing his intense pain while the altar and cross are shown prominently behind him. The idea was influenced by Martin Scorsese's film Mean Streets, Woo stated the imagery was used to show that "God is welcoming, no matter if it's a good or a bad man, everyone is welcome". Woo draws on animal symbolism throughout the film. He filled the church with doves and pigeons, employing doves to represent the spirits of the people. This was the first film where Woo used the dove symbolism and he has used it to similar effect in Hard Target and Face/Off. A cat appears when Ah Jong first meets Jennie on her visit home, and secondarily when Li's partner Tsang tries to catch Ah Jong in Jennie's apartment. In Chinese culture, a cat coming into a home is an omen of ruin and poverty for its inhabitants. Both Tsang and Jennie meet negative outcomes in the film. Production Pre-production The Killer was director Woo's follow-up to A Better Tomorrow 2 which was released in 1987. The first cut of A Better Tomorrow 2 was too long for the studio so the film was edited within a week separately by both producer Tsui Hark and Woo. According to producer Terence Chang, Tsui Hark felt that John Woo ruined A Better Tomorrow 2 and asked Chang to fire Woo from the studio. When Chang refused, Hark began rejecting Woo's new film ideas, including ideas for films that would later be made, such as Bullet in the Head and Once a Thief. When Woo proposed the story of The Killer to Tsui Hark, it was denied; Hark's reaction was that "[n]obody wants to see a film about a killer". The Killer was not able to be filmed until actor Chow Yun-fat stepped in and enlisted the company he was contracted with, Golden Princess Film, to fund part of the project. Chow had worked previously with Woo on the two A Better Tomorrow films. Woo wanted Danny Lee to play Li Ying, but Lee was under an exclusive contract with Cinema City and was only able to work on The Killer if his production company, Magnum, was involved. John Woo approached his friend, Sally Yeh, asking her to be in a film to play an important female character. Yeh was currently contracted with Tsui Hark and accepted the role but later felt she did not give her best performance. The supporting roles were filled out by friends of the actors and director. Chu Kong was a friend of Chow Yun-fat who had entered retirement and returned to acting in The Killer as a favor. Two of Woo's close friends joined the cast: actor Kenneth Tsang and screenwriter Barry Wong. Wong Wing-Hang was hired to be the director of photography for The Killer but had to leave the set for an extended period of time, so Peter Pau was added to shoot the rest of the film. Filming Woo had over 90 days to shoot The Killer which was nearly double the amount of time that the average Hong Kong film was shot in the late 1980s. Woo went into filming with only a short treatment for the film and wrote the details of the script while filming. During promotion periods for the film, Woo described the film as a tribute to Martin Scorsese and French director Jean-Pierre Melville. Woo cites Melville's Le Samouraï as an influence on the story. Woo borrows plot elements for the film, including the set-up where Jef enters a nightclub and looks at the female singer. Woo also described the influence of a Japanese film, , about a killer (Ken Takakura) who only kills delinquents. When a mob tricks him into killing an innocent person, he swears revenge but then meets a woman who has tuberculosis and wants to go home. The killer promises the woman that he will take her home after getting his revenge. The scene where Danny Lee chases a gunman onto a tram was filmed in Causeway Bay and the crew only had three hours to film. Residents thought it was a real gunfight and phoned the police. However, when the police arrived, Danny Lee talked to the superintendent so they could continue filming. Scenes from the Dragon Boat festival were shot months apart, some footage was of the boat races and rest of the footage involving the actors was shot months later. It was planned for the boats to flip over during the chase but the owners refused because they felt it would bring bad luck. The scene at the airport were filmed at the Kai Tak Airport. The scenes at Paul Chu Kong's character's house were filmed in Stanley, Hong Kong. John Woo wanted this house to be by a beach but a suitable location could not be found. The action scene inside the house took 28 days to shoot. The final action scene took 36 days to shoot and was shot at a remote building made to look like a church while the exterior seen from Ah Jong's apartment is a real church. The original ending of the film involved Jennie waiting at an airport for Li to give her the money and for them to travel to the United States. Due to Sally Yeh's tight filming schedule, the scene was not filmed and replaced with Ah Jong playing the harmonica. Music Tsui and Woo disagreed on the musical aspects of the film. For the opening scene, Woo wanted the singer to perform a jazz song and have the killer playing a saxophone. Tsui rejected this idea as he felt that the Hong Kong audiences did not understand or like jazz. Woo stated that he "had to change it to a Chinese song, the kind of song they always use in Hong Kong movies." Actress Sally Yeh who performed the Cantopop songs did not feel they were appropriate for the film. The songs were requested by the studio and written specifically for The Killer. The film's music was composed by Lowell Lo and edited by David Wu. A reoccurring musical theme is a haunting vibraphone theme which is first heard over the opening credits. The harmonica motif in the film was influenced by the soundtracks of Ennio Morricone, specifically the soundtrack to Once Upon a Time in America, and used a bottle blower to give the music a haunting effect. David Wu said the influence of the Harmonica music in Sergio Leone's western films was a strong influence on his work. During the final action scene when the statue of the Virgin Mary is destroyed, the action music transitions to "Overture" from Messiah by George Frideric Handel. This was the idea of editor David Wu who felt that it would break up the numbing effect of the kinetic violence. Release The Killer was first released in Taiwan in March 1989 with a running time of 124 minutes. It was then cut to its current running time of 110 minutes and released in Hong Kong on 6 July 1989, Woo felt this cut was "much better". The film was not an immediate success in Hong Kong due to the Tiananmen Square massacre but eventually gained fame, grossing $18,255,083 and reached ninth at the 1989 Hong Kong box office. At the 9th Hong Kong Film Awards, the film won for Best Director (John Woo) and Best Editing (Fan Kung Ming) and was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Supporting Actor (Paul Chu Kong), Best Screenplay (Woo) and Best Cinematography (Wong Wing Hang and Peter Pau). The Killer was popular in Korea taking seventh highest place in the year end box office receipts. The Killer was shown at several film festivals outside Asia including the 1989 Toronto Festival of Festivals and, during the film's United States premiere, at the Palm Springs International Film Festival in January 1990. It was also shown at the Sundance Film Festival in the United States and the Cannes Film Festival in France in 1990. Film producer Terence Chang suggested that The Killer'''s success around the world made several Hong Kong filmmakers jealous: "It created a certain kind of resentment in the Hong Kong film industry. One thing I can say for sure is, the American, European, Japanese, Korean and even the Taiwanese audiences and critics appreciated The Killer a lot more than it was in Hong Kong." The Killer received a wide release in the United Kingdom on 8 October 1993. Home media The Killer was released in the United States on VHS by Fox Lorber in November 1992, in a dubbed and subtitled version. On 25 June 1996 Fox Lorber released The Killer along with Hard Boiled as a double feature on home video. The Killer was released on DVD by The Criterion Collection on 1 April 1998 in the original Cantonese language track with English subtitles. Bonus features on DVD included the trailer, production notes, and a commentary track. Woo was very happy with the film being included in the Criterion Collection stating, "it was great because it would let people know what [The Killer and Hard Boiled] are about...when I saw that Criterion Collection selected The Killer, I was very happy as The Killer and Bullet in the Head are my two favourites". On 3 Oct 2000 Fox Lorber released a DVD of The Killer with English and Cantonese audio, including a commentary track with John Woo and film trailers. This Fox Lorber disc was also included in a two disc DVD collection with Hard Boiled but both the Fox Lorber and Criterion DVDs went out of print. On 30 March 2010 The Killer was released by the Dragon Dynasty label on two-disc DVD and Blu-ray. Bonus features included were interviews with John Woo, a location guide, and a trailer gallery. In the United Kingdom, The Killer was released on DVD by Hong Kong Legends on 21 October 2002 which included an audio commentary with Bey Logan and interviews with Kenneth Tsang, Sally Yeh and cinematographer Peter Pau. Reception Critical response Stephen Holden of The New York Times referred to the film as "Alternately gripping and laughable" and that "The scenes of gore and destruction are even more spectacular than Hong Kong's fog-shrouded skyline". Variety gave a positive review, describing the film as an "extremely violent and superbly made actioner demonstrates the tight grasp that director John Woo has on the crime meller genre". Kathleen Maher of The Austin Chronicle praised the film stating that it "defies all categorization but demands comparisons, if only to prove that there's never been anything like this before." Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote a positive review, describing the film as "like eating popcorn, but it's not just any old brand; it's escape-velocity popcorn, popcorn with a slurp of rocket fuel...[Woo's] ideas overreach themselves with such a virile swagger that they border on comedy. With excess like this you can't help but laugh. This is a rush of a movie". Later critiques of the film remained positive. The Washington Post stated that "the plot doesn't exactly break new crime-story ground. It's all the Woo flourishes...that elevates The Killer to another level". Lucia Bozzola of the online film database Allmovie gave the film a five star rating, and stated it as "One of the high points of 1980s Hong Kong action cinema". Empire gave the film five stars and proclaimed that "John Woo's trademark style reached its zenith in The Killer". In 2010, Time Out New York ranked The Killer at number 50 on their list of the top 50 foreign films of all time. As of 2017, The Killer holds a rating of 98% on Rotten Tomatoes. In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films. The Killer was listed at 24th place on this list. Legacy The Killer has been recognized as an important and influential film for both Western and Asian filmmakers. Film scholars have noted the similarities between Woo's style and The Killer with the films Nikita (1990) and Léon (1994) directed by French director Luc Besson.Mazdon, 2000. p.108 Kenneth E. Hall described Léon as having the similar character configuration of a hitman and the person he protects. In Nikita, the main character's crisis of conscience after performing a number of hits is also seen in The Killer. Lucy Mazdon described the style of Nikita as recalling "the work of directors like John Woo. Like Nikita, Woo's films show alienated and often brutal characters and graphic violence". Brandon Lee used The Killer as an influence when choreographing his fight scenes in the film Rapid Fire. In the United States, directors Robert Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino developed films that were influenced by The Killer.Elder, 2005. p.143 Rodriguez's films El Mariachi (1992), Desperado (1995), & Once Upon A Time In Mexico (2003) contain stylistic homages to The Killer. In the film Jackie Brown, Tarantino wrote dialog referencing The Killer. No references to the film are made in the original novel. Asian-based directors were also influenced by the film. Hong Kong director Johnnie To borrows from The Killer's gunfighting style, oppositional character pairing, and parody in his films A Hero Never Dies, Running Out of Time, and Fulltime Killer.Hall, 2009. p.63The Killer was also influential on hip hop music. American hip hop artist, and Wu-Tang Clan member Raekwon released his critically praised debut album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... (1995) that sampled numerous portions of dialog from the film. RZA, the producer of the album described the album's themes by stating that "Rae and Ghost was two opposite guys as far as neighborhoods was concerned, I used John Woo's The Killer. [In that movie] you got Chow Yun Fat [playing the role of Ah Jong] and Danny Lee [Inspector Li]. They have to become partners to work shit out." Woo felt honored that the group sampled The Killer and asked for no monetary return from them. In 2005, Vibe magazine placed The Killer at number 21 on their list of top fifty films that shaped hip hop. In October 2018, Supreme paid homage to the movie by releasing a collection of hoodies, jackets, shirts, and skateboards featuring graphics and quotes from the movie. Remake In 1992, American filmmaker Walter Hill and David Giler wrote a screenplay for Tri-Star Pictures titled The Killer that was dated 6 April 1992. The press release of this remake stated the script was written for actors Richard Gere and Denzel Washington. In June 1992, it was announced Walter Hill and Giler were writing a script titled Hong Kong based on The Killer with Hill directing. The producers had difficulty with the relationship between two main characters in the script as they felt that American audiences would interpret it as a homoerotic one. Producer Terence Chang, who worked with Woo on several productions, suggested to the American producers to have Hong Kong actress Michelle Yeoh play the role of the police officer to resolve any homoerotic reading of the film. A year later, screenwriters Jim Cash and Jack Epps, Jr. were hired by producers Charles Roven and Robert Cavallo to write a screenplay based on The Killer for Tristar, in which they wrote a third draft of the script was that was dated on 23 August 1993 which featured a story of a Caucasian hitman living in Hong Kong. This screenplay moved the focus from the pairing the hit man and the police detective characters to the characters of blinded night club singer and the hit man. In October 2007, The Hollywood Reporter announced that a remake of The Killer was announced with Korean-American director John H. Lee directing. The remake would take place in Los Angeles's Koreatown, Chinatown, and South Central. Lee named The Killer as one of his favorite films and that he was excited to make his own version of the film. Lee's version was set to be produced by Woo, and star Jung Woo-sung and shot in 3D. Seven Stars Film Studios was slated to finance the production with a screenplay by Josh Campbell. Sarah Li was initially cast to play the role of the blind singer. Woo spoke about the remake in October 2015, stating that Lee's film was in development for some time and Lee eventually took on other projects. Woo commented that after completing his film Manhunt he "probably will go back to Hollywood to make another action thriller. I'm going to make The Killer'' in an American version." Universal Studios is set to developing the film with a script written by Eran Creevy based on drafts by Josh Campbell and Matt Stuecken. Brian Helgeland has been hired for additional writing. actress Lupita Nyong'o has been cast for the lead role. Woo said that filming would begin in January 2019. About the decision of flip both the gender and race of the lead, Nyong'o said: “Listen, I did not see it coming, either. I mean, I knew of John Woo, but I hadn’t seen ‘The Killer.’ So I received the script and read it without really looking at his work in great depth, which is typically how I approach these things. And I really liked the story, and his revised take on it." In November 2019, Woo told Deadline that Nyong’o has left the film due to another project and they have rewrote the script and it took so much time. See also Chow Yun-fat filmography Hong Kong films of 1989 List of action films of the 1980s List of crime films of the 1980s References Bibliography External links The Killer at Hong Kong Cinemagic The Killer an essay by David Chute at the Criterion Collection 1989 films 1989 action thriller films 1980s buddy cop films 1980s crime action films 1980s Cantonese-language films Films about contract killing Films directed by John Woo Films set in Hong Kong Hong Kong films Hong Kong New Wave films Hong Kong films about revenge Hong Kong action thriller films Hong Kong buddy films Hong Kong crime action films Media Asia films Police detective films Triad films	5,822
doc-en-9955_0	The 8th Lancashire Artillery Volunteers was a unit of the British Volunteer Force raised in Liverpool, Lancashire, in 1860. Later it transferred to the Territorial Force as a brigade of heavy artillery, and its batteries fought in many of the great battles on the Western Front in World War I. Volunteer Force The enthusiasm for the Volunteer movement following an invasion scare in 1859 saw the creation of many Rifle and Artillery Volunteer Corps composed of part-time soldiers eager to supplement the Regular British Army in time of need. One such unit was the 8th Lancashire Artillery Volunteer Corps (AVC) formed in Liverpool on 9 January 1860. In March the Army List showed it as having been absorbed by the 1st Lancashire AVC (also in Liverpool) but it retained its independence and by June had become part of the 1st Administrative Brigade of Lancashire Artillery Volunteers. On 19 October 1860 it became a fully independent unit. It also raised additional batteries: the 2nd on 28 June 1860, 3rd on 14 September 1860, 4th and 5th on 12 October 1860, 6th on 23 April 1861, 7th and 8th by July 1861. In April 1864 it absorbed the 25th (Liverpool) Lancashire Rifle Volunteer Corps also formed on 9 January 1860 and recruited mainly from the Mersey Steel & Iron Company. The 8th Lancashire AVC's headquarters (HQ) was at the Mersey Steel & Iron Co in 1869, but from 1870 it was in Toxteth Park, Liverpool. By the 1880s it was at Sefton Barracks, Upper Warwick Street, Toxteth. When the Volunteers were consolidated into larger units in 1880 the 8th Lancashire AVC was large enough to retain its identity: it had 10 batteries by 1864 and 12 by May 1885, when it was reducd to eight. In 1882 all the AVCs were affiliated to one of the territorial garrison artillery divisions of the Royal Artillery (RA) and the 8th Lancashires became part of the Lancashire Division. In 1889 the structure was altered, and the corps joined the Southern Division. In 1899 the RA was divided into separate field and garrison branches, and the artillery volunteers were all assigned to the Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA). In 1902 their titles were changed, the Liverpool unit becoming the 8th Lancashire Royal Garrison Artillery (Volunteers), designated as heavy artillery (ie semi-mobile heavy field artillery, rather than fixed garrison artillery). Territorial Force When the Volunteers were subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) under the Haldane Reforms of 1908, the 8th Lancashire RGA (V) formed the Lancashire Heavy Brigade, RGA of two batteries (initially designated West and East, then from 1910 the 1st and 2nd) and ammunition columns, all at Sefton Barracks. The Lancashire Brigade was not intended to be a tactical unit: the 1st Lancashire Heavy Bty was attached to the TF's West Lancashire Division, while the 2nd was attached to the East Lancashire Division. Each was equipped with four 4.7-inch guns and had its own dedicated ammunition column. World War I Mobilisation The West Lancashire Division had just begun its annual training when war broke out on 4 August 1914 and the units immediately returned to their peacetime HQs to mobilise. The men of the East Lancashire Division similarly gathered, and were billeted close to their HQs. The TF was intended for home service, but on 10 August its units were invited to volunteer for overseas service. The East Lancashire Division, having volunteered en masse, moved into camps for battle training on 20 August. On 15 August 1914, the War Office (WO) issued instructions to separate those men who had signed up for Home Service only, and form these into reserve units. Then on 31 August, the formation of a reserve or 2nd Line unit was authorised for each 1st Line unit where 60 per cent or more of the men had volunteered for Overseas Service. The titles of these 2nd Line units would be the same as the original, but distinguished by a '2/' prefix. In this way duplicate batteries, brigades and divisions were created, mirroring those TF formations being sent overseas. On 5 September the East Lancashire Division was ordered to Egypt to relieve the Regular Army garrison there for service on the Western Front. It was the first TF division to go overseas, and embarked on 10 September, leaving behind the 1/2nd Lancashire Heavy Bty, which joined the 2nd East Lancashire Division that was being assembled. Similarly, the West Lancashire Division sent most of its infantry units to the Western Front between November 1914 and April 1915, when the 1/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty joined the 2nd West Lancashire Division. 1/1st Lancashire Heavy Battery The 1/1st Bty joined the 2nd West Lancashire Division (57th (2nd West Lancashire) Division from August 1915) after the last of the 1st Line division was broken up in April 1915. The new division was being assembled and trained round Canterbury, and the battery remained with it until the end of the year. On 28 December the battery moved to Woolwich to prepare for overseas service. It disembarked at Le Havre on 26 January 1916, and joined 29th Heavy Artillery Group (HAG) on 1 February. Somme 29th HAG was part of Fourth Army, which was being assembled for the forthcoming 'Big Push' (the Battle of the Somme). The group's role was to support XIII Corps in its assault on the German lines from Maricourt to beyond Carnoy. The guns were assembled on the reverse slopes of Maricourt Ridge, from which the observation posts (OPs) had excellent views over the long gentle slope to Montauban Ridge, up which the British infantry had to attack. In this sector the British had almost a four-to-one advantage in heavy artillery (one heavy gun or howitzer for every of front) and by 'Z Day' had achieved complete mastery with its counter-battery (CB) fire, which had begun six days earlier and continued during the attack. When the infantry launched their assault on 1 July, XIII Corps had considerable success (certainly compared to most of the rest of the attack) and most of its casualties were caused by machine gun and rifle fire from strongpoints, instead of by artillery, as was usually the case. 30th Division on the right reached both its first and second objectives (Montauban), but could not go further, because the neighbouring 18th Division was held up. 18th Division, however did achieve all its objectives by 16.00. The sector was reported to be eerily quiet by the late afternoon, with only a single German 5.9-inch gun shelling Montauban Alley at extreme range, slowly and inaccurately. Unfortunately, much less success had been achieved on the rest of the front and the Somme Offensive ground on until November 1916. The obsolescent 4.7-inch guns were progressively replaced in the BEF by 60-pounders during 1916. In December 1916 the WO decided that all heavy batteries should be composed of six guns and 1/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty was brought up to that strength on 12 February 1917 when it was joined by a section of 193rd Heavy Bty, a New Army unit newly arrived in France and immediately broken up. Vimy 1/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty had been transferred to 57th HAG on 7 December 1916. It rejoined 29th HAG when it was brought up to six guns, and then on 14 March transferred to 84th HAG with First Army further north, which it joined a week later. First Army was preparing for participation in the Arras Offensive, and 84th HAG was assigned to I Corps for the attack on Vimy Ridge on 9 April. The concentration of heavy guns was one for every of front. The artillery preparation began on 20 March, with the batteries of 84th HAG firing from around Bois de Bouvigny on the north flank of the attack, from where they could virtually enfilade the German lines in support of I Corps. The artillery plan for the heavy guns emphasised CB fire. At Zero hour, while the field guns laid down a Creeping barrage to protect the advancing infantry, the 60-pounders switched to 'searching' fire on the German rear areas to catch machine gunners and moving infantry. When the British infantry reached their Phase 2 objective (the Blue Line) the field guns would move forward and the 60-pounders move up to occupy their vacated positions. The attack went in on 9 April with I Corps and Canadian Corps successfully capturing Vimy Ridge while Third Army attacked further south near Arras. The only hold-up on 9 April was at Hill 145, near the north end of the Canadian attack, and the capture of this position was completed the next day. Fighting in the southern sector (the Battle of Arras) continued into May. Later war On 15 May, 1/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty transferred to 15th HAG, quickly moving on to 98th HAG on 28 May, with which it stayed while First Army carried out a number of operations round Oppy Wood and Hill 70. On 4 September it moved to 87th HAG, then on 25 October to 46th HAG with Second Army, which was engaged in the final actions of the Battle of Passchendaele. Second Army HQ was sent to the Italian Front at the end of 1917, and Fourth Army took over the Ypres Salient. By now HAG allocations were becoming more fixed, and on 1 February 1918 the HAGs were converted into permanent RGA brigades, with 46th becoming a 'Mobile' brigade of 60-pounders and 6-inch howitzers. Apart from a temporary attachment to 79th HAG from 24 December to 28 January 1918, 1/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty remained with 46th Bde until the end of the war. Fourth Army was engaged in the second phase of the German spring offensive in April 1918 (the Battle of the Lys). 46th (Mobile) Bde moved to First Army on 1 May. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive began on 8 August, with First Army attacking at Arras and the Drocourt-Quéant Line in late August and early September. On 2 October, 46th (Mobile) Bde transferred to Fifth Army, which launched its final advance that day, liberating Lille on 17 October ad closing up to the Scheldt. By the Armistice with Germany, Fifth Army was across the Dendre. 1/2nd Lancashire Heavy Battery After the East Lancashire Division departed for Egypt, 1/2nd Hvy Bty was attached to the 2nd Line division (later 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division), but did not fully join it in Kent until September 1915 after the Right Section of the battery returned from detachment at Sunderland. It left the division on 5 January 1916 and went to Woolwich to mobilise. It disembarked with its 4.7-inch guns at Le Havre on 9 February 1916 and joined 16th HAG. It moved rapidly between HAGs: to 29th on 3 March and 21st on 12 March before joining 18th on 14 May. This HAG was with Second Army HQ in the Ypres Salient, but on 10 September it reinforced Fourth Army HQ for the later battles of the Somme Offensive. The battery joined 62nd HAG on 2 December. On 12 February 1917 it was made up to six guns when it was joined by a section from 118th Hvy Bty, a Regular battery that had been in France since 1914. The enlarged battery then joined 14th and then 23rd HAG, shortly before they moved to Fifth Army. However, 1/2nd Lancashire Hvy Bty returned to 29th HAG on 28 March and moved with it to First Army on 14 April, though it supported XVII Corps of Third Amy in the success at Arras on 9 April 1917. Apart from a brief period with 99th HAG, the battery remained with 29th HAG, transferring with it to Second Army in July, and then changing to 65th HAG. Second Army played a subsidiary role in the Third Ypres Offensive during August. On 5 September the battery moved to 39th HAG with Third Army, then 17th HAG on 23 October. Cambrai The battery came under the command of 50th HAG on 16 November, in time for Third Army's great tank attack on 20 November (the Battle of Cambrai). 50th HAG was assigned to III Corps, which used its 'heavies' to support individual attacking divisions as well as for CB fire. Efficient flash spotting and sound ranging ensured 90 per cent accuracy of the CB fire, and the combination of tanks and artillery on III Corps' front overwhelmed the Hindenburg Line defences. However, getting the batteries forward to support follow-up attacks on succeeding days proved difficult, and the attacks fell short of a complete breakthrough. When the German counter-attacks broke through on 30 November, the battery prepared for withdrawal before 10.00, calling up the horse teams from the wagon lines. The situation seemed to improve so the guns opened fire again and continued in action on the Quentin ridge until the last moment. Heavy shelling had rendered two 'hopelessly out of action' and damaged the others. They withdrew to Metz as the Germans overran the position. One gun situated in a sunken road south of Marcoing was damaged by shellfire and had to be abandoned as the rest got away. During the winter, 1/2nd Lancashire Hvy Bty switched to 86th HAG on 14 December, 57th HAG on 17 December, and finally returned to 21st HAG with Fifth Army on 27 December, with which it stayed for the rest of the war. On 1 February 1918, 21st HAG became 21st (Mobile) Brigade, RGA. Spring Offensive The Germans launched their Spring Offensive on 21 March 1918, primarily against Fifth Army. By 28 March, XIX Corps (all that remained effective from Fifth Army) was struggling to maintain a link between Third Army and VI French Corps. There was bitter fighting between the Rivers Avre and Somme, during which the French retired, exposing the British right flank and forcing a British retirement late in the day. The battery had its 60-pounders in action near Warfusée as the British infantry fell back at 19.30, closely pursued by the Germans, who engaged the gun positions with machine guns from a flank. Part of the battery was withdrawn but one section could not get its horse teams up under the heavy fire. The section commander, Lt N. Roberts, with some gunners manhandled some ammunition wagons to provide flank protection against the fire, and then got his teams up and 'snatched his two heavies from under the very noses of the enemy, a most gallant and courageous act'. Fifth Army was reconstituted as Fourth Army at the beginning of April, and 21st (Mobile) Bde remained with it until the Armistice, through the later phases of the Spring Offensive and then the Allied Hundred Days Offensive (see above). 2/1st Lancashire Heavy Battery The 2/1st Bty trained at Blackpool until 26 November 1915, when it joined 57th Division at Canterbury (just before the 1st Line battery left for France). It received four 4.7-inch guns from Southampton on 29 December. 57th Division formed part of Second Army (Home Forces) of Central Force, and was quartered around Canterbury on home defence duties until July 1916 when it transferred to the Emergency Reserves in Aldershot Command. However, 2/1st Hvy Bty left the division and went to France independently. It disembarked at Le Havre on 1 July and on 4 July joined 'Loring's Group' with II ANZAC Corps. Fromelles The battery was thrown straight into supporting a disastrous diversionary attack at Fromelles made by II ANZAC Corps with raw troops (the Official History emphasises the inexperience of the heavy artillery available for this operation, some of whom 'had never fired in France'). The heavy artillery began registering their targets and firing a slow bombardment on 16 July, then the following day a special programme began, seven hours before the infantry was due to go 'over the top'. Bad weather caused a two-day postponement of the attack. Although the bombardment appeared to have been effective, when the infantry attacked on 19 July they found much of the German parapet and barbed wire undamaged. Some parties managed to penetrate the German position, but all gains had been lost by the following morning. The battery transferred to 52nd HAG with Second Army on 4 August and remained with it in the Ypres Salient until the end of the year. On 2 October 1916 the battery was made up to six guns by the addition of a section from 175th Heavy Bty just arrived from England. Messines 52nd HAG moved to Fourth Army in December 1916, but 2/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty remained behind, serving with Second Army Artillery School from 13 January to 19 February 1917. It then moved to VIII Corps Heavy Artillery, joining 71st HAG. Second Army's artillery was involved in a complex fireplan preceding the Battle of Messines, starting on 21 May, and increasing to eight days of intensive fire from 31 May, with over 200 German battery positions being intensively shelled on 5 and 6 June, continuing after the attack commenced. The artillery effect was as great as the huge mines that were fired under the German front line at Zero hour on 7 June, and the attack was an outstanding success. The battery moved to Fifth Army after Messines, first with 85th HAG, then to 92nd HAG on 4 July, in time to be involved in the artillery preparation for the Third Ypres Offensive. This began on 16 July, but did not have the advantages of Messines: the Ypres salient was overlooked, and the guns suffered badly from German CB fire. The opening attack on 1 August was only a partial success, and the offensive quickly bogged down as the weather broke. 2/1st Lancashire Hvy Bty was pulled out of the Salient on 21 September when it transferred to 21st HAG with Third Army. The battery remained with Third Army for the rest of the year, including the Cambrai battles, during which it transferred to 78th HAG on 21 November, and finally transferred to 17th HAG on 25 December. 17th HAG became 17th (Mixed) Bde, RGA, in February 1918, and fought with Third Army until the Armistice. Postwar the 2/1st Battery was disbanded on 14 October 1919. 2/2nd Lancashire Heavy Battery The 2/2nd Hvy Bty joined 66th (2nd East Lancs) Division after it concentrated for home defence with Second Army, Central Force, in Kent and Sussex in August 1915. The battery was stationed at Plaw Hatch on the edge of Ashdown Forest. It was not until 7 January 1916 that the battery received four worn-out 4.7-inch guns for practising gunlaying drill. In 1916 the division came under Southern Army (Home Forces) and moved to the East Coast defences accompanied by 2/1st and 2/2nd London Hvy Batteries, while 2/2nd Lancashire Hvy Bty transferred to 67th (2nd Home Counties) Division. 67th Division was based in Kent, and from September 1916 the battery was at Upstreet Camp and at Minster. When 67th Division was reorganised as a training formation after August 1917, the battery came under the command of Kent Force, Eastern Command. Towards the end of the war, while still at Minster, the battery was attached to the Cyclist Division. It remained on home defence until demobilisation at Sandling, Folkestone, on 11 October 1919. Postwar The 1st Line units of the Lancashire Heavy Brigade, RGA, were placed in suspended animation when they were demobilised in 1919. After the TF was re-established after the war, the two batteries of the brigade were combined with the two prewar batteries of the Liverpool-based 4th West Lancashire (Howitzer) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery, to form the 4th West Lancashire Medium Brigade, RGA, consisting of one battery of 60-pdrs and three of 6-inch howitzers. A former officer of the 4th West Lancs was authorised to raise this unit on 21 May 1920 at his unit's drill hall at The Grange, Edge Lane, Liverpool. When the TF was reorganised as the Territorial Army (TA) the following year, the brigade was redesignated 59th (4th West Lancs) Medium Brigade, RGA (TA) (the former 4th West Lancs fought hard to get their 'Old Fourth' number included in the title). The brigade went on to win the prestigious King's Cup on two occasions in the 1930s, and spun off three medium regiments that fought with distinction at Dunkirk, Crete, East Africa, Tobruk and North West Europe during World War II. Insignia The Lancashire AVCs all seem to have worn the same badge on the 'bomb'-shaped busby plume holder and waistbelt clasp: this consisted of a cannon with a pile of cannonballs to the left and a Lancashire rose above, surrounded by a circle bearing the words 'LANCASHIRE VOLUNTEER ARTILLERY' (see above). Footnotes Notes References Anon, History of the 359 (4th West Lancs.) Medium Regiment R.A. (T.A.) 1859–1959, Liverpool: 359 Medium Regiment, 1959. Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 1: The Regular British Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1934/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, . Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, . Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, . Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 4: The Army Council, GHQs, Armies, and Corps 1914–1918, London: HM Stationery Office, 1944/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, . Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A Study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, . Nigel Cave, Battleground Europe: Arras: Vimy Ridge, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, . Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938. Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1916, Vol I, London: Macmillan,1932/Woking: Shearer, 1986, . Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol II, Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele), London: HM Stationery Office, 1948//Uckfield: Imperial War Museum and Naval and Military Press, 2009, . Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds & Lt-Col R. Maxwell-Hyslop, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol V, 26th September–11th November, The Advance to Victory, London: HM Stationery Office, 1947/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, . Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Western Front 1914–18, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1986, . J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, ISBN 1-85117-009-X. Lancashire Record Office, Handlist 72. Norman E.H. Litchfield, The Territorial Artillery 1908–1988 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1992, . Norman Litchfield & Ray Westlake, The Volunteer Artillery 1859–1908 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1982, . Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1916, Vol II, 2nd July 1916 to the End of the Battles of the Somme, London: Macmillan, 1938/Imperial War Museum & Battery Press, 1992, . Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol III, The Battle of Cambrai, London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Naval and Military Press, 2009, . Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, . Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, . External sources Mark Conrad, The British Army, 1914 (archive site) The Long, Long Trail The Regimental Warpath 1914–1918 (archive site) Lancashire Military units and formations in Lancashire Military units and formations in Liverpool Military units and formations established in 1860	5,699
doc-en-9962_0	The Triffids were an Australian alternative rock and pop band, formed in Perth in Western Australia in May 1978 with David McComb as singer-songwriter, guitarist, bass guitarist and keyboardist. They achieved some success in Australia, but greater success in the UK and Scandinavia in the 1980s before disbanding in 1989. Their best-known songs include "Wide Open Road" (February 1986) and "Bury Me Deep in Love" (October 1987). SBS television featured their 1986 album, Born Sandy Devotional, on the Great Australian Albums series in 2007, and in 2010 it ranked 5th in the book The 100 Best Australian Albums by Toby Creswell, Craig Mathieson and John O'Donnell. According to music historian Ian McFarlane, "The Triffids remain one of Australia's best-loved, post-punk groups ... McComb ... infused his melancholy songs with stark yet beautiful and uniquely Australian imagery. Few songwriters managed to capture the feeling of isolation and fatalistic sense of despair of the Australian countryside." History Formation and early years (1976–1981) In 1976 in Perth, high school students David McComb on acoustic and bass guitars and vocals and Alan "Alsy" MacDonald on drums and vocals, formed Dalsy as a multimedia project, making music, books and photographs. They wrote and performed songs with Phil Kakulas on guitars and vocals (all three later in the Blackeyed Susans), then soon became Blök Musik and Logic (for a day). In May 1978, they became the Triffids, taking their name from the post-apocalyptic novel by John Wyndham, The Day of the Triffids. They were soon joined by Andrew McGowan on guitar and Julian Douglas-Smith on piano. When Byron Sinclair joined on bass guitar in September, McComb switched to rhythm guitar. The Triffids began partly in response to the punk rock movement. Writing in his diary as a teenager, McComb traced the band's emergence in Perth: On the night of 27 November 1976, a tape was made by Alsy MacDonald, playing a single toy drum, and Dave McComb playing acoustic guitar. The multimedia group 'Dalsy' had come into being. Dalsy went on to make several remarkable tapes (mainly of original material): The Loft Tapes, Rock 'n' Roll Accountancy, Live at Ding Dongs, Bored Kids, Domestic Cosmos, People Are Strange Dalsy Are Stranger, Steve's and the seminal punk work, Pale Horse Have a Fit ... Dalsy did paintings, sculptures and poetry, and wrote a book named "Lunch". They were tinny and quirky, obsessive and manic, versatile and productive. They were also immensely unpopular ... The members of Dalsy grew to hate their audience. They still do, and this hate is an integral part of their music. Dalsy split up towards the end of 1977 ... They launched into 1978 as Blok Musik, with their famous Blok Musik tape ... In April, they played at the Leederville Town Hall Punk Fest, alongside Perth's punk rock contingent but, as usual, no one danced. After that they went home and metamorphosised into Logic. Within a day they changed their minds, and metamorphosised into the Triffids. Between 1978 and 1981, McComb wrote over 100 original songs and the Triffids had recorded and independently released six cassette tapes, simply called, 1st (1978), 2nd (1978), 3rd (1979), 4th (1979), Tape 5 (1980) and Sixth (1981) (see List of The Triffids Cassettes). By 1979, Kakulas and Sinclair had left and were replaced by David's older brother, Robert McComb on violin and guitar, and Will Akers on bass guitar, and in 1980 Margaret Gillard joined on keyboards. At year's end, the band won a song competition run by the Western Australian Institute of Technology (now Curtin University) Student Guild's radio show on 6NR (now Curtin FM), and in July 1981 they released their first single, "Stand Up", on the Shake Some Action label. MacDonald had briefly left the band for two months, and the single was recorded with Mark Peters as drummer. Early recordings (1982–1984) Gillard and Akers left in February 1982 and were replaced by Jill Yates on keyboards and a returning Sinclair. April saw the release of Reverie, a four-track EP on Resonant Records. Around this time, due to the small population/market in Perth, the band started the long journey driving from Perth to Sydney, then Melbourne (and back again) to play shows, do some recording and to live for large periods of time, often in quite squalid conditions. By mid-year Sinclair had left again, and Martyn P. Casey joined the band on bass guitar in September 1982. For $150 a night, The Triffids' services as a support act were procured by The Reels, The Sunnyboys, The Church, Hunters & Collectors or Uncanny X-Men. As a four-piece — Casey, David and Robert McComb and MacDonald — they signed to Mushroom Records' White Label in Melbourne and released a single, "Spanish Blue", in October 1982 and the Bad Timing and Other Stories EP in March 1983. By then, back in Sydney again, Jill Birt had joined on piano, organ and vocals. Soon after the release of Bad Timing and Other Stories, Mushroom Records let the band go. They signed with new Australian independent label Hot Records, which brought the independent scene some much needed cohesion. The Triffids were one of the bands leading Hot's drive into overseas markets, which partly led to the label's demise. The Triffids' debut album, Treeless Plain, released in November 1983, was critically acclaimed — described as a "magnificent, muscular piece of work that pounds out simple powerful rock songs — one of the best indie rock albums of its day" — but no singles were released from it. All tracks for Treeless Plain were recorded over twelve midnight-to-dawn sessions at Emerald City Studios, Sydney, in August and September 1983 with The Triffids producing. Their next single, "Beautiful Waste", appeared in February 1984 and was followed by the Raining Pleasure 12" EP in July—the title track, "Raining Pleasure", featured Birt on lead vocals and was cowritten by David McComb with Sydney musician James Paterson (JFK & the Cuban Crisis). Another track, "St. James Infirmary", is a traditional blues folksong, with their version preferred by Australian rock music journalist Toby Creswell in his book, 1001 Songs. The Triffids, without Birt, recorded Lawson Square Infirmary at the Sydney Opera House, where they worked with Paterson on vocals, guitar, mandolin and piano; Graham Lee (John Kennedy's Love Gone Wrong and in Eric Bogle's backing band) on vocals, dobro and pedal steel guitar; and Daubney Carshott (a.k.a. Martyn Casey) on bass guitar. The six-track country music-style EP was issued by Hot Records in October under the band name, Lawson Square Infirmary. Lee recalled: I taught primary school, travelled and ended up in Sydney, where I met the Triffids and first sat behind a pedal steel (in that order actually) [...] I met Dave [McComb] through James Paterson, who played in a band in Sydney called JFK and the Cuban Crisis. My initial impressions of Dave were: slightly eccentric, driven, something of a perfectionist, very intelligent. By mid-1984, The Triffids had spent so much time travelling the between Perth in the west and Sydney on the east coast of Australia — David McComb estimated that they made this trip between 12 and 16 times — that they decided to travel that little bit further and headed to Europe. UK and Europe (1984–1989) In late August 1984, the band relocated to London, where Treeless Plain and Raining Pleasure had been issued by Rough Trade Records to critical acclaim. With little savings and five return plane tickets due to expire by Christmas, they gave themselves three months to make inroads in the UK. For their London debut they supported Rough Trade labelmates The Monochrome Set. Success was confirmed when they graced the January 1985 cover of the influential UK magazine NME, which predicted it would be 'The Year of The Triffids'. In November 1984, they recorded Field of Glass, a three track 12" EP. Performed mostly live in BBC Studio 5 in London, it was released in February 1985. The title track, "Field of Glass", was not released on CD as the master tape could not be found—it was eventually discovered under David McComb's bed. In early 1985, the band acquired their final permanent member, Lee, who had performed on the mini-album Lawson Square Infirmary. Together the six-piece—Birt, Casey, Lee, MacDonald, David & Robert McComb—recorded a 12" EP You Don’t Miss Your Water. The A-side is a countrified version of William Bell's "You Don't Miss Your Water", which was released in August by Hot Records, but by then they were already back in London. During 1985, the Triffids toured Europe, they were praised by the European press and played stadiums supporting Echo & the Bunnymen. A grass roots following developed as they toured western European countries, finding pockets of popularity in the Netherlands, Greece, Scandinavia, Ireland and Belgium. The band toured as part of the Summer Eurofestival circuit, performing at Glastonbury, Pinkpop, Waterpop, Seinäjoki, Roskilde (40,000), T&W Belgium (35,000) and den Haag's Parkpop (pushing 100,000). Unable to raise a major record deal and with low finances, Born Sandy Devotional was recorded in London in August 1985 with Gil Norton producing (who has also worked with Echo & the Bunnymen), and was released in March 1986. According to Ian McFarlane, Australian rock music historian, "[It] was full of some of the most lonely, spacious songs ever written, and it remains one of the best Australian albums of the 1980s." In 2007, the album was featured by SBS Television on the Great Australian Albums series. The band issued two versions of the "Wide Open Road" single—both a 7" and a 12" version. Born Sandy Devotional reached # 27 on the UK albums chart, and "Wide Open Road" peaked at No. 26 on the UK singles charts but only reached No. 64 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart. Creswell stated that "Wide Open Road" was "an angry song that finds the cost of freedom is aloneness" in his book, 1001 Songs. In May 2001, the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named it one of their Top 30 Australian songs of all time. Their critical success in the UK boosted their profile back in Australia where they recorded In the Pines in early 1986, while awaiting the release of Born Sandy Devotional, which eventuated in March. In The Pines was recorded at the McCombs' family property in Ravensthorpe, south east of Perth, in a shearing shed on basic eight-track equipment. It was issued in January 1987 and took The Triffids deeper into folk and country music, with a lo-fi sensibility reminiscent of Bob Dylan's Basement Tapes. The band backed Scottish musician Bill Drummond for his 1986 solo album The Man. The Triffids toured UK later in the year. From 26 December 1986 to 26 January 1987, the Triffids were on the bill of the Australian Made tour, which was the largest touring festival of Australian music talent attempted to that point. Jimmy Barnes and INXS headlined, and the rest of the line-up featured Mental As Anything, Divinyls, Models, the Saints, and I'm Talking. A concert film, Australian Made: The Movie, was directed by Richard Lowenstein and released later that year. The lead singer of INXS, Michael Hutchence, had insisted on the Triffids being part of the bill. 1987 also saw the release of three tracks recorded for John Peel on 5 May 1985, The Peel Sessions. The Triffids were courted by several UK major record labels, based on the success of Born Sandy Devotional, eventually signing a three-record contract with Island Records in the UK in November 1986. Between April and August 1987, the band worked again with Norton, to record Calenture, their Island Records debut. The album, released in February 1988, saw them explore themes of insanity, deception and rootlessness—the title refers to a fever suffered by sailors during long hot voyages. The Triffids were nomadic, travelling back and forth from Australia to England to record the 'difficult' album—initial recordings with US producer Craig Leon were abandoned—and obviously related to the disoriented sailors. It provided the singles "Bury Me Deep in Love" in October 1987 and "Trick of the Light" in January 1988. After Born Sandy Devotional, they graduated to the festival circuit and played alongside Iggy Pop, the Ramones, the Fall, Anthrax and Echo & the Bunnymen. By 1988, their fame was such that NME invited them to contribute a cover version of the Beatles' song "Good Morning Good Morning" to a tribute album, Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father, alongside songs by Billy Bragg and Wet Wet Wet. The Triffids wanted to record the next album in Australia, but after the Calenture experience Island wanted to keep the band nearby. The Black Swan was recorded between September and October 1988 in Somerset, UK, and produced and engineered by Stephen Street. It was well received by critics, but was not a commercial success, which disappointed band members. That, together with being tired from the constant travelling and touring, led to The Triffids being dissolved. The group travelled to the US in 1989 for a pair of New York dates before taking a much-needed vacation – one which turned permanent: We didn't know they were final performances. Dave wanted to do a solo album and we were due to get back together after that. Much to his chagrin his solo album took longer than expected and he kept writing songs that sounded like Triffids songs. Domesticity snuck up on most of us, poor health snuck up on Dave, a planned '94 reunion tour was put on hold, and the Triffids faded into the mist. – Graham Lee The band's last Australian shows were towards the end of 1989, with the final at the Australian National University in Canberra on 14 August 1989. 1990 saw the release of the live album, Stockholm, which completed their contractual obligations with Island. Breakup and aftermath Following the breakup of the band, Alsy MacDonald, Jill Birt and Robert McComb took "proper jobs" as a lawyer (currently with the Equal Opportunity Commission), architect and teacher respectively, with MacDonald and Birt marrying (Robert McComb currently teaches at Melbourne High School). David McComb and Lee continued to be involved with The Blackeyed Susans, a group David McComb formed as a side band during an earlier Triffids' summer tour of Australia. Martyn Casey briefly joined the Blackeyed Susans and then became a permanent member of Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds in April 1990. In 1990, David McComb moved back to London with the aim of pursuing his solo career. Since sustaining crushed vertebrae in the UK in 1986 McComb had suffered chronic and severe back pain that plagued him till his death. In 1992, after no success, he returned to Australia to make some solo recordings for Mushroom Records (featuring both Casey and Lee), releasing just one solo album, Love of Will, in 1994. He also worked with many other musicians on various projects, including assembling a band, the Red Ponies, to tour Europe. In June 1993 three former members of The Triffids: David McComb, Robert McComb and Lee; as well as Charlie Owen and Chris Wilson guested on Acuff's Rose's debut studio album, Never Comin' Down. Another project, costar, was formed when David moved to Melbourne, but due to his ill health they only played sporadically around Melbourne, although recordings had begun and a single was ready for a limited release. Following the Red Ponies tour David McComb suffered substance abuse-related health problems, which ultimately resulted in him undergoing a heart transplant in 1996. Despite the exacerbation of his back problem from the transplant procedure he embarked on a university course and his prolific output of songs continued. He recorded 7 demos at the studio of Julian Wu, a long time supporter with old friends Martin Casey, Mick Harvey, Warren Ellis, Kiernan Box and Stuart Solar on drums. Forming 'costar' with Graham Lee, Kiernan Box on piano, Stuart Soler on drums Will Akers on bass and Matt Habbin on saxophone. Ill health limited live performances but writing, arranging and other literary projects continued at a furious pace. Following a car accident in Melbourne, he was admitted to St Vincent's hospital. Three days later he died at home, on 2 February 1999, a few days short of his 37th birthday. In February 2000, after the State Coroner of Victoria published his findings, The West Australian newspaper wrote: "[Coroner] Johnstone said McComb's mental and physical condition had deteriorated after his (car) accident but his death was due to heroin toxicity and mild acute rejection of his 1996 heart transplant." 2006 onwards The Triffids back catalogue began being reissued in 2006. Graham Lee has taken on the role of guardian of David McComb's musical legacy. The Domino label in the UK is handling the reissues in Europe, while Liberation Music deals with Australia and New Zealand. An extended version of fan favourite Born Sandy Devotional came first, with staggered release dates in Europe, Australasia and North America between June and July 2006. A joint release of In the Pines and Calenture followed in February 2007. In the Pines was given a full remix by Bruce Callaway, the original engineer, who had been looking after the master tapes for 20 years. The album was also extended with a number of tracks that were recorded during the sessions for In The Pines but held over for inclusion on Calenture because, in David McComb's words, "we have to keep something good for later." (In The Pines was essentially a low-budget 'holiday' album, recorded while the band was still looking for a deal with one of the major labels.) Calenture was extended with B-sides from the same period, and with a second disc of demo recordings for the album. A re-release of the last Triffids album The Black Swan with an extra disc of rarities and demos have, so far, ended the reissue programme. In 2010 the best-of album Come Ride With Me... Wide Open Road was released. A limited edition of this, called Come Ride With Me... Wide Open Road – The Deluxe Edition, contained nine discs of bonus material, including early demos, tracks previously available on cassette only and full-length live recordings. Later stages of the re-issue programme is said to include further rarities, extended liner notes, remastering, a DVD and a live album. There is, currently, a selection of free downloads available on the official site, overseen by Lee. David McComb was posthumously inducted into the WAM (West Australian Music Industry Association) Hall of Fame as a composer on 21 February 2006. In June 2006, in conjunction with the re-issue of Born Sandy Devotional, the band re-formed to play three live performances, two concerts in Hasselt, Belgium, and one in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, with guest vocalists (including Mark Snarski (The Jackson Code) and Belgian Harald Vanherf (The Hoodoo Club / Wicona Airbag) replacing David McComb. A huge collection of band memorabilia was also displayed, along with the airing of a Triffids concert film and question-and-answer sessions with the band members. According to Lee the experience was, "more than I could have hoped for – a true celebration of the music, and an intensity from band and audience that I’ve rarely felt." The five remaining members of The Triffids gave a series of performances on 17–20 January 2008, as part of the 2008 Sydney Festival celebrating the music and the memory of David McComb. The band were joined on stage by a number of Australian musicians including Mark and Rob Snarski (The Blackeyed Susans), Toby Martin (Youth Group), Steve Kilbey (The Church), Mick Harvey (Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds), J.P. Shilo, Chris Abrahams (The Necks) and Melanie Oxley. Youth Group in fact opened these shows with 4 covers of Early Triffids classics and rarities in praise of band's earlier years. A feature-length documentary of these shows, It's Raining Pleasure, was to be released in early 2009. In May 2008, Liberation Music continued with the reissuing of The Triffids' back catalogue, with the release of The Black Swan, which includes five songs which had previously been left off the album at the time of its initial release, together with an encore. The album had originally been envisaged by David McComb as a double album. The re-released album also included a bonus disc of demos and unreleased material. Also released was Treeless Plain which was re-mixed by the original sound engineer, Nick Mansbridge. The last of the re-releases was a collection of songs from various EPs, Raining Pleasure, Lawson Square Infirmary and Field of Glass, under the title Beautiful Waste and Other Songs (Mini-Masterpieces 1983–1985). The compilation album also includes the title song, "Beautiful Waste", together with "Dear Miss Lonelyhearts" and "Native Bride". The Triffids repeated their 2008 Sydney performances, 'A Secret in the Shape of a Song', at the Melbourne Arts Centre on 29 January 2009 and at the Perth International Arts Festival on 20–22 February 2009. The shows included guest appearances by Mick Harvey (Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds), J.P. Shilo, Melanie Oxley, Mark and Rob Snarski (The Blackeyed Susans), Steve Kilbey (The Church), Alex Archer and Brendon Humphries (The Kill Devil Hills), Ricky Maymi (The Brian Jonestown Massacre), and Toby Martin (Youth Group) on stage with the remaining members of the band. After the Perth performances video artists VJzoo showed a selection of David McComb's personal photographs live on screen to a soundtrack compiled from his mixtape collection. 'The Triffids and Friends' is a loose collective of some of the aforementioned musicians with remaining Triffids members. Youth Group once again reprised their renditions of early Triffids songs at these shows. Performances by the band along with The Church and Ed Keupper were scheduled for late 2011 in Perth. Honours ARIA Awards The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. In 2008, The Triffids were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame. Upon the announcement Graham Lee commented that David McComb would find the accolade ironic, given that the band were hardly superstars in their home country, but would have appreciated the belated recognition. \|- \| 2008 \|\| The Triffids \|\| ARIA Hall of Fame \|\| \|- West Australian Music Industry Awards The West Australian Music Industry Awards are annual awards celebrating achievements for Western Australian music. They commenced in 1985. \|- \| 2016 \|\| The Triffids \|\| Hall of Fame \|\| \|- Legacy One of the most critically acclaimed bands from Greece, Raining Pleasure, took their name from the song "Raining Pleasure" by The Triffids. Melbourne-based acoustic rock group The Paradise Motel are frequently likened to the work of The Triffids whose work they have covered. In 2009, Australian scholars Chris Coughran and Niall Lucy's rock biography on The Triffids, Vagabond Holes: David McComb and the Triffids, was published by Fremantle Press, and includes contributions by Mick Harvey, Nick Cave, John Kinsella, DBC Pierre and Judith Lucy. Bleddyn Butcher's biography of David McComb, Save What You Can: The Day of The Triffids, was published by Treadwater Press, Sydney, in November 2011. In December 2020, The Triffids were listed at number 43 in Rolling Stone Australias "50 Greatest Australian Artists of All Time" issue. Members Will Akers – bass (1980–1982) Jill Birt – keyboards, vocals (1983–1989) Martyn Casey – bass (1982–1989) Simon Cromack – percussion (1982–1983) Margaret Gillard – keyboards (1979–1982) Phil Kakulas – guitar, vocals (1978–1979) Graham Lee – guitar, pedal steel, lap-steel, vocals (1985–1989) Allan MacDonald – drums, percussion, vocals (1978–1980, 1982–1989) David McComb – vocals, guitar, piano, bass (1978–1989; died 1999) Robert McComb – violins, guitar, keyboards, percussion, vocals (1979–1989) Mark Peters – drums (1980–1981) Byron Sinclair – bass (1978–1979, 1982) Jill Yates – keyboards (1982) Timeline Discography Studio albums 1983: Treeless Plain 1986: Born Sandy Devotional 1986: In the Pines 1987: Calenture 1989: The Black Swan Extended plays 1982: Reverie 1983: Bad Timing and Other Stories 1984: Lawson Square Infirmary 1984: Raining Pleasure 1985: Field of Glass 1987: Peel Sessions Live recordings and compilations 1986: Love in Bright Landscapes 1990: Stockholm 1994: Australian Melodrama 2008: Beautiful Waste and Other Songs (Mini-Masterpieces 1983–1985) 2010: Wide Open Road – The Best of the Triffids 2010: Come Ride With Me... Wide Open Road – The Deluxe Edition (10 disc box set) Cassettes 1978: Tape No. 1 1978: Tape No. 2 1979: Tape No. 3 1979: Tape No. 4 1980: Tape No. 5 1981: Tape No. 6 1981: Dungeon Tape 1988: Son of Dungeon Tape 1988: Jack Brabham References General Your Name's on the Door by Tracee Hutchison (ABC Enterprises (1992)) () Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. Australian Encyclopedia of Rock & Pop by Noel McGrath (Rigby Publishers (1978)) Specific External links ABC – Long Way to the Top – The Triffids Something Old, Something New website – Triffids profile Domino Records – Triffids profile Howlspace website – Triffids profile Domino re-release program Inner City Sound website – Triffids profile Nostalgia Central website – Triffids profile David McComb obituary (1962–1999) APRA Award winners Musical groups from Perth, Western Australia Musical groups established in 1976 Musical groups disestablished in 1989 Australian alternative rock groups ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Pub rock musical groups	6,015
doc-en-9988_0	Imagine Dragons is an American pop rock band from Las Vegas, Nevada, consisting of lead singer Dan Reynolds, guitarist Wayne Sermon, bassist Ben McKee and drummer Daniel Platzman. The band first gained exposure with the release of their single "It's Time", followed by their award-winning debut studio album Night Visions (2012), which resulted in the chart-topping singles "Radioactive" and "Demons". Rolling Stone named "Radioactive", which held the record for most weeks charted on the Billboard Hot 100, the "biggest rock hit of the year". MTV called them "the year's biggest breakout band", and Billboard named them their "Breakthrough Band of 2013" and "Biggest Band of 2017". and placed them at the top of their "Year in Rock" rankings for 2013, 2017, and 2018. Imagine Dragons topped the Billboard Year-End "Top Artists – Duo/Group" category in 2018. The band's second studio album Smoke + Mirrors (2015) reached number one in the US, Canada and the UK. This was followed by their third studio album, Evolve (2017) which resulted in three chart-topping singles, "Believer", "Thunder", and "Whatever It Takes", also making them the artist with the most weeks at number-one on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart. The album reached the top five in many countries. The band's fourth studio album Origins (2018) featured the single "Natural", which became their fifth song to top the Hot Rock Songs chart. While all four albums were commercially successful, critical reception was mixed. The band released their fifth studio album Mercury – Act 1 on September 3, 2021. Imagine Dragons has won three American Music Awards, nine Billboard Music Awards, one Grammy Award, one MTV Video Music Award and one World Music Award. In May 2014, the band was nominated for fourteen Billboard Music Awards, including Top Artist of the Year and a Milestone Award, which recognizes innovation and creativity of artists across different genres. In April 2018, the band was nominated eleven more times for Billboard Music Awards. Imagine Dragons have sold more than 75 million records worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling music artists. They were the most streamed group of 2018 on Spotify and are the first rock act to have four songs, "Radioactive", "Demons", "Believer" and "Thunder", to surpass one billion streams each. According to Billboard, they also have the top three rock songs of the 2010s on the US charts, "Believer", "Thunder", and "Radioactive". History 2008–2011: Early years In 2008, lead singer Dan Reynolds met drummer Andrew Tolman at Brigham Young University, where they were both students. Reynolds and Tolman recruited Andrew Beck, Dave Lemke, and Aurora Florence to play guitar, bass, and piano respectively for their band. Their name is an anagram for a phrase only known to members of the group, that Reynolds stated each member approved of. The five-piece released an extended play titled Speak to Me that year, but Beck and Florence departed from the band's line-up later that year. In 2009, Tolman recruited long-time high school friend Wayne Sermon, who had graduated from Berklee College of Music to play guitar. Tolman later recruited his wife, Brittany Tolman, to sing back-up and play keys, and the band began to play shows together again. Lemke left the band later on, leading Sermon to recruit another Berklee music student, Ben McKee, to join the band as their bassist and complete the line-up. The band garnered a large following in their hometown of Provo, Utah, before the members moved to Las Vegas, the hometown of Dan Reynolds, where the band recorded and released their first three EPs. The band released a self-titled EP Imagine Dragons on September 1, 2009 and Hell and Silence on March 10, 2010, both recorded at Battle Born Studios, in Las Vegas. Six months after releasing their third EP, It's Time on March 12, 2011, they signed a record deal with Interscope Records on 18 November, 2011. They got their first big break when Train's frontman Pat Monahan fell sick just prior to the Bite of Las Vegas Festival 2009. Imagine Dragons were called to fill in and performed to a crowd of more than 26,000 people. Local accolades including "Best CD of 2011" (Vegas SEVEN), "Best Local Indie Band 2010" (Las Vegas Weekly), "Las Vegas' Newest Must See Live Act" (Las Vegas CityLife), Vegas Music Summit Headliner 2010, and more sent the band on a positive trajectory. In November 2011 they signed with Interscope Records and began working with English Grammy Award-winning producer Alex da Kid. Eventually the Tolmans left the group and Daniel Platzman was recruited in August 2011 by invitation from Ben McKee, prior to the signing of the band's label deal in November 2011, alongside keyboardist Theresa Flaminio. 2012–2014: Night Visions Theresa Flaminio departed from Imagine Dragons in early 2012, leaving them as a four-piece. The band worked closely with Alex da Kid, with whom they recorded their first major label release at Westlake Recording Studios in West Hollywood, California. An EP entitled Continued Silence was released on Valentine's Day (February 14, 2012) digitally and peaked at number 40 on the Billboard 200. The band also released an EP titled Hear Me in 2012. Shortly after, "It's Time" was released as a single and peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100. The music video debuted on April 17, 2012 on all MTV affiliates and was subsequently nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the "Best Rock Video" category. "It's Time" was certified a 6 × p platinum single by the RIAA. The band finished recording their debut album Night Visions in the summer of 2012 at Studio X inside Palms Casino Resort and released the album in the United States on September 4, 2012. It peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart with first week sales in excess of 83,000 copies, the highest charting for a debut rock album since 2006. The album also reached No. 1 on the Billboard Alternative and Rock Album charts as well as the top ten on the Australian, Austrian, Canadian, Dutch, German, Irish, Norwegian, Portuguese, Scottish, Spanish, and United Kingdom Albums charts. It won a Billboard Music Award for Top Rock Album and was nominated for the Juno Award for International Album of the Year. Night Visions is certified platinum in the USA by the RIAA as well as in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. The album produced three tracks that reached the Billboard Top 40, four tracks in the ARIA Top 40, and five tracks charting in the UK Top 40. The album's second single "Radioactive" reached No. 1 on the Billboard Alternative Songs, Billboard Rock Songs, and Swedish singles chart and has sold more than fourteen million singles in the United States, entering the top 3 of the most selling songs digitally ever. It also smashed the record of the longest running song on the Billboard Hot 100 by spending 87 weeks before being broken by The Weeknd's "Blinding Lights" in 2021. "Radioactive" stayed at No. 1 on the Hot Rock Songs chart for a record-breaking 23 weeks and ultimately became the genre's biggest hit of 2013. It peaked at No. 3, becoming their first top ten single in the United States and broke the record for the longest run into the top five. It is the best-selling rock song on the Nielsen SoundScan running list of best-selling rock songs in digital history. By the end of 2013, "Radioactive" had already sold over 3 million copies. Rolling Stone called it "the biggest rock hit of the year". It was also the most streamed song of 2013 on Spotify in the United States. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and the Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, winning the latter of the two. The band performed a medley of "Radioactive" and "M.A.A.D City" alongside rapper Kendrick Lamar at the ceremony. A remixed version of "Radioactive", featuring a newly added verse from Lamar, was released the next day and performed on the February 1, 2014 episode of Saturday Night Live. Third single "Demons" reached No. 1 on the Billboard Pop Songs, peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent 61 weeks on it. In 2021, RIAA declared that the song has become the band's third diamond selling song in the US. Fourth single "On Top Of The World" reached a peak of No. 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 and also spent 20 weeks on the chart. In the US, the non-singles off the album, "Bleeding Out" and "Amsterdam" were certified platinum while "Hear Me" and "Tiptoe" were certified gold. Billboard listed them as one of "2012's Brightest New Stars" and later "The Breakout Band of 2013". Imagine Dragons won the 2014 Billboard Music Awards for Top Duo/Group, Top Hot 100 Artist, and Top Rock Artist. Amazon.com called the band their "Favorite Rock Artist of 2012". In 2013, Imagine Dragons returned to Europe and North America with the Night Visions Tour. The band announced 13 additional US summer tour dates which also sold out. The band then announced a North America Amphitheatre tour. Pollstar listed the band in their Top 20 Concert Tours list by average box office gross despite their average ticket price being the third lowest on the list. The band released a live album, Live at Independent Records, in April 2013. 2014–2016: Smoke + Mirrors The idea behind the second studio album, dubbed as their "New Year's resolution", was to create music and finish it when the band feels that their work is done. Since the beginning of the Night Visions Tour, the band had been writing new material for an upcoming album, and, even as early as the start of the tour, had been recording demos for the album, before entering the studio. By the time that they entered the studio to work on the album, they had amassed 50 demos to work from. Prior to the album's release, Imagine Dragons released a number of singles for other projects including a song for the film Transformers: Age of Extinction, called "Battle Cry" (June 2014) and song "Warriors" for the 2014 League of Legends World Championship (September 2014). On October 24, they revealed the lead single to the upcoming album, "I Bet My Life" via several visual snippets on Facebook and Instagram. It was released on October 27. It was sent to US Alternative radio for ads on November 3. On December 16, the band announced their second album Smoke + Mirrors, along with the release of its second single "Gold". "Shots" was released as the album's third single on January 26, 2015. Imagine Dragons played at the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles on February 5, 2015. The half-hour set included the live debut of unreleased songs "Summer" and "I'm So Sorry". On February 8, the band partnered with Target for a performance of "Shots" as part of a live commercial aired during the Grammy Awards. Smoke + Mirrors was released on February 17. The album debuted atop the Billboard 200, making it the band's first number one album. The band began a world tour in support of the album on June 3 in Portland, Oregon. During the band's tour, Imagine Dragons released two non-album singles. "Roots" was released on August 26, 2015 and "I Was Me" on October 12, 2015 via iTunes. The band also released a cover of "I Love You All the Time" by Eagles of Death Metal on December 18, 2015, in support of the victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks. The Smoke + Mirrors Tour ended on February 5, 2016 in Amsterdam. The band released a one night only concert film, Imagine Dragons In Concert: Smoke + Mirrors, in select theaters on March 2, 2016, which was later released on DVD and Blu-Ray. Following the tour, the band planned to take a hiatus. They released the soundtracks songs "Not Today from Me Before You and "Sucker for Pain" from Suicide Squad with Lil Wayne, Wiz Khalifa, Logic, Ty Dolla Sign, and X Ambassadors in April and June, respectively. 2016–2020: Evolve and Origins Imagine Dragons began recording their third studio album in September 2016. The band teased the upcoming album by posting cryptic messages on their Twitter account for the next four months. They released the song "Levitate", recorded for the film Passengers, on December 2, 2016. On January 28, 2017, the band started posting a series of videos teasing the album's first single. The time-lapse videos featured lead singer Dan Reynolds drawing surreal images on a drawing pad. Morse code was hidden in the videos and translated to "objects of same color". On February 1, 2017, Imagine Dragons released "Believer" as the lead single for their next album. "Believer" was used as part of a Super Bowl ad for the Nintendo Switch. On April 27, 2017, the band released "Thunder" as the second single from their third album. On May 8, 2017, Imagine Dragons announced their third studio album Evolve, as well as a new track "Whatever It Takes", which was released on the same day. A tour in support for the album was also announced within the same day. The tour was held across 33 countries from September 2017 through September 2018. Evolve was released on June 23, 2017, worldwide. The album reached the top five in most countries but was met with mixed critical reception. The album and the single "Thunder" received nominations for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, respectively, at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards. "Whatever It Takes" was released as an official single off the album a few months later on October 6, 2017. The song won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Rock Video in 2018. On February 14, 2018, Imagine Dragons announced a new single titled "Next to Me" on Twitter. The song was released as part of a re-issue of Evolve on February 21, 2018. On June 12, 2018, Imagine Dragons announced a new single in collaboration with Kygo titled "Born to Be Yours" on Twitter. The song was released on June 15, 2018. In 2018, Imagine Dragons also became co-owners of esports team Rogue. On July 12, 2018, Imagine Dragons announced a new single titled "Natural" on Twitter. The song was released on July 17, 2018. The song was used as the anthem for the 2018 ESPN College Football season. The band concluded the Evolve tour in Tampa, Florida on August 10. On September 18, 2018, Imagine Dragons announced a new single titled "Zero", which was released the following day. It was used in the end credits of the Walt Disney Animation Studios film Ralph Breaks the Internet. On October 3, 2018, Imagine Dragons announced their fourth studio album, Origins, which was released on November 9, 2018. "Natural" and "Zero" serve as the lead singles off the album, while "Born to Be Yours" is featured on the international deluxe edition of the album. The band has described this album as a sister album to their previous work Evolve. On October 31, 2018, Imagine Dragons released the third single off the album, "Machine". Lastly, on November 6, 2018, Imagine Dragons released the album's fourth single, "Bad Liar". Origins debuted at number two in the US, making it their fourth top five album. It reached the top ten in multiple countries, but received mixed reviews from critics. On January 7, 2019, Imagine Dragons performed the halftime show for the 2019 College Football Championship game. The band performed "Natural", "Bad Liar", "Thunder", and a special version of "Believer" with rapper Lil Wayne. The new version of the song was released on streaming platforms the following day. In June 2019, Beat Games released a paid downloadable content (DLC) music pack for virtual reality rhythm game Beat Saber, called "Imagine Dragons Music Pack", that includes ten songs by Imagine Dragons. On June 20, 2019, Imagine Dragons released a new version "Birds", featuring Italian singer Elisa, as the fifth and final single from Origins. On July 23, 2019, an animated video for the original version of the song was released. In December 2019, Reynolds announced that he was taking a break from producing and writing music to focus on fatherhood. On January 20, 2020, the band released a music video for "Nothing Left to Say", a song from their debut album Night Visions. 2021–present: Mercury – Act 1 On March 8, 2021, Imagine Dragons announced the release of two singles, "Follow You" and "Cutthroat", which were released on March 12. The band began teasing their upcoming album which was executively produced by Rick Rubin. On June 29, 2021, the band announced the single "Wrecked", along with the pre-order for their fifth studio album Mercury – Act 1 a day later. The song was released on July 2, 2021. Mercury – Act 1 was released on September 3, along with the single "Monday". Similar to their previous work, the album was met with mixed critical reception. It debuted at number nine in the US. The album's release coincided with the announcement of a tour in support of the album. In October, the band re-released their first three extended plays onto streaming services and digital retailers. Each EP features a previously unreleased bonus track. The band also released the single "Enemy" featuring rapper JID, as part of the soundtrack to the Netflix series Arcane, on October 29. It is the second collaboration between Imagine Dragons and League of Legends, following "Warriors". They have since teased their sixth studio album, tentatively titled Mercury – Act 2. In January 2022, Reynolds stated that the album was "almost done" and would be released following the first leg of the Mercury Tour. The tour began on February 6 in Miami and is scheduled to conclude on July 16 in Paris. Musical style and influences Imagine Dragons' musical style has mainly been described as electropop, pop rock, pop, indie pop, arena rock, EDM, R&B, alternative rock, indie rock, synth-pop, dance-pop, trip hop and soft rock. Their music also has some influences of folk, folk-pop, drum and bass, dubstep, soul, industrial and hip hop. Dan Reynolds cites Arcade Fire, Nirvana, Muse, The Beatles, Paul Simon, Coldplay, Linkin Park, Harry Nilsson, and U2 as some of his and the band's artistic influences. In terms of success, Reynolds credits bands like Foster the People and Mumford & Sons for bringing alternative pop music to a new level of commercial success in recent years. Television appearances TV series and movie guestings The band performed an exclusive show for the sixth-season finale of the TV series Live from the Artists Den (2013). On October 24, 2013, Imagine Dragons guest-starred on an episode of truTV's Impractical Jokers, where losers Joe and Sal had to perform an opening act as "Señora Lanza" at a packed concert in Nikon at Jones Beach Theater. The band members joined Murr and Q. Imagine Dragons appeared on the first episode of the 2015 series The Muppets, to perform part of the song "Roots". The band recorded the single, "Battle Cry" for Transformers: Age of Extinction, the fourth film in the film series. The single was later included on the Super Deluxe Edition of the band's second studio album, Smoke + Mirrors (2015). The band composed the song "Not Today" from the soundtrack for Me Before You on April 28, 2016. The band also appears on the soundtrack for the film Suicide Squad. The song, titled "Sucker for Pain", features Lil Wayne, Wiz Khalifa, Logic, Ty Dolla Sign, and X Ambassadors. The band recorded the song "Levitate" for the science fiction film Passengers. The track was released on November 28, 2016. The band recorded the song "Zero" for the movie Ralph Breaks the Internet. The song plays during the end credits of the movie. The band also has a cameo appearance in the movie as themselves watching a video that Ralph posted online. In 2021, the band recorded the song "Enemy" for the Netflix original animated series Arcane: League of Legends. Animated versions of the band members are featured in the fifth episode of the show's first season, titled "Everybody Wants to Be My Enemy". Singles promotion Imagine Dragons has performed "It's Time" on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (2012), Jimmy Kimmel Live! (2012), Late Night with Jimmy Fallon (2012), and Conan (2013). They performed "Radioactive" live on Jimmy Kimmel Live! (2012), The Late Show with David Letterman (2013), The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (2013), Late Night with Jimmy Fallon (2013), and the MTV Europe Music Awards (2013). The band has performed "I Bet My Life" at the American Music Awards (2014), and The Ellen DeGeneres Show (2015). Imagine Dragons performed a version of "Revolution" at The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles (2014). They have also performed "Shots" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (2015), Jimmy Kimmel Live! (2015), and The Ellen DeGeneres Show (2015). They returned twice to The Ellen DeGeneres Show in 2017, performing "Believer" on the first visit and "Thunder" on the second time. They also performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. They also performed "Believer" and "Thunder" at the New Year's Eve party 2018 in New Orleans, which was broadcast live on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. In July 2018, the band returned to Jimmy Kimmel Live! to perform "Natural". They performed "Zero" on Jimmy Kimmel Live! at the premiere of Ralph Breaks the Internet. After the 2019-2020 hiatus, the band returned to live television by performing their new single "Follow You" at The Late Show With Stephen Colbert. The same song was also performed at The Ellen DeGeneres Show. They performed the next single of their new album Mercury Act 1, "Wrecked" at The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Sports event performances Imagine Dragons performed in Seoul World Cup Stadium, South Korea, at the 2014 League of Legends World Championship and the halftime show at the 102nd Grey Cup in Vancouver, British Columbia. In May 2018, Imagine Dragons performed "Whatever It Takes" on the ice at T-Mobile Arena in Las Vegas, before Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final between the Washington Capitals and Las Vegas's new NHL team, the Vegas Golden Knights. On January 7, 2019, Imagine Dragons and Lil Wayne performed at halftime of the College Football National Championship in Santa Clara, California. On June 1, 2019, Imagine Dragons performed at the opening ceremony of the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final at Madrid's Metropolitano Stadium. Other live performances The band also performed on Good Morning America (2013, 2015 and 2017), American Music Awards (2013), MTV Europe Music Awards (2013), Grammy Awards (2014), Saturday Night Live (2014), Billboard Music Awards (2014), and the MuchMusic Video Awards (2014). They also headlined the MLB's Target All-Star Concert (2014) and the inaugural Made In America Music Festival in Los Angeles. The band performed as one of the summer concert lineup for The Today Show (2015). The band collaborated with Khalid at the American Music Awards (2017). The band was one of the headliners at the 2018 iHeartRadio Music Festival on September 22 in Las Vegas, Nevada after finishing the last leg of their Evolve World Tour. They were set to perform again at the American Music Awards again the following year (2018), but had to cancel last minute due to a family emergency to one of the band members. Philanthropy In 2013, along with the family of Tyler Robinson, Imagine Dragons started a charity called the Tyler Robinson Foundation, helping young people battling cancer. Beginning in 2014, the first annual Tyler Robinson Foundation Gala was held in Las Vegas. Imagine Dragons performed for "Playing It Forward" (S1 E2) to raise $100,000 for school music programs. The band partnered with mtvU to help choose four Fulbright-mtvU Fellowship recipients. They partnered with Do the Write Thing: National Campaign to Stop Violence for a fundraising event. Imagine Dragons performed as part of Amnesty International's "Bringing Human Rights Home" concert in Brooklyn on February 5, 2014. In 2015, Imagine Dragons released the track "I Was Me" for the One4 project with all proceeds going to the UN Refugee Agency to support fleeing refugees, particularly in the Middle East. Imagine Dragons also released cover track "I Love You All The Time" to benefit the victims of the terrorist attacks in Paris. In 2017, the band helped organize the annual LoveLoud Festival which aims to raise awareness about LGBTQ youth and benefit LGBTQ organizations such as the Trevor Project. On June 22, 2018, in collaboration with film score composer Hans Zimmer, lead singer Dan Reynolds released a single titled "Skipping Stones". The song was released to correspond with his new documentary, Believer, a film that discusses the topic of the intersection between the LGBT community and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. All proceeds from the song benefit LGBTQ charities. Band members Current members Dan Reynolds – lead vocals, guitars, piano, keyboards, bass, drums, percussion (2008–present) Wayne Sermon – guitars, backing vocals, mandolin, drums, percussion, piano, synthesizers (2009–present) Ben McKee – bass, piano, keyboards, synthesizers, backing vocals, guitars, drums, percussion (2009–present) Daniel Platzman – drums, percussion, backing vocals, guitars, viola, keyboards (2011–present) Former members Andrew Beck – guitars, backing vocals (2008) Aurora Florence – piano, keyboards, backing vocals, violin (2008) Dave Lemke – bass, backing vocals (2008–2009) Andrew Tolman – drums, percussion, backing vocals, guitars (2008–2011) Brittany Tolman – piano, keyboards, backing vocals, guitars (2009–2011) Theresa Flaminio – piano, keyboards, backing vocals (2011) Timeline Discography Studio albums Night Visions (2012) Smoke + Mirrors (2015) Evolve (2017) Origins (2018) Mercury – Act 1 (2021) Awards and nominations Tours Fall Tour 2012 (2012) Night Visions Tour (2013–2014) Smoke + Mirrors Tour (2015–2016) Evolve World Tour (2017–2018) Mercury Tour (2022) References External links Tyler Robinson Foundation Official - Imagine Dragons (YouTube) 2008 establishments in Nevada Ableton Live users Alternative rock groups from Nevada Grammy Award winners Interscope Records artists Musical groups established in 2008 Musical groups from the Las Vegas Valley Musical quartets	6,027
doc-en-9883_0	Command & Conquer (also known by the retronym Command & Conquer: Tiberian Dawn) is a 1995 real-time strategy video game developed by Westwood Studios and published by Virgin Interactive. Set in an alternate history, the game tells the story of a world war between two globalized factions: the Global Defense Initiative of the United Nations and a cult-like militant organization called the Brotherhood of Nod, led by the mysterious Kane. The groups compete for control of Tiberium, a mysterious substance that slowly spreads across the world. Westwood conceived Command & Conquer during the final stages of the development of Dune II, and it expands on ideas explored in that title. Inspired by the events of the era, particularly the Gulf War, the team gave the game a modern warfare setting. The game contains live-action full motion video cutscenes, which star Westwood employees and a single professional actor, Joseph D. Kucan, who plays Kane. The Nintendo 64 port was developed by Looking Glass Studios. Command & Conquer was a commercial and critical success, selling over three million copies and winning numerous awards. It has been cited as the title that defined and popularized the real-time strategy genre. The game was the first in the Command & Conquer series, which sold 30 million copies by 2009. To mark the 12th anniversary of the franchise, Electronic Arts, the current publisher and owner of the series, released the game for free in 2007. Gameplay Command & Conquer involves players operating as one of two playable factions on a map - the Global Defense Initiative (GDI), and the Brotherhood of Nod - developing bases, gathering resources and using them to produce troops, and then defeating their opponents by eliminating their army and either destroying or capturing their base. Base production and unit training is funded by gathering Tiberium, the game's sole resource, through the use of harvesting units, and processing them into credits through a refinery structure. Each faction has its own unique types of units, its own superweapon, and its own combat strategy: GDI relies on superior firepower and armour at the expense of greater production costs and slower movement; while Nod relies on a combination of numerical superiority, superior speed, and unconventional tactics, generally at the expense of less firepower and poor durability. Producing units requires establishing a base through a special unit called a Mobile Construction Vehicle (MCV) - MCVs can only be deployed in open flat land, and structures must be placed within close proximity with each other. Bases can be protected with various defensive structures such as sandbags, gun turrets and concrete walls, and units are produced in production structures (i.e. Barracks for infantry, Factory for vehicles, Helipad for aircraft), with tech buildings helping to unlock more advanced units; construction options function on a tech tree, in that certain buildings must be constructed to unlock new options. Silos can be built to store more resources, as the refinery structures can only hold a finite amount, repair facilities can be built to repair damaged vehicles, and power plants are required to keep the base operational - low power slows down production, stops defensive weapons working, and causes buildings to slowly take damage over time until sufficient power is restored (either by constructing additional power plants, or selling off extra buildings to reduce total power requirements). In total, the game contains around fifty units and structures. Command & Conquer features two single-player campaigns, one for each faction, in which the player must undertake a series of missions across a campaign map for their chosen faction. The objective of most campaign missions is usually to destroy units, or destroy / take control of enemy buildings, with each mission beginning with a briefing conducted using a mix of computer animations and live-action full motion video (FMV). At times during the campaign, the player can choose which mission to undertake, which offer different scenarios to overcome. The original DOS release features multiplayer with up to four players, a rarity at the time, with internet-based multiplayer being made available in Command & Conquer Gold, which also features SVGA visuals. The game's Sega Saturn and PlayStation ports lack multiplayer support, though the latter was released with the inclusion of the fifteen single-player missions from The Covert Operations expansion pack. The Nintendo 64 version, while lacking multiplayer support as well, features updated graphics, with 3D models and environments, and four new "Special Ops" missions, though the FMV cutscenes were removed and replaced with static images, accompanied by voice acting and sound effects. Plot Setting Command & Conquer is set in an alternate history, and begins with a meteor crashing near the river Tiber in Italy in 1995. The meteorite brings with it an alien substance that scientists call Tiberium, named after its impact site, which can absorb and crystallize precious metals from the surrounding soil, but also terraform its surroundings and produce extremely toxic gases and radiation that is fatal to humans and animals. An ancient, cultic society called the Brotherhood of Nod, who claims to have foreseen the potentials of this new substance through their self-proclaimed messianic figure known only as Kane, invests in the development of technology to harvest and refine Tiberium crystals, way ahead of the scientific community's own research, and use the resources it gathers to accumulate a rapidly growing army of followers worldwide. By the beginning of the game, Tiberium has spread across the planet, with Nod having control of nearly half of substance that is growing, and conducting terrorist campaigns in wealthy countries, while establishing footholds in some of the poorer nations. The Global Defense Initiative, initially formed by the United Nations as a multinational peacekeeping force in the aftermath of an alternate version of World War II, has since been repurposed as a global anti-terrorist organization, and makes its new goal the elimination of Nod across the globe. The conflict between the two sides eventually culminates in a world-wide war between GDI and Nod, with the Nod campaign taking place in Africa and the GDI campaign being set in Europe. While all of the other Command & Conquer games made by Westwood Studios featured campaigns with mutually exclusive storylines, resulting in absolute victory for their respective factions, it is never made explicitly clear that this is the case for the first Command & Conquer. As a result, there has been speculation that both campaigns might be canon, with the GDI ending (which results in Kane's apparent demise) taking place after the Nod ending. GDI Campaign With the UN calling for GDI to assist in combating Nod in Europe, the player assists as a GDI commander under the command of General Mark Jamison Sheppard. After establishing a beachhead within Nod's territory in Eastern Europe, GDI focus on controlling Poland and Belarus and removing troops from occupied lands in Germany. However, Kane uses media manipulation to convince the world that GDI deliberately attacked and massacred the citizens of the Polish city of Białystok. Although Sheppard denies GDI's involvement, the UN cuts funding to the military outfit, forcing GDI to mount defensive operations against a sudden surge of Nod attacks, including protecting bases and leading Tiberium scientist Dr. Ignatio Mobius. However, Nod soon finds themselves on the defensive upon learning that it was a ruse designed by Sheppard and the UN to lure them into a false sense of security, with new funding allowing GDI to bring forth new combat units to help in battle. Eventually GDI locates Kane's main base of operation at a complex called the Temple of Nod in Sarajevo, Bosnia, with Solomon ordering his forces to launch a final assault to defeat him. GDI succeeds, with the complex destroyed by GDI's superweapon, the space-based Ion Cannon, ending the conflict, though leaving some experts to question if Nod will cease operating. Nod Campaign With Nod engaged in open warfare across the globe, Kane gives orders for his forces to secure territory in Africa, with his second-in-command Seth assigning the player, a new recruit, to assist in the Brotherhood's operations. After successfully conducting operations in Northern Africa through the use of both conventional and unconventional warfare, hitting GDI targets, eliminating warlords, and securing a set of codes for nuclear missiles, Seth attempts to send the recruit to attack the United States military, but is executed by Kane for initiating a rogue operation. Upon combating the chaos Seth created, and countering GDI's efforts to re-establish themselves in Northern Africa, Kane assigns his recruit to lead the charge in securing the rest of the continent, eventually culminating in them establishing a Temple of Nod in South Africa and securing control of GDI's Ion Cannon. With the cannon secured, Kane denotes victory in Africa, and makes plans to achieve the same in Europe, allowing the recruit to use the cannon to destroy one of four historical landmarks with the hijacked Ion Cannon - the White House, the British Houses of Parliament, the Eiffel Tower, or the Brandenburg Gate - thus shattering GDI's public image. Connection to Command & Conquer: Red Alert Command & Conquer: Red Alert was intended to be a prequel to Command & Conquer, and both the Allied and Soviet campaigns contain references to Command & Conquer. In particular, some of the Soviet mission briefings feature Kane, while one of the cutscenes in the Allied campaign directly foreshadows the creation of GDI. Also in the Soviet final cutscene, Nadia says "this temporary chaos in Europe will only help to fuel the Brotherhood's cause", mentions "the land of Nod", and states that "the Brotherhood will tire of the USSR in the early 1990s". However, Command & Conquer has the Brotherhood of Nod start out as an underground terrorist organisation initially operating out of the African continent, not as a major political force in control of the late Soviet empire. Furthermore, the Soviet Union is shown on world maps to no longer exist at the time, with the Russian Federation being shown as a member of GDI. With the release of Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2, a hotly debated topic which arose among fans was whether Command & Conquer follows the conclusion of the Allied or Soviet storyline, with evidence existing for both sides of the debate. Former C&C designer Adam Isgreen confirmed that Tiberian Dawn in fact follows on the conclusion of Red Alert's Allies campaign, while Red Alert 2 and Yuri's Revenge take place in a second parallel universe, created by a new attempt to alter history in "Tiberian Incursion", the working title of Westwood Studios' cancelled version of Command & Conquer 3. The exact relationship between the events of the two games remains unclear, and their connection was later disregarded by Electronic Arts, who preferred to treat the Tiberium and Red Alert series as completely separate universes. Development Westwood Studios began developing Command & Conquer in early 1993, after conceiving the game near the end of Dune II’s development. The team sought to build on the foundation laid by their earlier game, and Westwood co-founder Brett Sperry later said that "Command & Conquer was the net result of the Dune II wish list". Following the success of Dune II, Sperry believed that "it was time to build the ultimate RTS" with an original intellectual property. He later said that he was "fanatical about calling the game 'Command & Conquer'", because he believed that the title was an ideal summary of the gameplay. Command & Conquer originally took place in a high fantasy world before being redesigned. The team changed to a modern warfare setting because of the political climate of the mid-1990s, and they later cited the Gulf War as a key influence in this decision. Westwood co-founder Louis Castle said that "war was in the news and the threat of terrorism was on everyone's mind". The setting was further influenced by Sperry's belief that future wars would not be "nation-to-nation", but would rather be "fought between Western society and a kind of anarchistic terror organization that doesn't have a centralized government". The team sought to make the player feel like their computer was "a terminal to a real battlefield", going so far as to make the installation process resemble hacking a "military infrastructure". However, Castle noted that the team "created a parallel universe to avoid dealing with the sobering issues of a real war". In a retrospective, Paul Mallinson of Computer & Video Games (CVG) wrote that the game's production was "speedy, focused and fun". Castle said that, because the company was creating other titles at the time, development of Command & Conquer was not a "working party", but lead programmer Joe Bostic later said that it was "so much fun that I would sometimes marvel that I actually got paid as well". The game's playtesters were enthusiastic about the game during development, which Castle later said had encouraged the team to work harder. The team created live-action FMV cutscenes for the game. These cutscenes contain no professional actors aside from Kucan, who played Kane and was heavily involved in their production. The cast is made up of Westwood team members, and a low budget meant that filming took place in "spare rooms" and warehouses. Castle later said that the team "had no illusions that we were as good as TV or film", but that the cutscenes were not intentionally campy. He credited Kucan with "taking [a] ragtag group of people who had no business in front of a camera and making something reasonably good". To replace the spice from Dune II, the team introduced Tiberium, which was inspired by the 1957 B-movie The Monolith Monsters. Castle said that the team's goal in both cases was to create "a central resource that everybody was fighting over". As with Dune II, the soundtrack was composed by Frank Klepacki. To create the game's landscapes, the artists took digitized photographs of real world terrain and manipulated them with rendering techniques. Release The game was released for DOS in 1995. In 1996, the game received a Windows 95 re-release titled Command & Conquer: Gold (also known as C&C 95), featuring SVGA visuals. A port for the Macintosh was released in 1996, with the Sony PlayStation and Sega Saturn versions following in 1996–97, and the Nintendo 64 version arriving on June 29, 1999. Due to a deal between Virgin Interactive and Sega, the console version was a Saturn exclusive until 1997. In 2007, Command & Conquer was released as a free download by Electronic Arts. The game's PlayStation version was later released on the PlayStation Network in Europe. In 1996, Westwood released an expansion pack The Covert Operations, adding 15 new missions, and unlocking an easter egg mini-campaign involving dinosaurs. A spin-off game titled Command & Conquer: Sole Survivor focuses entirely on online multiplayer, putting the players in control of single units in modes such as deathmatch and capture the flag. In 2008, an unofficial patch was released to keep C&C working on both 32 and 64 bit versions of Windows XP and higher. The patch fixes several bugs in the game, and adds upgrades like higher resolution and support for language packs. A 3DO Interactive Multiplayer version of C&C was announced to be in development, but this port was never released. Reception Sales Command & Conquer was a commercial hit. In the United States, PC Data declared it the fourth-best-selling CD-ROM product across all categories for October 1995, and #7 in the computer game category the following month. It was absent from December's top 10 in the country. By April 1996, Command & Conquer had sold 500,000 copies worldwide, and Westwood Studios reported sales above 1 million units by September of that year. Domestically, the game was the seventh-best-selling computer game for the first half of 1996. The game was particularly popular in France and Germany, and sold 200,000 copies in the latter country by November 1996. Sales across all platforms reached 1.7 million units by February 1997, and the game went on to sell more than three million. Critical reviews Critical reception of Command & Conquer was highly positive. It was named the best strategy game of 1995 by PC Gamer US and—tied with Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest—Computer Gaming World, and the year's top real-time strategy title and overall "Game of the Year" by Computer Games Strategy Plus. In 1998, Command & Conquer Gold was nominated at the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences' first annual Interactive Achievement Awards in the category "Computer Strategy Game of the Year". Entertainment Weekly'''s Bob Strauss offered the game effusive praise, writing: "If you liked playing with toy soldiers as a kid, you'll think you've stepped on a land mine and gone to heaven". Strauss believed that its cutscenes, voice clips and "nonstop action" served to "[enliven] the usually stodgy war game genre". After highlighting its multiplayer and citing its installation process as "the coolest [...] I've ever seen", he concluded that the game "makes other war simulations look as flat as Risk". A reviewer for Next Generation called it "a game that any strategy fan has to pick up". While complaining at the lack of a high-resolution mode, he applauded the gameplay for its combination of simple and intuitive control with deep and complex strategy, and said the full motion video cutscenes add considerably to the game's depth. He also complimented the soundtrack and fast pace. Peter Smith of Computer Games Magazine called Command & Conquer "an adrenaline rush in a box", writing: "Everything about this game shouts quality". Smith lauded the game's music and sound effects, gameplay and story, and even its install program. Smith noted some minor problems, citing issues with the game's artificial intelligence, but finished by saying that "Westwood has really raised the bar with this one". Chris Hudak of GameSpot wrote: "Starting from the load-screens and straight on 'til morning, Command & Conquer is one of the finest, most brilliantly-designed computer games I have ever seen". Martin E. Cirulis of Computer Gaming World wrote that Command & Conquer "remains mainly a good, networkable version of Dune II". Cirulis found the game's interface intuitive and described its online component as "sophisticated and easy-to-use", also praising its story for being "as interesting as the actual tactics and gunfire", and commented that he "would buy C&C2 just to see where things are going to end up". However, according to him, the developers failed "to correct major shortcomings" in Dune II, as its fog of war does not fit with the real-world setting, also finding fault with design choices in the game's missions, which he believed were structured like "puzzles" that allowed for only one way to win. Nevertheless, he concluded that it remained "the best-looking and sounding strategy game yet" despite its flaws, and that it was "more than entertaining enough to make up for its shortcomings". Writing for PC Gamer US, T. Liam McDonald wrote that the game "has all the playability of Dune II, but with more diverse units, more unusual scenarios, and impressively executed wraparound cutscenes". McDonald called its combat a "satisfying blend of action and strategy", and noted that this, combined with an attention to "little details", made the game a "success", also praising its cutscenes as "terrifically executed". Although he was disappointed that the game lacked "fancier terrain or another zoom level", McDonald concluded: "This game is a whole lot of fun, so get it, play it, and love it like your own child". Ports The Electronic Gaming Monthly review team gave the Saturn version their "Game of the Month" award, citing the excellent translation of the PC version, accessible gameplay, and numerous strategic options, though they criticized that the soldier graphics are too small. All four of them gave identical scores to the PlayStation version, though they noted it had marginally exceeded the Saturn version by including additional missions. Rich Leadbetter of Sega Saturn Magazine also praised the game's accessibility, as well as the mission design, effective point-and-click control with the gamepad, and strong AI for both enemy and allied troops. On other side, he said the game could have been done on the Sega CD, and objected to the omission of the PC version's multiplayer mode, contending that had it been included Command & Conquer would have been one of the Saturn's best games. Major Mike reviewed both the Saturn and PlayStation versions in the same issue of GamePro. He described them as largely the same, and said they both suffer from inaccurate cursor movement, but recommended them for their strong gameplay, sound effects, and graphics, especially the full motion video. Next Generation deemed the Saturn version "the triumphant high point of [the] real-time strategy genre for home consoles". Like Leadbetter, the reviewer highly criticized the removal of multiplayer support, but argued that the lowered graphics resolution would only be noticeable to players of the PC version, and identified the remixed redbook soundtrack and added transparencies as improvements over the PC version. Reviewing Command & Conquer’s Sega Saturn port, Next Generation Online commented that it did little to improve the core game, and noted its lower resolution and missing multiplayer functionality as significant negatives, but the review still called it one of the console's best games and a "must-buy for Saturn owners". CVG’s Kim Randell wrote that the Saturn version is "up there with AM2's finest games" and "a joy to play", as it "thrives on deceptively simple gameplay" despite its unimpressive graphics and sound, and adding that the later missions are "masterpieces of gaming design". Randell believed that the port's missing multiplayer mode would have made it as good as Virtua Fighter 2 and NiGHTS Into Dreams, but that it "isn't far off this realm of excellence" without it.Game Informer's three reviewers praised the Saturn and PlayStation ports of Command & Conquer. While the magazine's Andy McNamara wrote that "the best way to play C&C is on the PC", he called the console version a "fantastic port" marred only by "rather clumsy" controls and the inability to save in the middle of a mission. Andrew Reiner agreed, calling it a "flawless PC port" that "perfectly" recreates the thrills of the original, but he was displeased that it did not feature multiplayer support. Jon Storm summarized it as "an excellent addition to any PlayStation or Saturn library". Glenn Rubenstein noted in his review that the score he was giving the Saturn version was the highest GameSpot had yet given to any console game, even exceeding Super Mario 64 and Tomb Raider. He said the game had converted well to Saturn, and in particular contested the way other critics counted the omission of multiplayer against it, saying that such a feature was beyond the console's capabilities. He concluded: "With its mix of in-depth strategy, tactical action, and slick storytelling, Command & Conquer brings console strategy games out of the shadow they've lived in for so long". Though he noted the PlayStation version had the advantage of additional missions, he held it to be slightly inferior to the Saturn version due to the faster speed at which it plays. He also criticized the lack of multiplayer, noting that the PlayStation Link Cable could have been used (apparently unaware that a similar link cable was available for the Saturn). A reviewer for Next Generation wrote: "Just like the ported Saturn version, PSX [PlayStation] C&C adds little to the existing game". The review's author cited the lower resolution and lack of multiplayer as low points, but noted that the addition of the Covert Operations missions "adds to the overall replay value". Reviewing the Nintendo 64 version of Command & Conquer, Erik Reppen of Game Informer wrote that it "has done an amazing job of completely reworking the old levels into a 3D polygonal format". Although he said that the game "offers plenty to keep you entertained", he disliked the heavy sound compression and the loss of the FMV cutscenes present in earlier versions. IGN's Aaron Boulding opened his review by saying: "To their credit, Looking Glass developed Command & Conquer with all of the elements you want from a quality RTS". Boulding praised the gameplay and the Special Ops missions, but noted that most of the units were distinct from the PC version. He was less happy with the port's graphics, calling them "hit and miss", though he lauded the audio effects and voice work. Boulding also said the controls were well handled, though a bit complicated, and concluded: "Command & Conquer is a fine game and may get a little addictive for anyone who never got into the PC version of the game. But for anyone who ran through the old version, the N64 won't offer much in the way of new thrills beyond the new N64 missions and the 3D world".Next Generation commented that, while earlier ports had trouble recreating the mouse controls of the original, the Nintendo 64 version "handles it beautifully". The review's author stated that the controller's analog stick "allow[s for] the same simple point and click interface as the PC", adding that "the entire interface is equally responsive and well planned". The reviewer praised its graphics and audio, even calling the voice acting "the most competent [...] ever to appear en masse on the platform", but disliked its lack of multiplayer support, and concluded that the port "keeps the spirit of the game perfectly while adapting it wonderfully to the limitations of the N64". James Bottorff of The Cincinnati Enquirer believed that advancements in the real-time strategy genre rendered the Nintendo 64 port outdated, despite its new "bells and whistles". However, Bottorff wrote that those who had not played earlier Command & Conquer releases would find it "highly addictive", adding that its "controls are surprisingly good for a PC port". A remastered version of Command & Conquer (along with its expansion packs) and its prequel, Red Alert, was done by Petroglyph Games. The Command & Conquer Remastered Collection was released on June 5, 2020. LegacyCommand & Conquer spawned the Command & Conquer franchise, which sold 30 million copies in total by November 2009. The story of the game continued in the Tiberian series, including an action title Command & Conquer: Renegade that revisits the original game's First Tiberium War. In 1996, Westwood launched the prequel series Red Alert, telling the story of a global conflict between the Western nations and the Soviet Union which took place instead of World War II. The game has also been cited as a large influence on the real-time strategy genre overall. In 1996, Computer Gaming World ranked Command & Conquer as the 48th best game of all time, opining that despite being not "as complete a design as Warcraft II", the game set "a new standard for great multiplayer play". That same year, Next Generation ranked it as the 49th top game of all time for how "it brought war gaming out of prehistoric, hexagonal mire and made it cool". CVG’s Mallinson wrote in 2002 that "hundreds of other strategy games", from StarCraft to Age of Empires, had borrowed concepts from Command & Conquer and "the RTS genre is still thriving, and that is all thanks to Command & Conquer". Bruce Geryk of GameSpot commented that "the name [Command & Conquer] is nearly synonymous with RTS gaming"; and GameSpy's Mark Walker wrote that "Warcraft and Dune II were little more than warm up acts" for Command & Conquer, which "blew open the genre", and credited the title with popularizing real-time strategy games in the years following its release. Dan Adams of IGN wrote that the game, alongside Warcraft: Orcs & Humans, "cemented the popularity" of the real-time strategy genre in the wake of Dune II''. Polish web portal Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the seventh most addictive game "that stole our childhood". References External links 1995 video games Command & Conquer Cancelled 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games Commercial video games with freely available source code DOS games ported to Windows Freeware games Looking Glass Studios games Classic Mac OS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Multiplayer online games Nintendo games PlayStation (console) games Real-time strategy video games Sega Saturn games Video games developed in the United States Video games scored by Frank Klepacki Video games set in 1999 Video games set in 2000 Video games set in 2001 Video games set in 2002 Alternate history video games Video games set in Albania Video games set in Angola Video games set in Austria Video games set in Belarus Video games set in Bosnia and Herzegovina Video games set in Bulgaria Video games set in Chad Video games set in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Video games set in Egypt Video games set in Estonia Video games set in Germany Video games set in Greece Video games set in Hungary Video games set in Latvia Video games set in Libya Video games set in Mauritania Video games set in Mexico Video games set in Mozambique Video games set in Namibia Video games set in Nigeria Video games set in Poland Video games set in Romania Video games set in Serbia Video games set in Slovakia Video games set in Slovenia Video games set in South Africa Video games set in Sudan Video games set in Tanzania Video games set in Ukraine Video games set in the Czech Republic Video games with expansion packs Virgin Interactive games War video games set in Europe Windows games	6,385
doc-en-10019_0	The oboe ( ) is a type of double reed woodwind instrument. Oboes are usually made of wood, but may also be made of synthetic materials, such as plastic, resin, or hybrid composites. The most common oboe plays in the treble or soprano range. A soprano oboe measures roughly long, with metal keys, a conical bore and a flared bell. Sound is produced by blowing into the reed at a sufficient air pressure, causing it to vibrate with the air column. The distinctive tone is versatile and has been described as "bright". When the word oboe is used alone, it is generally taken to mean the treble instrument rather than other instruments of the family, such as the bass oboe, the cor anglais (English horn), or oboe d'amore. A musician who plays the oboe is called an oboist. Today, the oboe is commonly used as orchestral or solo instrument in symphony orchestras, concert bands and chamber ensembles. The oboe is especially used in classical music, film music, some genres of folk music, and is occasionally heard in jazz, rock, pop, and popular music. The oboe is widely recognized as the instrument that tunes the orchestra with its distinctive 'A'. Sound In comparison to other modern woodwind instruments, the treble oboe is sometimes referred to as having a clear and penetrating voice. The Sprightly Companion, an instruction book published by Henry Playford in 1695, describes the oboe as "Majestical and Stately, and not much Inferior to the Trumpet". In the play Angels in America the sound is described as like "that of a duck if the duck were a songbird". The rich timbre is derived from its conical bore (as opposed to the generally cylindrical bore of flutes and clarinets). As a result, oboes are easier to hear over other instruments in large ensembles due to its penetrating sound. The highest note is a semitone lower than the nominally highest note of the B clarinet. Since the clarinet has a wider range, the lowest note of the B clarinet is significantly deeper (a minor sixth) than the lowest note of the oboe. Music for the standard oboe is written in concert pitch (i.e., it is not a transposing instrument), and the instrument has a soprano range, usually from B3 to G6. Orchestras tune to a concert A played by the first oboe. According to the League of American Orchestras, this is done because the pitch is secure and its penetrating sound makes it ideal for tuning. The pitch of the oboe is affected by the way in which the reed is made. The reed has a significant effect on the sound. Variations in cane and other construction materials, the age of the reed, and differences in scrape and length all affect the pitch. German and French reeds, for instance, differ in many ways, causing the sound to vary accordingly. Weather conditions such as temperature and humidity also affect the pitch. Skilled oboists adjust their embouchure to compensate for these factors. Subtle manipulation of embouchure and air pressure allows the oboist to express timbre and dynamics. Reeds The oboe uses a double reed, similar to that used for the bassoon. Most professional oboists make their reeds to suit their individual needs. By making their reeds, oboists can precisely control factors such as tone color, intonation, and responsiveness. They can also account for individual embouchure, oral cavity, oboe angle, and air support. Novice oboists rarely make their own reeds, as the process is difficult and time consuming, and frequently purchase reeds from a music store instead. Commercially available cane reeds are available in several degrees of hardness; a medium reed is very popular, and most beginners use medium-soft reeds. These reeds, like clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon reeds, are made from Arundo donax. As oboists gain more experience, they may start making their own reeds after the model of their teacher or buying handmade reeds (usually from a professional oboist) and using special tools including gougers, pre-gougers, guillotines, knives, and other tools to make and adjust reeds to their liking. The reed is considered the part of oboe that makes the instrument so difficult because the individual nature of each reed means that it is hard to achieve a consistent sound. Slight variations in temperature, humidity, altitude, weather, and climate can also have an effect on the sound of the reed, as well as minute changes in the physique of the reed. Oboists often prepare several reeds to achieve a consistent sound, as well as to prepare for environmental factors such as chipping of a reed or other hazards. Oboists may have different preferred methods for soaking their reeds to produce optimal sounds; the most preferred method tends to be to soak the oboe reed in water before playing. Plastic oboe reeds are rarely used, and are less readily available than plastic reeds for other instruments, such as the clarinet. However they do exist, and are produced by brands such as Legere. History In English, prior to 1770, the standard instrument was called a hautbois, hoboy, or French hoboy ( ). This was borrowed from the French name, , which is a compound word made up of haut ("high", "loud") and bois ("wood", "woodwind"). Literally translated, the French word means 'high-pitched woodwind' in English. The spelling of oboe was adopted into English c. 1770 from the Italian oboè, a transliteration of the 17th-century pronunciation of the French name. The regular oboe first appeared in the mid-17th century, when it was called a hautbois. This name was also used for its predecessor, the shawm, from which the basic form of the hautbois was derived. Major differences between the two instruments include the division of the hautbois into three sections, or joints (which allowed for more precise manufacture), and the elimination of the pirouette, the wooden ledge below the reed which allowed players to rest their lips. The exact date and place of origin of the hautbois are obscure, as are the individuals who were responsible. Circumstantial evidence, such as the statement by the flautist composer Michel de la Barre in his Memoire, points to members of the Philidor (Filidor) and Hotteterre families. The instrument may in fact have had multiple inventors. The hautbois quickly spread throughout Europe, including Great Britain, where it was called hautboy, hoboy, hautboit, howboye, and similar variants of the French name. It was the main melody instrument in early military bands, until it was succeeded by the clarinet. The standard Baroque oboe is generally made of boxwood and has three keys: a "great" key and two side keys (the side key is often doubled to facilitate use of either the right or left hand on the bottom holes). In order to produce higher pitches, the player has to "overblow", or increase the air stream to reach the next harmonic. Notable oboe-makers of the period are the Germans Jacob Denner and J.H. Eichentopf, and the English Thomas Stanesby (died 1734) and his son Thomas Jr (died 1754). The range for the Baroque oboe comfortably extends from C4 to D6. With the resurgence of interest in early music in the mid 20th century, a few makers began producing copies to specifications taken from surviving historical instruments. Classical The Classical period brought a regular oboe whose bore was gradually narrowed, and the instrument became outfitted with several keys, among them those for the notes D, F, and G. A key similar to the modern octave key was also added called the "slur key", though it was at first used more like the "flick" keys on the modern German bassoon. Only later did French instrument makers redesign the octave key to be used in the manner of the modern key (i.e. held open for the upper register, closed for the lower). The narrower bore allows the higher notes to be more easily played, and composers began to more often utilize the oboe's upper register in their works. Because of this, the oboe's tessitura in the Classical era was somewhat broader than that found in Baroque works. The range for the Classical oboe extends from C4 to F6 (using the scientific pitch notation system), though some German and Austrian oboes are capable of playing one half-step lower. Classical-era composers who wrote concertos for oboe include Mozart (both the solo concerto in C major K. 314/285d and the lost original of Sinfonia Concertante in E major K. 297b, as well as a fragment of F major concerto K. 417f), Haydn (both the Sinfonia Concertante in B Hob. I:105 and the spurious concerto in C major Hob. VIIg:C1), Beethoven (the F major concerto, Hess 12, of which only sketches survive, though the second movement was reconstructed in the late 20th century), and numerous other composers including Johann Christian Bach, Johann Christian Fischer, Jan Antonín Koželuh, and Ludwig August Lebrun. Many solos exist for the regular oboe in chamber, symphonic, and operatic compositions from the Classical era. Wiener oboe The Wiener oboe (Viennese oboe) is a type of modern oboe that retains the essential bore and tonal characteristics of the historical oboe. The Akademiemodel Wiener Oboe, first developed in the late 19th century by Josef Hajek from earlier instruments by C. T. Golde of Dresden (1803–73), is now made by several makers such as André Constantinides, Karl Rado, Guntram Wolf, Christian Rauch and Yamaha. It has a wider internal bore, a shorter and broader reed and the fingering-system is very different from the conservatoire oboe. In The Oboe, Geoffrey Burgess and Bruce Haynes write "The differences are most clearly marked in the middle register, which is reedier and more pungent, and the upper register, which is richer in harmonics on the Viennese oboe". Guntram Wolf describes them: "From the concept of the bore, the Viennese oboe is the last representative of the historical oboes, adapted for the louder, larger orchestra, and fitted with an extensive mechanism. Its great advantage is the ease of speaking, even in the lowest register. It can be played very expressively and blends well with other instruments." The Viennese oboe is, along with the Vienna horn, perhaps the most distinctive member of the Wiener Philharmoniker instrumentarium. Conservatoire oboe This oboe was developed further in the 19th century by the Triébert family of Paris. Using the Boehm flute as a source of ideas for key work, Guillaume Triébert and his sons, Charles and Frederic, devised a series of increasingly complex yet functional key systems. A variant form using large tone holes, the Boehm system oboe, was never in common use, though it was used in some military bands in Europe into the 20th century. F. Lorée of Paris made further developments to the modern instrument. Minor improvements to the bore and key work have continued through the 20th century, but there has been no fundamental change to the general characteristics of the instrument for several decades. Modern oboe The modern standard oboe is most commonly made from grenadilla, also known as African blackwood, though some manufacturers also make oboes out of other members of the genus Dalbergia, which includes cocobolo, rosewood, and violetwood (also known as kingwood). Ebony (genus Diospyros) has also been used. Student model oboes are often made from plastic resin, to avoid instrument cracking to which wood instruments are prone, but also to make the instrument more economical. The oboe has an extremely narrow conical bore. It is played with a double reed consisting of two thin blades of cane tied together on a small-diameter metal tube (staple) which is inserted into the reed socket at the top of the instrument. The commonly accepted range for the oboe extends from B3 to about G6, over two and a half octaves, though its common tessitura lies from C4 to E6. Some student oboes only extend down to B3 (the key for B is not present). A modern oboe with the "full conservatoire" ("conservatory" in the US) or Gillet key system has 45 pieces of keywork, with the possible additions of a third-octave key and alternate (left little finger) F- or C-key. The keys are usually made of nickel silver, and are silver- or occasionally gold-plated. Besides the full conservatoire system, oboes are also made using the British thumbplate system. Most have "semi-automatic" octave keys, in which the second-octave action closes the first, and some have a fully automatic octave key system, as used on saxophones. Some full-conservatory oboes have finger holes covered with rings rather than plates ("open-holed"), and most of the professional models have at least the right-hand third key open-holed. Professional oboes used in the UK and Iceland frequently feature conservatoire system combined with a thumb plate. Releasing the thumb plate has the same effect as pressing down the right-hand index-finger key. This produces alternate options which eliminate the necessity for most of the common cross-intervals (intervals where two or more keys need to be released and pressed down simultaneously), but cross intervals are much more difficult to execute in such a way that the sound remains clear and continuous throughout the frequency change (a quality also called legato and often called-for in the oboe repertoire). Other members of the oboe family The standard oboe has several siblings of various sizes and playing ranges. The most widely known and used today is the cor anglais (English horn) the tenor (or alto) member of the family. A transposing instrument; it is pitched in F, a perfect fifth lower than the oboe. The oboe d'amore, the alto (or mezzo-soprano) member of the family, is pitched in A, a minor third lower than the oboe. J.S. Bach made extensive use of both the oboe d'amore as well as the taille and oboe da caccia, Baroque antecedents of the cor anglais. Even less common is the bass oboe (also called baritone oboe), which sounds one octave lower than the oboe. Delius, Strauss and Holst scored for the instrument. Similar to the bass oboe is the more powerful heckelphone, which has a wider bore and larger tone than the baritone oboe. Only 165 heckelphones have ever been made. Not surprisingly, competent heckelphone players are difficult to find due to the extreme rarity of this particular instrument. The least common of all are the musette (also called oboe musette or piccolo oboe), the sopranino member of the family (it is usually pitched in E or F above the oboe), and the contrabass oboe (typically pitched in C, two octaves deeper than the standard oboe). Folk versions of the oboe, sometimes equipped with extensive keywork, are found throughout Europe. These include the musette (France) and the piston oboe and bombarde (Brittany), the piffero and ciaramella (Italy), and the xirimia (also spelled chirimia) (Spain). Many of these are played in tandem with local forms of bagpipe, particularly with the Italian müsa and zampogna or Breton biniou. Notable classical works featuring the oboe Tomaso Albinoni, Oboe (and two-oboe) Concerti Georg Philipp Telemann, oboe concerti and sonatas, trio sonatas for oboe, recorder, and basso continuo Antonio Vivaldi, at least 15 oboe concertos Johann Sebastian Bach, Brandenburg concertos nos. 1 and 2, Concerto for Violin and oboe, lost oboe concerti, numerous oboe obbligato lines in the sacred and secular cantatas Tchaikovsky, theme to Swan Lake Samuel Barber, Canzonetta, op. 48, for oboe and string orchestra (1977–78, orch. completed by Charles Turner) Vincenzo Bellini, Concerto in E-flat, for oboe and chamber orchestra consisting of orchestra consisting of two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, tho bassoons, two French horns, and strings (before 1825) Luciano Berio, Chemins IV (on Sequenza VII), for oboe and string orchestra (1975) Harrison Birtwistle, An Interrupted Endless Melody, for oboe and piano (1991) Harrison Birtwistle, Pulse Sampler, for oboe and claves (1981) Benjamin Britten, Six Metamorphoses after Ovid, op. 49, Temporal Variations, Two Insect Pieces, Phantasy Quartet, op. 2 Elliott Carter, Oboe Concerto (1986–87); Trilogy, for oboe and harp (1992); Quartet for oboe, violin, viola, and cello (2001) Morton Feldman, Oboe and Orchestra (1976) Vivian Fine, Sonatina for Oboe and Piano (1939) Domenico Cimarosa, Oboe Concerto in C major (arranged) John Corigliano, Oboe Concerto (1975) Miguel del Águila, Summer Song for oboe and piano Antal Doráti, Duo Concertante for Oboe and Piano Madeleine Dring, Three Piece Suite arr. Roger Lord Madeleine Dring, Trio for oboe, flute and piano Henri Dutilleux, Les Citations for oboe, harpsichord, double bass and percussion (1991) Eric Ewazen, Down a River of Time, oboe and string orchestra (1999) Eugene Aynsley Goossens, Concerto for Oboe, Op. 45 (1928) Edvard Grieg, Symphonic Dances Op. 64, no. 2 George Frideric Handel, "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba", Oboe Concerto No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and sonatas Joseph Haydn (spurious, possibly by Malzat), Oboe Concerto in C major Hans Werner Henze, Doppio concerto, for oboe, harp, and string orchestra (1966) Jennifer Higdon, Oboe Concerto, 2005 Paul Hindemith, Sonata for Oboe and Piano Heinz Holliger, Sonata, for unaccompanied oboe (1956–57/99); Mobile, for oboe and harp (1962); Trio, for oboe (doubling English horn), viola, and harp (1966); Studie über Mehrklänge, for unaccompanied oboe (1971); Sechs Stücke, for oboe (doubling oboe d’amore) and harp (1998–99) Charles Koechlin Sonata for Oboe and Piano, Op. 58 Antonio Lotti, Concerto for oboe d'amore Witold Lutosławski, Double Concerto for Oboe, Harp, and Chamber Orchestra Bruno Maderna, 3 oboe concertos (1962–63) (1967) (1973); Grande aulodia, for flute, oboe, and orchestra (1970), Aulodia for Oboe d´amore (and guitar ad Libitum) Alessandro Marcello, Concerto in D minor Bohuslav Martinů, Concerto for Oboe and Small Orchestra Olivier Messiaen, Concert à quatre Darius Milhaud, Les rêves de Jacob, op. 294, for oboe, violin, viola, cello, and doublebass (1949); Sonatina, op. 337, for oboe and piano (1954) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Oboe Concerto in C major, Quartet in F major for oboe, violin, viola, and cello Carl Nielsen, Two Fantasy Pieces for Oboe and Piano, op. 2 Antonio Pasculli, oboe concertos for oboe and piano/orchestra Francis Poulenc, Oboe Sonata Sergei Prokofiev, Quintet for Oboe, Clarinet, Violin, Viola and Bass op. 39 (1923) Sergei Prokofiev, Peter and the Wolf, the duck Maurice Ravel, Le Tombeau de Couperin Edmund Rubbra, Oboe Sonata Camille Saint-Saëns, Sonata for Oboe and Piano in D Major Robert Schumann, Three Romances for Oboe and Piano Karlheinz Stockhausen, In Freundschaft, for oboe, Nr. 46⅔, Oboe for oboe and electronic music (from Orchester-Finalisten, scene 2 of Mittwoch aus Licht) Richard Strauss, Oboe Concerto Igor Stravinsky, Pastorale (transcribed in 1933 for Violin and Wind Quartet) Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Concerto for Oboe and Small Orchestra (1952) Toru Takemitsu, Distance for Oboe and Shō [ad lib.] (1971) Toru Takemitsu, Entre-Temps for Oboe and String Quartett (1981) Joan Tower, Island Prelude (1988) Isang Yun, Concerto for Oboe (Oboe d'amore) and Orchestra (1990) Josef Tal, Duo for oboe & English horn (1992) Ralph Vaughan Williams, Concerto for Oboe and Strings, Ten Blake Songs for oboe and tenor John Woolrich, Oboe Concerto (1996) Jan Dismas Zelenka (1723) Concertanti, Oboe Trios and other works Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, Oboe Concerto Flor Alpaerts, Concertstuk for Oboe and Piano Lior Navok Fuzzy, for oboe and piano (2018) Unaccompanied pieces Benjamin Britten, Six Metamorphoses after Ovid, Op.49 (1951) Carlos Chávez, Upingos (1957) Eugene Aynsley Goossens, Islamite Dance (1962); Searching For Lambs, Op. 49 (1930); When Thou Art Dead, Op. 43 (1926) Luciano Berio, Sequenza VII (1969) Isang Yun, Piri (1971) Antal Doráti, Five Pieces for Solo Oboe (1980) Peter Maxwell Davies, First Grace of Light (1991) John Palmer, Hinayana (1999), including extended techniques Use in non-classical music Jazz The oboe remains uncommon in jazz music, but there have been notable uses of the instrument. Some early bands in the 1920s and '30s, most notably that of Paul Whiteman, included it for coloristic purposes. The multi-instrumentalist Garvin Bushell (1902–1991) played the oboe in jazz bands as early as 1924 and used the instrument throughout his career, eventually recording with John Coltrane in 1961. Gil Evans featured oboe in sections of his famous Sketches of Spain collaboration with trumpeter Miles Davis. Though primarily a tenor saxophone and flute player, Yusef Lateef was among the first (in 1961) to use the oboe as a solo instrument in modern jazz performances and recordings. Composer and double bassist Charles Mingus gave the oboe a brief but prominent role (played by Dick Hafer) in his composition "I.X. Love" on the 1963 album Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus. With the birth of jazz fusion in the late 1960s, and its continuous development through the following decade, the oboe became somewhat more prominent, replacing on some occasions the saxophone as the focal point. The oboe was used with great success by the Welsh multi-instrumentalist Karl Jenkins in his work with the groups Nucleus and Soft Machine, and by the American woodwind player Paul McCandless, co-founder of the Paul Winter Consort and later Oregon. The 1980s saw an increasing number of oboists try their hand at non-classical work, and many players of note have recorded and performed alternative music on oboe. Some present-day jazz groups influenced by classical music, such as the Maria Schneider Orchestra, feature the oboe. Rock and pop Indie singer-songwriter and composer Sufjan Stevens, having studied the instrument in school, often includes the instrument in his arrangements and compositions, most frequently in his geographic tone-poems Illinois, Michigan. Peter Gabriel played the oboe while he was a member of Genesis, most prominently on "The Musical Box". Film music The oboe is frequently featured in film music, often to underscore a particularly poignant or sad scene, for example in the 1989 film Born on the Fourth of July. One of the most prominent uses of the oboe in a film score is Ennio Morricone's "Gabriel's Oboe" theme from the 1986 film The Mission. It is featured as a solo instrument in the theme "Across the Stars" from the John Williams score to the 2002 film Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones. The oboe is also featured as a solo instrument in the "Love Theme" in Nino Rota's score to The Godfather (1972). Notable oboists Oboe manufacturers Barrington Instruments Inc. (Barrington, Illinois, USA) Boosey & Hawkes (1851–1970s) (London, UK) Buffet Crampon (Mantes-la-Ville, France) Bulgheroni (Parè, Italy) Cabart or Thibouville-Cabart (1869–1974, bought out by F. Lorée) (Paris, France) Carmichael (UK) Chauvet (until ~ 1975) (Paris, France) Mark Chudnow (MCW, Sierra) (Napa, California, USA) Constantinides (Pöggstall, Austria) Covey (Blairsville, Georgia, USA) Dupin (Moutfort, Luxembourg) D.W.K (Seoul, Korea) Fossati (incl. Tiery) (Paris, France) Fox (South Whitley, Indiana, USA) Frank (Berlin, Germany) Graessel (Nürnberg, Germany) Heckel (until the 1960s) (Wiesbaden, Germany) Thomas Hiniker Woodwinds (Rochester, Minnesota, USA) TW Howarth (London, UK) Incagnoli (Rome, Italy) A. Jardé (prior to WWII) (Paris, France) Josef (Okinawa and Tokyo, Japan) V. Kohlert & Söhne (1840–1948 Graslitz, Czechoslovakia, 1948–1970s Kohlert & Co. Winnenden, Germany) Kreul (incl. Mirafone) (Tübingen, Germany) J. R. LaFleur (1865–1938, bought by Boosey & Hawkes) (London, UK) Larilee Woodwind Corp. (USA) (Elkhart, Indiana, USA) A. Laubin (incl. "A. Barré") (Peekskill, New York G. LeBlanc (France, USA) Linton (Elkhart, Indiana, USA) F. Lorée (incl. Cabart) (Paris, France) Louis (prior to WWII) (London, UK) Malerne (until 1974, bought by Marigaux) (La Couture-Boussey, France) Marigaux (Mantes-la-Ville, France) Markardt (until 1976, bought by Mönnig) (Erlbach, Germany) Mollenhauer (before WWII; now only recorders) (Fulda, Germany) Gebr. Mönnig – Oscar Adler (Markneukirchen, Germany) John Packer (Taunton, UK) Patricola (Castelnuovo Scrivia, Italy) Püchner (Nauheim, Germany) Karl Radovanovic (Vienna, Austria) Rigoutat (incl. RIEC) (Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France) A. Robert (prior to WWII) (Paris, France) Sand N. Dalton, instrument maker (Lopez Island, Washington) Selmer (incl. Bundy, Lesher, Omega, Signet) (France, USA) Tom Sparkes (Hornsby, New South Wales, Australia) Ward & Winterbourne (London, UK) Guntram Wolf (Kronach, Germany) Yamaha (Japan) Notes References Further reading Baines, Anthony: 1967, Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. London: Faber and Faber. Beckett, Morgan Hughes: 2008, "The Sensuous Oboe". Orange, California: Scuffin University Press. . Gioielli, Mauro: 1999. "La 'calamaula' di Eutichiano". Utriculus 8, no. 4 (32) (October–December): 44–45. Harris-Warrick, Rebecca: 1990, "A Few Thoughts on Lully's Hautbois" Early Music 18, no. 1 (February, "The Baroque Stage II"): 97-98+101-102+105-106. Haynes, Bruce: 1985, Music for Oboe, 1650–1800: A Bibliography. Fallen Leaf Reference Books in Music, 8755-268X; no. 4. Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press. . Haynes, Bruce: 1988, "Lully and the Rise of the Oboe as Seen in Works of Art". Early Music 16, no. 3 (August): 324–38. Haynes, Bruce: 2001, The Eloquent Oboe: A History of the Hautboy 1640–1760. Oxford Early Music Series. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. . External links Peter Wuttke: The Haynes-Catalog bibliography of literature for oboe written between 1650 and 1800. A Guide to Choosing an Oboe Student, intermediate & professional oboes explained. Experiments in Jazz Oboe by Alison Wilson (archive link) Oboist Liang Wang: His Reeds Come First NPR story by Debbie Elliott Oboe sound gallery of clips of dozens of prominent oboists in the United States, Europe, and Australia Fingering chart from the Woodwind Fingering Guide Fingering chart for Android devices Pictures of oboe reeds made by famous oboists Single oboes with conical bore Classical music instruments Baroque instruments Orchestral instruments	7,006
doc-en-7099_0	Wife selling in England was a way of ending an unsatisfactory marriage that likely began in the late 17th century, when divorce was a practical impossibility for all but the very wealthiest. After parading his wife with a halter around her neck, arm, or waist, a husband would publicly auction her to the highest bidder. Wife selling provides the backdrop for Thomas Hardy's 1886 novel The Mayor of Casterbridge, in which the central character sells his wife at the beginning of the story, an act that haunts him for the rest of his life, and ultimately destroys him. Although the custom had no basis in law and frequently resulted in prosecution, particularly from the mid-19th century onwards, the attitude of the authorities was equivocal. At least one early 19th-century magistrate is on record as stating that he did not believe he had the right to prevent wife sales, and there were cases of local Poor Law Commissioners forcing husbands to sell their wives, rather than having to maintain the family in workhouses. Wife selling persisted in England in some form until the early 20th century; according to the jurist and historian James Bryce, writing in 1901, wife sales were still occasionally taking place during his time. In one of the last reported instances of a wife sale in England, a woman giving evidence in a Leeds police court in 1913 claimed that she had been sold to one of her husband's workmates for £1. Legal background Wife selling in its "ritual form" appears to be an "invented custom" that originated at about the end of the 17th century, although there is an account from 1302 of someone who "granted his wife by deed to another man". The practice was common enough in the 17th century for the English philosopher John Locke to write (apparently as a joke) in a letter to French scientist that "Among other things I have ordered you a beautiful girl to be your wife [...] If you do not like her after you have experimented with her for a while you can sell her and I think at a better price than a man received for his wife last week in London where he sold her for four sous a pound; I think yours will bring 5 or 6s per pound because she is beautiful, young, and very tender and will fetch a good price in her condition." With the rise in popularity of newspapers, reports of the practice become more frequent in the second half of the 18th century. In the words of 20th-century writer Courtney Kenny, the ritual was "a custom rooted sufficiently deeply to show that it was of no recent origin". Writing in 1901 on the subject of wife selling, James Bryce stated that there was "no trace at all in our [English] law of any such right", but he also observed that "everybody has heard of the odd habit of selling a wife, which still occasionally recurs among the humbler classes in England". It was often claimed to be common in rural England, but cleric and folkloricist Sabine Baring-Gould dedicated a whole chapter to it in his book on Devonshire folklore. As a child he witnessed the local poet return from market with a bought wife, and when confronted by the local justice of the peace and vicar (both related to Baring-Gould) he claimed the sale had been carried out correctly and that it was both legal and Christian. Marriage Until the passing of the Marriage Act of 1753, a formal ceremony of marriage before a clergyman was not a legal requirement in England, and marriages were unregistered. All that was required was for both parties to agree to the union, so long as each had reached the legal age of consent, which was 12 for girls and 14 for boys. Women were completely subordinated to their husbands after marriage, the husband and wife becoming one legal entity, a legal status known as coverture. As the eminent English judge Sir William Blackstone wrote in 1753: "the very being, or legal existence of the woman, is suspended during the marriage, or at least is consolidated and incorporated into that of her husband: under whose wing, protection and cover, she performs everything". Married women could not own property in their own right, and were indeed themselves the property of their husbands. But Blackstone went on to observe that "even the disabilities the wife lies under are, for the most part, intended for her protection and benefit. So great a favourite is the female sex of the laws of England". Separation Five distinct methods of breaking up a marriage existed in the early modern period of English history. One was to sue in the ecclesiastical courts for separation from bed and board (a mensa et thoro), on the grounds of adultery or life-threatening cruelty, but it did not allow a remarriage. From the 1550s, until the Matrimonial Causes Act became law in 1857, divorce in England was only possible, if at all, by the complex and costly procedure of a private Act of Parliament. Although the divorce courts set up in the wake of the 1857 Act made the procedure considerably cheaper, divorce remained prohibitively expensive for the poorer members of society. An alternative was to obtain a "private separation", an agreement negotiated between both spouses, embodied in a deed of separation drawn up by a conveyancer. Desertion or elopement was also possible, whereby the wife was forced out of the family home, or the husband simply set up a new home with his mistress. Finally, the less popular notion of wife selling was an alternative but illegitimate method of ending a marriage. The Laws Respecting Women, As They Regard Their Natural Rights (1777) observed that, for the poor, wife selling was viewed as a "method of dissolving marriage", when "a husband and wife find themselves heartily tired of each other, and agree to part, if the man has a mind to authenticate the intended separation by making it a matter of public notoriety". Although some 19th-century wives objected, records of 18th-century women resisting their sales are non-existent. With no financial resources, and no skills on which to trade, for many women a sale was the only way out of an unhappy marriage. Indeed, the wife is sometimes reported as having insisted on the sale. A wife sold in Wenlock Market for 2s 6d in 1830 was quite determined that the transaction should go ahead, despite her husband's last-minute misgivings: e [the husband] turned shy, and tried to get out of the business, but Mattie mad' un stick to it. 'Er flipt her apern in 'er gude man's face, and said, 'Let be yer rogue. I wull be sold. I wants a change'." For the husband, the sale released him from his marital duties, including any financial responsibility for his wife. For the purchaser, who was often the wife's lover, the transaction freed him from the threat of a legal action for criminal conversation, a claim by the husband for restitution of damage to his property, in this case his wife. Sale It is unclear when the ritualised custom of selling a wife by public auction first began, but it seems likely to have been some time towards the end of the 17th century. In November 1692 "John, the son of Nathan Whitehouse, of Tipton, sold his wife to Mr. Bracegirdle", although the manner of the sale is unrecorded. In 1696, Thomas Heath Maultster was fined for "cohabiteing in an unlawful manner with the wife of George ffuller of Chinner ... haueing bought her of her husband at 2d.q. the pound", and ordered by the peculiar court at Thame to perform public penance, but between 1690 and 1750 only eight other cases are recorded in England. In an Oxford case of 1789 wife selling is described as "the vulgar form of Divorce lately adopted", suggesting that even if it was by then established in some parts of the country it was only slowly spreading to others. It persisted in some form until the early 20th century, although by then in "an advanced state of decomposition". In most reports the sale was announced in advance, perhaps by advertisement in a local newspaper. It usually took the form of an auction, often at a local market, to which the wife would be led by a halter (usually of rope but sometimes of ribbon) around her neck, or arm. Often the purchaser was arranged in advance, and the sale was a form of symbolic separation and remarriage, as in a case from Maidstone, where in January 1815 John Osborne planned to sell his wife at the local market. However, as no market was held that day, the sale took place instead at "the sign of 'The Coal-barge,' in Earl Street", where "in a very regular manner", his wife and child were sold for £1 to a man named William Serjeant. In July the same year a wife was brought to Smithfield market by coach, and sold for 50 guineas and a horse. Once the sale was complete, "the lady, with her new lord and master, mounted a handsome curricle which was in waiting for them, and drove off, seemingly nothing loath to go." At another sale in September 1815, at Staines market, "only three shillings and four pence were offered for the lot, no one choosing to contend with the bidder, for the fair object, whose merits could only be appreciated by those who knew them. This the purchaser could boast, from a long and intimate acquaintance." Although the initiative was usually the husband's, the wife had to agree to the sale. An 1824 report from Manchester says that "after several biddings she [the wife] was knocked down for 5s; but not liking the purchaser, she was put up again for 3s and a quart of ale". Frequently the wife was already living with her new partner. In one case in 1804 a London shopkeeper found his wife in bed with a stranger to him, who, following an altercation, offered to purchase the wife. The shopkeeper agreed, and in this instance the sale may have been an acceptable method of resolving the situation. However, the sale was sometimes spontaneous, and the wife could find herself the subject of bids from total strangers. In March 1766, a carpenter from Southwark sold his wife "in a fit of conjugal indifference at the alehouse". Once sober, the man asked his wife to return, and after she refused he hanged himself. A domestic fight might sometimes precede the sale of a wife, but in most recorded cases the intent was to end a marriage in a way that gave it the legitimacy of a divorce. In some cases the wife arranged for her own sale, and even provided the money for her agent to buy her out of her marriage, such as an 1822 case in Plymouth. Such "divorces" were not always permanent. In 1826 John Turton sold his wife Mary to William Kaye at Emley Cross for five shillings. But after Kaye's death she returned to her husband, and the couple remained together for the next 30 years. The French widely believed that it was common practice for a man tired of his wife to take her to London's Smithfield to be sold to the highest bidder, but cleric/historian challenged a French cleric who claimed he had read it from a reliable source. He then asked Baring Baring Gould if he knew of the practice, and was forced to admit he had witnessed the sale of the local poet as a child. Despite both the vicar and Justice of the Peace explaining the sale was not legal, the poet insisted it to be so, and they had a happy life together. Sales became more common in the mid 18th century, the result of husbands being abroad in the military, navy, or being transported to the colonies. It was commonly believed that an absence of 7 years constituted a divorce, so when the first husband returned to find his wife had a new family, the dilemma was solved by the first husband selling his wife in the market place for a nominal sum. It was not recognised as legal, as one wife had to wait for her first husband to die before being able to marry the father of her children. She was given away by her grandson. Mid-19th century It was believed during the mid-19th century that wife selling was restricted to the lowest levels of labourers, especially to those living in remote rural areas, but an analysis of the occupations of husbands and purchasers reveals that the custom was strongest in "proto-industrial" communities. Of the 158 cases in which occupation can be established, the largest group (19) was involved in the livestock or transport trades, fourteen worked in the building trade, five were blacksmiths, four were chimney-sweeps, and two were described as gentlemen, suggesting that wife selling was not simply a peasant custom. The most high-profile case was that of Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos, who is reported to have bought his second wife from an ostler in about 1740. Prices paid for wives varied considerably, from a high of £100 plus £25 each for her two children in a sale of 1865 (equivalent to about £ in ) to a low of a glass of ale, or even free. The lowest amount of money exchanged was three farthings (three-quarters of one penny), but the usual price seems to have been between 2s. 6d. and 5 shillings. According to authors Wade Mansell and Belinda Meteyard, money seems usually to have been a secondary consideration; the more important factor was that the sale was seen by many as legally binding, despite it having no basis in law. Some of the new couples bigamously married, but the attitude of officialdom towards wife selling was equivocal. Rural clergy and magistrates knew of the custom, but seemed uncertain of its legitimacy, or chose to turn a blind eye. Entries have been found in baptismal registers, such as this example from Perleigh in Essex, dated 1782: "Amie Daughter of Moses Stebbing by a bought wife delivered to him in a Halter". A jury in Lincolnshire ruled in 1784 that a man who had sold his wife had no right to reclaim her from her purchaser, thus endorsing the validity of the transaction. In 1819 a magistrate who attempted to prevent a sale at Ashbourne, Derby, but was pelted and driven away by the crowd, later commented: In some cases, such as that of Henry Cook in 1814, the Poor Law authorities forced the husband to sell his wife rather than have to maintain her and her child in the Effingham workhouse. She was taken to Croydon market and sold for one shilling, the parish paying for the cost of the journey and a "wedding dinner". Venue By choosing a market as the location for the sale, the couple ensured a large audience, which made their separation a widely witnessed fact. The use of the halter was symbolic; after the sale, it was handed to the purchaser as a signal that the transaction was concluded, and in some instances, those involved would often attempt further to legitimate the sale by forcing the winning bidder to sign a contract, recognising that the seller had no further liability for his wife. In 1735, a successful wife sale in St Clements was announced by the common cryer, who wandered the streets ensuring that local traders were aware of the former husband's intention not to honour "any debts she should contract". The same point was made in an advertisement placed in the Ipswich Journal in 1789: "no person or persons to intrust her with my name ... for she is no longer my right". Those involved in such sales sometimes attempted to legalise the transaction, as demonstrated by a bill of sale for a wife, preserved in the British Museum. The bill is contained in a petition presented to a Somerset Justice of the Peace in 1758, by a wife who about 18 months earlier had been sold by her husband for £6 6s "for the support of his extravagancy". The petition does not object to the sale, but complains that the husband returned three months later to demand more money from his wife and her new "husband". In Sussex, inns and public houses were a regular venue for wife-selling, and alcohol often formed part of the payment. For example, when a man sold his wife at the Shoulder of Mutton and Cucumber in Yapton in 1898, the purchaser paid 7s. 6d. (£ in ) and of beer. A sale a century earlier in Brighton involved "eight pots of beer" and seven shillings (£ in ); and in Ninfield in 1790, a man who swapped his wife at the village inn for half a pint of gin changed his mind and bought her back later. Public wife sales were sometimes attended by huge crowds. An 1806 sale in Hull was postponed "owing to the crowd which such an extraordinary occurrence had gathered together", suggesting that wife sales were relatively rare events, and therefore popular. Estimates of the frequency of the ritual usually number about 300 between 1780 and 1850, relatively insignificant compared to the instances of desertion, which in the Victorian era numbered in the tens of thousands. Distribution and symbolism Wife selling appears to have been widespread throughout England, but relatively rare in neighbouring Wales, where only a few cases were reported, and in Scotland where only one has been discovered. The English county with the highest number of cases between 1760 and 1880 was Yorkshire, with forty-four, considerably more than the nineteen reported for Middlesex and London during the same period, despite the French caricature of Milord John Bull "booted and spurred, in [London's] Smithfield Market, crying 'à quinze livres ma femme!' [£15 for my wife], while Milady stood haltered in a pen". In his account, Wives for Sale, author Samuel Pyeatt Menefee collected 387 incidents of wife selling, the last of which occurred in the early 20th century. Historian E. P. Thompson considered many of Menefee's cases to be "vague and dubious", and that some double-counting had taken place, but he nevertheless agreed that about three hundred were authentic, which when combined with his own research resulted in about four hundred reported cases. Menefee argued that the ritual mirrored that of a livestock sale—the symbolic meaning of the halter; wives were even occasionally valued by weight, just like livestock. Although the halter was considered central to the "legitimacy" of the sale, Thompson has suggested that Menefee may have misunderstood the social context of the transaction. Markets were favoured not because livestock was traded there, but because they offered a public venue where the separation of husband and wife could be witnessed. Sales often took place at fairs, in front of public houses, or local landmarks such as the obelisk at Preston (1817), or Bolton's "gas pillar" (1835), where crowds could be expected to gather. There were very few reported sales of husbands, and from a modern perspective, selling a wife like a chattel is degrading, even when considered as a form of divorce. Nevertheless, most contemporary reports hint at the women's independence and sexual vitality: "The women are described as 'fine-looking', 'buxom', 'of good appearance', 'a comely-looking country girl', or as 'enjoying the fun and frolic heartily. The selling of husbands misses the point of the sales. When a woman married the husband became legally responsible for her, so if he abandoned her, he faced imprisonment. Whereas if a woman left a man, she faced penury so if she was passed to another man, this ensured her financial security. As she was not at risk of being a burden on the local parish the practice was generally accepted. This was especially so if the woman had become involved in a new man. Many press accounts claimed that the practice was illegal, outrageous and much more, but if this was really the case, then a law would have been passed to prevent it. Crucially, there is no record of any cleric condemning it in print. When a young woman was taken before the justices at Smithfield, one of them remarked that if it were legally possible for a man tired of his wife to dispose of her at market, Smithfield would not be big enough. This suggests there were a lot of unhappy marriages at the time. Along with other English customs, settlers arriving in the American colonies during the late 17th and early 18th centuries took with them the practice of wife selling, and the belief in its legitimacy as a way of ending a marriage. In 1645 "The P'ticular Court" of Hartford, Connecticut, reported the case of Baggett Egleston, who was fined 20 shillings for "bequething his wyfe to a young man". The Boston Evening-Post reported on 15 March 1736 an argument between two men "and a certain woman, each one claiming her as his Wife, but so it was that one of them had actually disposed of his Right in her to the other for Fifteen Shillings". The purchaser had, apparently, refused to pay in full, and had attempted to return "his" wife. He was given the outstanding sum by two generous bystanders, and paid the husband—who promptly "gave the Woman a modest Salute wishing her well, and his Brother Sterling much Joy of his Bargain." An account in 1781 of a William Collings of South Carolina records that he sold his wife for "two dollars and half [a] dozen bowls of grogg". Changing attitudes Towards the end of the 18th century, some hostility towards wife selling began to manifest itself amongst the general population. One sale in 1756 in Dublin was interrupted by a group of women who rescued the wife, following which the husband was given a mock trial and placed in the stocks until early the next morning. In about 1777, a wife sale in Carmarthenshire produced in the crowd "a great silence", and "a feeling of uneasiness in the gathering". When a labourer offered his wife for sale on Smithfield market in 1806, "the public became incensed at the husband, and would have severely punished him for his brutality, but for the interference of some officers of the police." Reports of wife selling rose from two per decade in the 1750s, to a peak of fifty in the 1820s and 1830s. As the number of cases increased so did opposition to the practice. It became seen as one of a number of popular customs that the social elite believed it their duty to abolish, and women protested that it represented "a threat and insult to their sex". JPs in Quarter Sessions became more active in punishing those involved in wife selling, and some test cases in the central law courts confirmed the illegality of the practice. Newspaper accounts were often disparaging: "a most disgusting and disgraceful scene" was the description in a report of 1832, but it was not until the 1840s that the number of cases of wife selling began to decline significantly. Thompson discovered 121 published reports of wife sales between 1800 and 1840, as compared to 55 between 1840 and 1880. Lord Chief Justice William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, considered wife sales to be a conspiracy to commit adultery, but few of those reported in the newspapers led to prosecutions in court. The Times reported one such case in 1818, in which a man was indicted for selling his wife at Leominster market, for 2s. 6d. In 1825 a man named Johnson was charged with "having sung a song in the streets describing the merits of his wife, for the purpose of selling her to the highest bidder at Smithfield." Such songs were not unique; in about 1842 John Ashton wrote "Sale of a Wife". The arresting officer claimed that the man had gathered a "crowd of all sorts of vagabonds together, who appeared to listen to his ditty, but were in fact, collected to pick pockets." The defendant, however, replied that he had "not the most distant idea of selling his wife, who was, poor creature, at home with her hungry children, while he was endeavouring to earn a bit of bread for them by the strength of his lungs." He had also printed copies of the song, and the story of a wife sale, to earn money. Before releasing him, the Lord Mayor, judging the case, cautioned Johnson that the practice could not be allowed, and must not be repeated. In 1833 the sale of a woman was reported at Epping. She was sold for 2s. 6d., with a duty of 6d. Once sober, and placed before the Justices of the Peace, the husband claimed that he had been forced into marriage by the parish authorities, and had "never since lived with her, and that she had lived in open adultery with the man Bradley, by whom she had been purchased". He was imprisoned for "having deserted his wife". The return of a wife after 18 years results in Michael Henchard's downfall in Thomas Hardy's novel Mayor of Casterbridge (1886). A bad-tempered, impulsive and cruel husband, feeling burdened by his wife, Henchard sells her to a stranger for five guineas. He becomes a successful businessman and rises to the position of mayor, but the return of his wife many years later prompts his fall back into penury. The custom was also referred to in the 19th-century French play, Le Marché de Londres. Commenting on the drama and contemporary French attitudes on the custom, in 1846 the writer Angus B. Reach complained: "They reckon up a long and visionary list of our failings [... They] would as readily give up their belief in the geographical and physical existence of London, as in the astounding fact that in England a husband sells his wife exactly as he sells his horse or his dog." Such complaints were still commonplace nearly 20 years later; in The Book of Days (1864), author Robert Chambers wrote about a case of wife selling in 1832, and noted that "the occasional instances of wife-sale, while remarked by ourselves with little beyond a passing smile, have made a deep impression on our continental neighbours, [who] constantly cite it as an evidence of our low civilisation." Embarrassed by the practice, a legal handbook of 1853 enabled English judges to dismiss wife selling as a myth: "It is a vulgar error that a husband can get rid of his wife by selling her in the open market with a halter round her neck. Such an act on his part would be severely punished by the local magistrate." Originally published in 1869, Burn's Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer states that "publicly selling or buying a wife is clearly an indictable offence ... And many prosecutions against husbands for selling, and others for buying, have recently been sustained, and imprisonment for six months inflicted". Another form of wife selling was by deed of conveyance. Although initially much less common than sale by auction, the practice became more widespread after the 1850s, as popular opinion turned against the market sale of a wife. The issue of the commonly perceived legitimacy of wife selling was also brought to the government. In 1881, Home Secretary William Harcourt was asked to comment on an incident in Sheffield, in which a man sold his wife for a quart of beer. Harcourt replied: "no impression exists anywhere in England that the selling of wives is legitimate", and "that no such practice as wife selling exists", but as late as 1889, a member of the Salvation Army sold his wife for a shilling in Hucknall Torkard, Nottinghamshire, and subsequently led her by the halter to her buyer's house, the last case in which the use of a halter is mentioned. The most recent case of an English wife sale was reported in 1913, when a woman giving evidence in a Leeds police court during a maintenance case claimed that her husband had sold her to one of his workmates for £1 (equivalent to about £ in ). The manner of her sale is unrecorded. Notes References Citations Bibliography External links Discussion and examples Documented examples Divorce in the United Kingdom Women in England English culture Social history of England 17th century in England 18th century in England 19th century in England 20th century in England Marriage, unions and partnerships in England Human commodity auctions Misogyny	6,094
doc-en-10081_0	This page lists chronologically the first achievements in cinema. The development of cinema is characterised by technological breakthroughs, from early experiments in the recording of day-to-day activity, experiments in colour, different formats and sound. From the 1970s, the development of computer-generated imagery became integral to the way that films are produced. In parallel with the developments in technology, its content and the way it reflects society and its concerns and the way society responds to it have changed too. The list attempts to address some of these events. 19th century Pre-1870 1824 Peter Mark Roget's wrote the article Explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel when seen through vertical apertures which was the first reference to persistence of vision. 1832 Almost simultaneously around December 1832 by the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau and the Austrian professor of practical geometry Simon Stampfer invented the Phenakistiscope, the first practical device to create a fluid illusion of motion. 1867-68 Chronophotography is the first time that movement is captured in several frames of print. 1870s 1874 French astronomer P.J.C. Janssen came up with the idea for a "revolver photographic". This huge camera system used a Maltese cross-type mechanism, very similar to the system that would later be of great importance in the development of movie cameras. He successfully captured both transits of Venus, 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria. The motion picture was known as Passage de Venus 1878 Using a fast-motion series of 24 cameras Eadweard Muybridge films a horse in motion, Sallie Gardner at a Gallop. 1880s 1880 Eadweard Muybridge projects the moving images of Sallie Gardner at a Gallop on a screen when he gave a presentation at the California School of Fine Arts, making this exhibit the earliest known motion picture exhibition. 1882 Étienne-Jules Marey develops the Chronophotographe, which can take 12 pictures per second. 1888 In Leeds, England Louis Le Prince films Roundhay Garden Scene, believed to be the first motion picture recorded. 1890s 1889 or 1890 Monkeyshines, by William Kennedy Dickson and William Heise. Believed to be the first film shot in the United States. An experimental film made to test the original cylinder Kinetograph format. 1891 Dickson Greeting aka Monkeyshines 2, by William Kennedy Dickson is the first public demonstration of motion pictures in the United States. The National Federation of Women’s Clubs are shown a 3 second clip of Dickson passing a hat in front of himself, and reaching for it with his other hand on May 20, 1891 at Edison's laboratory. 1892 On 28 October 1892 Charles-Émile Reynaud gave the first public performance of a moving picture show at the Musée Grévin in Paris, the Théâtre Optique. The show, billed as Pantomimes Lumineuses, included three cartoons, Pauvre Pierrot, Un bon bock, and Le Clown et ses chiens, each consisting of 500 to 600 individually painted images and lasting about 15 minutes. The film was the first to use perforations. 1893 Blacksmith Scene, by William Kennedy Dickson. The first Kinetoscope film shown in public exhibition on May 9, 1893 and is the earliest known example of actors performing a role in a film. The world's first film production studio, the Black Maria, p or the Kinetographic Theater, was completed on the grounds of Edison's laboratories at West Orange, New Jersey, for the purpose of making film strips for the Kinetoscope. Construction began in December 1892. 1894 On April 14, 1894, a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Street—the first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents a viewer could see all the films in either row; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill. Dorlita in the Passion Dance was banned in New Jersey after its use in peepshows. Russell Kick quotes the work Censorship as saying it "was probably the first [film] to be banned in the United States." la Sortie des Usines, the first film to be made in France. The Dickson Experimental Sound Film by William Kennedy Dickson. It is the first known film with live-recorded sound and appears to be the first motion picture made for the Kinetophone, the proto-sound-film system developed by Dickson and Thomas Edison. 1895 First hand-colored film, Annabelle Serpentine Dance by William Kennedy Dickson. Charles Francis Jenkins displays the Phantascope, the first patented Film projector. Incident at Clovelly Cottage by Robert W. Paul and Birt Acres is the first film to be made in the United Kingdom. Annabelle Serpentine Dance, the first hand-painted movie. L'Arroseur Arrosé, the first comedy film. The Execution of Mary Stuart, the first use of a special effect in a movie. History of the Kinetograph, Kinetoscope, and Kinetophonograph by Antonia and William Kennedy Dickson, considered the first book of history on film, is published. 1896 The first building dedicated exclusively to showing motion pictures was the Vitascope Hall, established on Canal Street, New Orleans, Louisiana June 26 — it was converted from a vacant store. Later that year on October 19, the Edisonia Hall opened in Buffalo, New York in the Ellicott Square Building. The Edisonia was the first known dedicated, purpose-built motion picture theater in the world. Alice Guy-Blaché, the first female film director makes La Fée aux Choux (The Cabbage Fairy) acknowledged as the first narrative fiction film. This movie also introduces screenplays for the first time. In The Kiss, May Irwin and John Rice re-enact the kiss from the New York stage hit The Widow Jones, the first film of a couple kissing. The House of the Devil, the first horror film. 1899 The first example of object manipulation and stop-motion animation was the short film by Albert E. Smith and J. Stuart Blackton called The Humpty Dumpty Circus. King John is the first film adaptation of the work of William Shakespeare. The film features Herbert Beerbohm Tree in the title role and features the death scene from King John. 20th century 1900s 1901 Histoire d'un crime, directed by Ferdinand Zecca was the first film to use flashbacks to create a non-linear narrative. The earliest known use of intertitles was in the British film Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost. A Nymph of the Waves, the first experimental film. 1902 Edward Raymond Turner's children and several other very short test films, the earliest known moving pictures photographed in color. A Trip to the Moon is the first sci-fi movie, as well as the first film to feature an extraterrestrial. 1903 The Great Train Robbery, directed by Edwin S. Porter was the first western film. 1904 The Great Train Robbery, directed by Siegmund Lubin was the first film remake. 1906 Humorous Phases of Funny Faces directed by J. Stuart Blackton is the first 2D animated film. The Story of the Kelly Gang by Charles Tait is the first feature film to be released. 1907 January 19, Variety publishes reviews of two films, An Exciting Honeymoon and The Life of a Cowboy by Edwin S. Porter. These are believed to be the first film reviews published. L'Enfant prodigue is the first feature film produced in Europe. 1908 A Visit to the Seaside is the first film to use Kinemacolor. The Assassination of the Duke of Guise is the first film to have a score specifically written for it, by French composer Camille Saint-Saëns. Fantasmagorie is considered the first animated cartoon 1909 The first full length feature film produced in the United States was an adaptation of Victor Hugo's novel Les Misérables. Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine was the first film shot from an aeroplane took place in April 1909. Wilbur Wright was training military personnel and took a newsreel cameraman on a flight in Rome to record this. Albert Samama Chikly took the first underwater shot. 1910s 1910 The German film serial, Arsène Lupin contra Sherlock Holmes directed by Viggo Larsen was the first film crossover. For the first time, the rights to adapt a novel are bought from a publisher, (Little, Brown & Company who published Helen Hunt Jackson's novel Ramona.) The film is made by D. W. Griffith. D. W. Griffith makes In Old California, the first film to be made in Hollywood. 1912 With Our King and Queen Through India, a documentary recording Indian celebrations around the coronation of George V, is the first feature film to be released in colour, using the Kinemacolour system. 1914 Lois Weber directs The Merchant of Venice making her the first American female director of a feature length film. 1915 The Birth of a Nation, directed by D. W. Griffith was the first big budget Hollywood epic. 1916 The Fall of a Nation, directed by Thomas Dixon Jr. was the first film sequel. 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea is the first feature-length film adaptation of a Jules Verne work. Since its release, at least 56 subsequent feature-length adaptations have been made as of 2022. 1917 The first animated feature film was El Apóstol by Quirino Cristiani from Argentina. The Gulf Between directed by Wray Physioc is the first feature film to use Technicolor. 1918 Men Who Have Made Love to Me, directed by Arthur Berthelet was the first film to break the fourth wall. 1920s 1920 The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, the first movie to have a twist ending. 1921 A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1921), directed by Emmett J. Flynn was the first film to feature time travel to the past. 1922 The first colour feature film made in Hollywood, The Toll of the Sea, starring Anna May Wong. First feature film in 3D. The Power of Love by Nat Deverich, which premiered at the Ambassador Hotel Theater in Los Angeles on September 27. Foolish Wives becomes the first film to cost $1 million to produce. The studio took advantage of its exorbitant price and advertised it as "The First Real Million Dollar Picture". 1923 16 mm film is introduced by Eastman Kodak in the United States. 1925 The Big Parade, the first movie to swear. 1926 Don Juan becomes the first sound film, using the Vitaphone sound-on-disc system, though it contains no spoken dialogue. 1927 The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson is the first feature film with recorded dialogue, using the Vitaphone system. Napoleon by Abel Gance is the first film to be filmed in the widescreen format. 1928 Lights of New York, directed by Bryan Foy is the first all talking feature film. Wings, directed by William A. Wellman is the first film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Viking is the first feature-length film in color with sound (music and sound effects only). Steamboat Willie, the first cartoon with synchronized sound and the first cartoon to feature a fully post-produced soundtrack. In Old Arizona, the first major Western to use the new technology of sound and the first talkie to be filmed outdoors. The Air Circus becomes the first aviation oriented film with dialogue as well as the first film to depict the barnstormer era. 1929 The First Academy Award ceremony takes place at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, Los Angeles on May 1. Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans wins the award for "Unique and Artistic Production" (denoting artistic strength) and Wings wins the award for "Outstanding Picture, Production" (denoting technical production quality). Both awards were eliminated and merged the next year into the single Best Picture category. Emil Jannings and Janet Gaynor won the awards for best actor and actress, which were awarded for work in a number of different films throughout the year. Acting categories were later narrowed to honor work on a single film. Blackmail, directed by Alfred Hitchcock was the first British sound film. The Broadway Melody, First ever musical film. Also the first sound film and first musical to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. Happy Days is the first feature film to be shown entirely in widescreen anywhere in the world. It was filmed using the Fox Grandeur 70 mm process. Glorifying the American Girl, the first film with sound to swear. 1930s 1930Fiddlesticks, directed by Ub Iwerks was the first complete sound cartoon to be shot in two-strip Technicolor. Elstree Calling directed by Alfred Hitchcock was the first film to show a television set.Shadows of Glory becomes the first film foreign-language sound film to be produced in the United States.Morocco becomes the first film to feature two women sharing a kiss on screen. The women were Marlene Dietrich and an uncredited actress. 1931Peludópolis, directed by Qirino Christiani is the first animated feature with sound. 1932 The first animated film to use the full, three-color Technicolor method was Flowers and Trees made by Disney Studios. The film was also the first to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.Love Me Tonight by Rouben Mamoulian is credited as the first film to use a zoom lens. The Venice Film Festival runs from 6–21 August, the first film festival.White Zombie directed by Victor Halperin was the first zombie film. 1933 The Crooked Circle was the first film to be broadcast on television, on March 10 in Los Angeles.Morgenrot was the first film to have its screening in Nazi Germany, and thus the first film of Nazi Cinema. Released three days after Adolf Hitler became Reichskanzler, the film became a symbol of the new times touted by the Nazi regime. 1935Becky Sharp, starring Miriam Hopkins, was the first feature-length film in three-strip Technicolor. 1937 Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the first full length cel animated and Technicolor feature film. 1940s 1940 First African American to be nominated and to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress: Hattie McDaniel (Gone with the Wind, 1939). Walt Disney's Fantasia is the first film with surround sound, using Disney's Fantasound system. 1943 First twins to win the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay: Julius and Philip Epstein, (Casablanca, 1942). 1944 First film to feature a live action and animated character on screen at the same time: The Three Caballeros. 1946 The first Cannes Film Festival takes place from September 20 to October 5. 1947 First feature film in 3D and partly in color: Robinson Crusoe by Alexander Andreyevsky. First feature film shot (almost) entirely from the POV of the main character: Lady in the Lake1948 First African-American man to receive an Academy Award: James Baskett (Academy Honorary Award for his portrayal of "Uncle Remus" in Song of the South, 1946) (See also: Sidney Poitier, 1964) The first British Academy Film Awards ceremony takes place with The Best Years of Our Lives, winning the award for best film. 1950s 1951Distant Drums is the first film to use the Wilhelm scream. At the 23rd Academy Awards, George Sanders becomes the first actor to win an Oscar for portraying an LGBT character, when he wins for his performance as Addison DeWitt in All About Eve. 1953The Robe is the first film to be released in CinemaScope. 1954Sesto Continente, directed by Folco Quilici, was the first full-length, full-color underwater documentary. The much more famous The Silent World, released in 1956, is frequently erroneously claimed as such. 1956Forbidden Planet is the first science fiction film to depict humans traveling in a faster-than-light starship of their own creation, the first to be set entirely on another planet in interstellar space, far away from Earth, as well as the first film to use an entirely electronic musical score, which was courtesy of Bebe and Louis Barron.Ring 2011, p. 22. 1960s 1960Psycho is the first film to show a flushing toilet. 1962The Manchurian Candidate was the first Hollywood film to cast a black actor in a role not specifically written as black.Mutiny on the Bounty was the first motion picture filmed in the Ultra Panavision 70 widescreen process. 1963The Cardinal was the first film to be shown in 70mm despite being filmed on 35mm filmstock. However, there is some disagreement over whether Taras Bulba, which was released a year prior, was shown using this process before the premiere of The Cardinal. 1964 First movie with African-American interracial marriage: One Potato, Two Potato, actors Bernie Hamilton and Barbara Barrie, written by Orville H. Hampton, Raphael Hayes, directed by Larry Peerce First African-American man to win the Academy Award for Best Actor: Sidney Poitier (Lilies of the Field, 1963) (See also: James Baskett, 1948) 1969The Learning Tree was the first film directed by an African-American person for a major American film studio, in this case Warner Bros.-Seven Arts. 1970s 1970Tiger Child, the first film in the IMAX format is made. Directed by Donald Brittain and produced by Roman Kroitor and Kichi Ichikawa, it premiered at Expo '70 in Osaka, Japan at the Fuji Group Pavilion.Midnight Cowboy wins the Oscar for Best Picture, making it the only X Rated movie to win the award. 1971 The first permanent shush theatre, Cinesphere is built on the grounds of Ontario Place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 1972A Computer Animated Hand, the first movie that used some advanced CGI techniques.Cheongchun gyosa, the first movie commercially released on VHS.Fritz the Cat, the first animated feature to be given an X rating. 1973 First use of 2D computer animation in a significant entertainment feature film, Westworld. The point of view of Yul Brynner's gunslinger was achieved with raster graphics. 1974The Man with the Golden Gun becomes the first film to feature an "astro-spiral" jump, in which a car drives up a corkscrewed ramp and turns 360 degrees along its long axis. The stunt was performed with a AMC Hornet X hatchback by Loren "Bumps" Willert, and was done across a river near Bangkok, Thailand. 1975Jaws becomes the first film to gross more than $100 million at the box office.Lisztomania becomes the first movie to use the new Dolby Stereo sound system.Barry Lyndon was the first film with scenes shot entirely by natural candlelight. 1976 Steadicam is used for the first time in a production: Hal Ashby's Bound for Glory, however, John Schlesinger's Marathon Man, released the same year is the first to be commercially released. 1978Superman: The Movie is the first film with a computer-generated title sequence.Watership Down is the first animated film to be presented in Dolby Stereo. 1980 1980The Shining by Stanley Kubrick is the first film to use a steadicam in "low mode". 1981Looker is the first film to feature a CGI human character, Cindy. Also, first use of 3D shaded CGI.Netzley, pg. 49. 1982 For Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, ILM computer graphics division develops "Genesis Effect", the first use of fractal-generated landscape in a film. Bill Reeves leads the Genesis Effect programming team, and creates a new graphics technique called Particle Systems. 1983Rock & Rule is the first animated film to use computer graphics.The Terry Fox Story was the first television film ever made for a cable network. 1984The Last Starfighter uses CGI for all spaceship shots, replacing traditional models. First use of 'integrated CGI' where the effects are supposed to represent real world objects.The Sensorium is regarded the world's first 4D film.Invasion of the Body Snatchers becomes the first film to receive a home video release in its original aspect ratio, when The Criterion Collection releases it as Laserdisc Spine #008. The practice would go onto to become the industry-wide standard for future home video releases. 1985 In Young Sherlock Holmes, Lucasfilm creates the first photorealistic CGI character, 'stained glass knight' with 10 seconds of screentime. 1986 At the Canada Pavilion in Expo 86, Vancouver, Canada the first showing of 3D Imax takes place (Transition). 1988Tin Toy by John Lasseter becomes the first computer-animated short film to win an Academy Award. 1990s 1990The Rescuers Down Under is both Disney's first theatrical sequel and Hollywood’s first feature film digitally colored and assembled entirely on computers, using the studio’s proprietary “Computer Animation Production System” (CAPS). 1991Beauty and the Beast is the first animated film to have an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture. 1992Batman Returns is the first film to be released with Dolby SR-D technology (later known as Dolby Digital). This came after a limited experimental release of Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country played in three US theatres in 1991. 1993Wax or the Discovery of Television Among the Bees, originally released in 1991, is the first film to be streamed on the Internet. 1994True Lies by James Cameron is the first film to cost $100 million. Later, such budgets would become much more commonplace. As of January 2022, at least 448 films have been made with a budget of $100 million or more. 1995Toy Story by John Lasseter is the first feature film to be made entirely using CGI.Casper, the first CGI lead character in feature-length film (preceded Toy Story by six months).Party Girl is the first film to premiere on the internet on June 3, 1995. The LaserDisc version of Clear and Present Danger featured the first home theater Dolby Digital mix. It was quickly followed by True Lies, Stargate, Forrest Gump, and Interview with the Vampire among others. 1997Titanic by James Cameron becomes the first film to cost $200 million and to earn more than $1 billion worldwide.Twister by Jan de Bont, the first film to be commercially available on the DVD format. 21st century 2000s 2000 First digital cinema projection in Europe by Philippe Binant with DLP CINEMA technology for the release of Toy Story 2.O Brother, Where Art Thou? by the Coen brothers is the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means. 2001Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is the first feature film to use motion capture to create characters.Shrek was the first feature film to win an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.Spirited Away was the first anime to win an Academy Award (Academy Award for Best Animated Feature). It is also the first hand drawn and foreign film to win in the category. 2002Russian Ark by Alexander Sokurov is the first feature film to be shot entirely in uncompressed high definition video. It is also the first feature film to consist of a single unedited take.The Collingswood Story is the first screenlife film 2004Able Edwards, the first movie with all-CGI backgrounds and live actors.The Polar Express by Robert Zemeckis, the first film to entirely use the performance capture technique, whereby the physical movements of the actors are digitally recorded and then translated into a computer animation. 2007 The original 65 mm negative of Baraka is scanned in 8k resolution, becoming the first film to do so. 2008U2 3D was the first live-action film to be shot, posted, and exhibited entirely in 3D, the first live-action digital 3D film, and the first 3D concert film. Regarding its production, it was the first 3D film shot using a zoom lens, an aerial camera, and a multiple-camera setup. Additionally, it was the first 3D film to feature composite images with more than two layers, and the first to be edited specifically to prevent the viewer from experiencing motion sickness or eye strain. 2009Monsters vs. Aliens by Conrad Vernon and Rob Letterman, the first animated film to be directly produced in the stereoscopic 3D format instead of being converted into 3D after completion. Priyanka Chopra becomes the first actor to portray at least twelve characters in a film, when she stars in What's Your Raashee?. 2010s 2010Avatar by James Cameron, the first 3-D film to be the highest grossing film of all time, surpassing the 2D ones. 2011The Artist is the first film financed entirely outside the United States and United Kingdom to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.Searching For Sonny is the first feature film shot entirely on a DSLROlive (2011) is the first feature film shot entirely on a cellphone 2012The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey is the first wide-release film to be shot using a high frame rate. Cinematographer Andrew Lesnie shot the film using 48 frames per second, twice the usual 24 frames per second. However, few cinemas were capable of showing the high frame rate version of the film - at most 1,000 screens out of the 39,056 showing it in the United States - and most showed it in the ordinary frame rate. The reason for this increased frame rate was to make the 3D easier to watch, as well as remove camera blur, and increase clarity.Brave is the first film to make use of the Dolby Atmos sound format. 2013The Wolf of Wall Street by Martin Scorsese, becomes the first major American movie to be delivered to theaters in digital formats only.Stalingrad is the first Russian film to be released in IMAX. 2014Unfriended becomes the first feature film to be entirely set on a computer screen, thus becoming the first film in the Screenlife subgenre. 2016 On 14 February, the first films are released on the Ultra HD Blu-ray format, with The Amazing Spider-Man 2, Salt, Hancock, Chappie, Pineapple Express, and The Smurfs 2 being the first to be released, among others. 2017Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is the first film to be shot in 8k resolution. It was shot with the Red Weapon 8k camera. 2019The Lion King by Jon Favreau, the first photoreal animated film.Parasite by Bong Joon-ho, the first film not in the English language to win Academy Award for Best Picture.Witch Tales, by Mike T. Lyddon, the first horror anthology feature movie filmed simultaneously in Spanish and English languages and released respectively as Witch Tales and Cuentos de la Bruja. 2020s 2020Nomadland by Chloé Zhao, the first Oscar Best Picture winning film to be released theatrically, direct-to-streaming and VOD at the same time. 2021The Suicide Squad is the first film ever released to be shot entirely with IMAX-certified digital cameras. Although Top Gun: Maverick and Dune had both accomplished the same feat and had finished filming earlier, The Suicide Squad was released first, on August 5, after the releases of the other two were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film was shot with the Red Ranger Monstro 8K & Komodo 6K cameras. The film was also the first feature film to use the Red Komodo camera.The Tomorrow War is the first streaming original film to cost at least $200 million to produce. The film was originally set for theatrical release by Paramount Pictures, but the film's distribution rights were ultimately acquired by Amazon due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Four months later, Red Notice was also released under similar circumstances and cost, on Netflix. As of early 2022, The Gray Man is set become the first streaming original to cost at least $200 million that was originally intended as a streaming original, once it releases in July 2022. 2023Oppenheimer, the upcoming film from Christopher Nolan, is set to become the first film to shoot sections in IMAX black and white analog photography upon it's release. See also History of film technology List of directorial debuts Timeline of computer animation in film and television References Netzley, Patricia D. Encyclopedia of Movie Special Effects''. Checkmark Books, 2001. History of film Cinema	6,525
doc-en-10106_0	Shoreham-by-Sea (often shortened to Shoreham) is a coastal town and port in West Sussex, England. The town is bordered to its north by the South Downs, to its west by the Adur Valley and to its south by the River Adur and Shoreham Beach on the English Channel. The town lies in the middle of the ribbon of urban development along the English south coast, approximately equidistant from the city of Brighton and Hove to the east and the town of Worthing to the west. Shoreham covers an area of and has a population of 20,547 (2011 census). History Old Shoreham dates back to pre-Roman times. St Nicolas' Church, inland by the River Adur, is partly Anglo-Saxon in its construction. The name of the town has an Old English origin. The town and port of New Shoreham was established by the Norman conquerors towards the end of the 11th century. St Mary de Haura Church (St Mary of the Haven) was built in the decade following 1103 (the Domesday Book was dated 1086), and around this time the town was laid out on a grid pattern that, in essence, still survives in the town centre. The present church is approximately half the size of the original structure – the former nave was already in ruins by the time of the civil war although sizeable remnants of the original west façade survive in the churchyard to this day. Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Idrisi, writing c.1153, described Shoreham as "a fine and cultivated city containing buildings and flourishing activity". The rapid growth of the neighbouring towns of Brighton, Hove and Worthing – and in particular the arrival of the railway in 1840 – prepared the way for Shoreham's rise as a Victorian sea port, with several shipyards and an active coasting trade. Shoreham Harbour remains in commercial operation today. The area became an urban district, with Shoreham Town Hall as its headquarters, in 1910. Kingston Buci old village Originally the people of Kingston Buci may have lived at Thundersbarrow. It is though that this may have been the centre of a large estate in the post-Roman Dark Ages. However, in early or mid-Saxon times the people may have re-located down off the hill to Kingston Buci (), which sits to the east of Shoreham-by-Sea. It has a medieval church, rectory, manor house and huge old barn which still make it a remarkable cluster - and, like Cissbury, where the people came off the hill to form Findon, and at Mount Caburn, where people re-located down at Beddingham, this stranded settlement is three quarters of a mile from the Downs. The church here was extensively re-modelled in the thirteenth century when the ever-shifting river estuary temporarily made Kingston a port town. The ‘king’ of the name ‘Kingston’ may have been a Saxon King of Sussex. The ‘Buci’ part of the name comes from the Anglo-Norman owners’ home town of Bouce in Normandy. Shoreham Beach Shoreham Beach, to the south of the town, is a shingle spit deposited over millennia by longshore drift. This blocks the southerly flow of the River Adur which turns east at this point to discharge into the English Channel further along the coast at a point that has varied considerably over time. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the mouth of the river shifted eastwards which restricted trade to the port; by 1810 it was almost opposite Aldrington church. In 1816, work had been completed to fix the position of the river in its present position, flowing into the sea between two piers. Once the harbour mouth was stabilised it was defended by Shoreham Fort which was built in 1857. Converted railway carriages became summer homes around the start of the 20th century, and 'Bungalow Town', as it was then known, became home to the early British film industry. Francis L. Lyndhurst, founded the Sunny South Film Company, which made its first commercial movie on Shoreham Beach in 1912 and built a film studio there. Shoreham Beach officially became part of Shoreham-by-Sea in 1910. Much of the housing in the area was cleared for defence reasons during the Second World War and most of what remained after the war is now long gone, having been replaced by modern houses, some of which are extremely expensive, architect designed constructions. The Church of the Good Shepherd, built in 1913, still stands. Along the Adur mud flats adjacent to Shoreham Beach sits (and at high tides floats) a large collection of houseboats made from converted barges, tugs, mine sweepers, Motor Torpedo Boats etc. The seaside shingle bank of Shoreham beach extends further east past the harbour mouth, forming the southern boundary of the commercial harbour in Southwick, Portslade and Hove. The Monarch's Way long-distance footpath, commemorating the flight of Charles II to France after the Battle of Worcester, follows the beach westwards from Hove past Portslade and Southwick, terminating by the harbour mouth's east breakwater. Downland areas With the River Adur, the downs and the sea nearby the area supports a diverse wildlife flora and fauna. The mudflats support wading birds and gulls, including the ringed plover which attempts to breed on the coastal shingle. The pied wagtail is common in the town in the winter months. Insects include dragonflies over the flood plains of the river. The south and west facing downs attract at least 33 species of butterfly including a nationally important population of the chalkhill blue butterfly on Mill Hill. The underlying rock is chalk on the downs, with alluvium in the old river channels. The Adur district has a variety of habitats in a small area, including natural chalk downs and butterfly meadows, freshwater and reed beds, salt marsh and estuary, brackish water lagoons, woodland, shingle seashore, chalk platform undersea and large expanses of sand. Southwick Hill and the smaller sites connected to it are the second biggest surviving complex of ancient Down pasture on the entire plateau of the Brighton Downs (The biggest is around Castle Hill, near Woodingdean).:209 The Thundersbarrow ridge is peaceful and still and characteristic of the high Downs. It lies far away from noise and urban clutter that lies to the south. The town is the end-point of the Monarch's Way, a Long-distance footpath, based on the escape route taken by King Charles II in 1651 after being defeated by Cromwell in the Battle of Worcester. Mill Hill Mill Hill () is also known as Shoreham bank as the hillside fall sharply to the River Adur. It is a Local Nature Reserve and has been famous for its butterflies since the 1820s. In May the hillside is dusted yellow with Horseshoe Vetch — the butterflies food plant. In August the hillside is colourful with pink Centaury, the tiny white pinpoints of Eyebright, and the white umbels of Wild Carrot, Wild Parsnip, St John’s Wort and Wild Thyme. In spring the Hill is known for its Dingy and Checkered Skipper and in summer the Chalkhill Blue and Adonis Blue are ‘flagship’ species of this Hill. Mill Hill offers historic views. Opposite the Hill, on the Lancing Downs is the quietness of Applesham Farm, which was a prosperous village way back at the time of the Domesday Book in 1086. To the north end is another Saxon farm, Old Erringham, which King Alfred’s successors fortified to defend the estuary. To the south, too, you can see the Norman church of Old Shoreham almost on the banks of the Adur, and next to it the wooden piers of the 1781 Toll Bridge, which still collected traffic tolls right up to the 1960s. Furthermore, the Hill offers panoramic views out across the silvery meanders of the Adur Estuary to the sea.:203 Nowadays Mill Hill's full glory has past as the spaghetti junction of the A27 has cut it in two and there is now the continuous din of the A27 bypass and the noise of planes circling overhead from Shoreham Airport. The special mosses and lichens have gone, and Heath and Carthusian Snails are now gone. Despite sterling efforts by volunteers and rangers the Hill still carries far too great an area of dense and simplified scrub, which has flourished at the expense of the species-rich turf.:203 Southwick Hill Southwick Hill () is owned by the National trust and has some special wildlife areas. In 1985 local residents were presented with the plan for the A27 bypass smashing through the Hill. Through the vigorous campaigning of activists from ABBA (the Anti-Brighton Bypass Association) the road was re-routed through a tunnel under the Hill rather than a cutting through it. It was the only big victory in this battle against the road. As a result of this work there is still much to be enjoyed about this hill in every season. In high summer, on the bostal path, there is Round-headed Rampion, blue Scabious and Autumn Gentian. On the south side of the bridlepath, there is an un-grazed triangle with a taller sward. Here, there are still rabbits playing on the lawns amongst the Purging Flax, Eggs and Bacon, Squinancywort, Eyebright and Wild Thyme, which themselves mingle with tall herb patches of Parsnip, Greater Knapweed, Ragwort, Hogweed and St John’s Wort. There are bushes of Raspberry and Rose-bay Willowherb. There are butterflies too. You may see Common Blue, Clouded Yellow, Small Heath, Comma, Red Admiral, Painted Lady or day-flying moths like Treble-bar and Dusky Sallow. There are glowworms too. In autumn parts of the short turf may be as colourful as a garden with splashes of yellow, red, orange, white, and even purple, black and blue, from the many waxcap and other old meadow fungi. There are puffballs everywhere, and fairy rings, and you may find a troop of Blue Legs or the flaming orange of Velvet Shank on some rotten old stump.:211 However Southwick Hill is not what is was. Until recent years, the best place on the Brighton Downs to get a sense of what Down pasture was like during late Victorian and Edwardian times through to 1940. The tenant farmer continuously grazed the whole Hill and, as a result, it was something of a time capsule from a particular period of Downland history, that of the long agricultural depression from 1876 to 1940, when scrub took over many old pastures and cattle replaced many sheep flocks.:210 In recent years, however, the Hill has been split by fencing into a southern half which is seriously under-grazed, with simplified tussocky grassland, and a northern half which remains better grazed. The southern half has now lost its close-bitten down pasture, with its flowerings of tiny herbs and fruitings of old pasture fungi. Nevertheless, as a whole the Hill still has a mixture of archaic pasture and scrub thickets, sometimes mature enough to harbour small maiden oaks, and it retains much of the wildlife lost elsewhere on the Brighton Downs.. The Crooked Moon Hedge Hedges are very rare on these Downs, except around farmsteads, so the Crooked Moon Hedge () is worth a special look. It lies on the top of a prehistoric field lynchet, for these southern slopes of Southwick Hill were covered with an Iron Age field system whose banks lay regularly on east–west and south–north axes. At its northern end it is the boundary between Kingston Buci and Southwick parishes and at its southern end it bounded Kingston Buci sheep Down to the west, and one of the parish open fields to the east. The hedge contains a lot of maple and ash and may have been bird sown. As per Hooper's rule, the number of species per section is meant to roughly equal the age of the hedge in centuries. By this rule the hedge is three to four centuries old.:209 The ‘Rest and be Thankful’ stone There is a large flat block of lichen-covered stone () by the path to Southwick Hill from Southwickhill Barn marks a corner on the old parish boundary between Kingston Buci and Southwick. It was famous enough to show on the Victorian Ordnance Survey maps.:210 Thundersbarrow Hill Thunders Barrow () is a big barrow even now, although it was partially dug away on its south side in the nineteenth century to make way for a dew pond. It sits just north of Southwick Hill and although the origins of the name are not known it could not be more apt, for it is the sky that dominates this place and a clap of Thor’s thunder would be no surprise here. It is only at this distance from the bypass that the silence of the Downs and the sound of the birds are bigger than the noise of the road. This point marks the beginning of Downland tranquility. The ramparts of Thundersbarrow’s late Bronze Age and Iron Age camp are still tall enough to walk around, although they get a bit vague on the eastern side because of plough damage, and because the Romano-British villagers built their houses just outside the rampart and right up against the barrow on that side. When the village was excavated in 1932 two corn-drying ovens were found, still with soot in the flues and bits of charred grain. Erringham Hole Erringham Hole () is the bushy combe to the east of Thundersbarrow, whose Celtic villagers built the huge field lynchets, parts of which are up to 12 feet in height. It was called ‘Erringham Hole’ because it was part of Old Erringham Farm. Old Erringham Hole, not to be confused with Whitelot Bottom which is the ploughed land further east down the combe, has flowery chalk grassland, scrub, rank grassland and lots of rabbits. The rabbits encourage rabbit-resistant plants like the tall woolly Mullein (complete with Mullein Moth caterpillars, Hound’s-tongue,Ground Ivy and Eyebright. Until 25 years ago the combe remained substantially open and the ancient lynchet system was plain to see, but cessation of grazing and a lack of scrub control has allowed the species-rich Down pasture to be lost to simplified scrub and even secondary woodland.:212 Hazelholt Bottom Hazelholt Bottom () is a tranquil slope with large flowery glades. There are often Roe Deer in the wide corn field below the slope. The National Trust own the south slope and Whitelot Bottom further south, but Whitelot was ploughed up after 1945 and has never been returned to public use. Hazelholt has rich old chalk grassland with Cowslips in spring and Devil's bit scabious in September. In mid summer there are Adonis and Chalkhill Blue and lots of other butterflies. At the head of the combe there are more old grassland and great blackberry thickets. In the period since 1945 scrub has taken over much of this erstwhile open slope. The remaining grassland is only lightly grazed allowing ingress of bramble and thorn and a loss of its ancient down pasture character.:212 Freshcombe Freshcombe () is north facing and feels very remote. It is owned by the National Trust, but sadly leased away from their management. It is lovely but declining and very threatened by scrub expansion and insufficient grazing. Its slopes have very old Gorse thickets on them which are shown as well established on the 1873 O/S map, and may be centuries older than that. It has one very special plant, Saw-wort, which looks like a slimmer version of Knapweed, and still blooms profusely in a little glade amongst the Gorse. This is its only site on the whole of the South Downs. It's a survivor from the days of the Downland heaths. It survives here because the soil must have a strong clay-with-flints influence. The glade where it blooms is colourful with its flowers which include Betony, Red Clover, Hawkbit and St John’s Wort.:213 Old Erringham Farmstead Old Erringham Farmstead () has an old flint farmhouse with great chimneys and part-Horsham slab roofing, and ramshackle old flint barns. It has one of only two remaining medieval manorial chapels on the Brighton Downs (the other at Swanborough Manor), which now functions as a front garden shed for one of the modern farm workers cottages just to the south of the old farmhouse. It has a tiny ecclesiastical window on its south face. The farm has a tenth century ‘ring work’ and designated ancient monument. It was presumably built as a defence against the Vikings, though it's difficult to pick it out amongst the grassy plats now. It is a mixed farm with corn crops, beef cattle, a bit of livery stabling, and hay meadows. The farm skilfully manages the sites of Old Erringham Combe and Anchor Bottom to preserve their value to nature. Around the farmstead there is Red Star Thistle (a Brighton Downs speciality), Musk Thistle, Spear Thistle, Welted Thistle, Creeping Thistle, Teasel and Viper’s Bugloss all adding summer colour.:204 Old Erringham Combe and Shaw For walkers descending into Old Erringham Combe () it feels like a secret valley. The road noise stops and they are greeted with the Combe’s old-fashioned mosaic of habitats and aspects make it a great refuge for Downland wildlife. The southfacing bank is the hottest place, but below it there are willows and a tiny tongue of wet grassland where Lesser Marsh Grasshopper, Autumn Ladies Tresses orchid, Bastard Toadflax, Rockrose, Betony, Thyme and so many other herbs.:205 There are many butterflies in summer including Wall Brown and Clouded Yellow, and day flying moths like Yellow Belle, Dusky Sallow, Common Carpet and grass moths enjoy the drying grassland. This site used to be part of a ‘cow down’, and it is maybe because of those centuries of cattle grazing that the rare Carthusian Snail, Monacha cartusiana, clings on in this combe.:205 Old Erringham Shaw is a tangled wood of sycamore, ash, elm and thorn. It's more open at the northern end facing the combe, where the remains of four big old broken beeches and lots of may blossom make it a good place for insects.:205 Slonk Hill Slonk Hill () is likely to have taken its name from the Saxon word ‘slog’ — part of the verb ‘slean’, as in ‘slay’ — so there may have been some memorable bloodshed in the distant past. There were at least two Bronze Age barrows and a little Iron Age settlement on the Hill. They were surrounded by a rectangular ditched enclosure and perhaps made into a ‘temenos’ or temple. Ritual deposits of animals and coins were buried at the site.:122 The evening shadows still show many intriguing dips and hummocks at the Hill’s southern end, although the trench digging of the large army camp that came here during the First World War must be the explanation for most of them. There three places that were spared the damage of decades of agribusiness on the hill: an island of old Down pasture on the eastern slope, an old bostal track, which winds down the slope at its southern end, and a patch of hillside a few hundred yards north, surrounded by Iron Age field lynchets. More recently the agrochemicals have stopped and the hillside is again colourful with herbs and the intact areas have Pyramidal and Spotted Orchid, Meadow Oat-grass, Crested Hair-grass and Pride of Sussex Rampion.:206 Mossy Bottom Mossy Bottom () derives its name from ‘Muster’ Bottom, where the shepherd mustered his sheep. Mossy Bottom slope is statutory access land under the right to roam ‘CROW’ Act (2000), but public usage is heavily challenged by prohibitive notices and poor access provision. It has boney Iron Age lynchets across it made by the peasant farmers who lived in Thundersbarrow village. They used to be called “Thunder’s Steps.” There are big old anthills, Large Thyme, Dropwort, Cowslip, Basil, Harebell and Round-headed Rampion.:206 Transport Brighton City Airport lies to the west of the main town and has been in private ownership since 2006. It is the UK's oldest licensed airport still in operation and has a 1936 Grade II-listed Art Deco terminal building. The terminal has been a filming location for an episode of Agatha Christie's Poirot, "Lord Edgware Dies", a Crimewatch-type reconstruction (2000, ITV Meridian), BBC Tenko series episode, The Da Vinci Code film scenes and the film Woman in Gold. The town is served by Shoreham-by-Sea railway station, located on the West Coastway Line. Local bus services are provided by the Brighton & Hove bus company, Stagecoach South and a local town route is operated by Compass Travel. Shoreham Tollbridge crosses the River Adur in the west of the town. This bridge is a Grade II listed building and was the last Sussex toll bridge in use. The bridge was part of the A27 road until it was closed to traffic in 1968. The structure is now too weak to carry vehicles and underwent extensive restoration, then was ceremonially re-opened for pedestrians on 23 October 2008, by Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Adur Ferry Bridge in the south of the town (replacing the old Shoreham footbridge) crosses the River Adur to Shoreham Beach. It was opened to the public by the Duke of Gloucester on 13 November 2013. Sport and leisure Shoreham-by-Sea has a non-League football club, Shoreham FC, who play at Middle Road stadium with a 2000 capacity, and a rugby union club, Shoreham RFC, who play at Buckingham Park. Southdown Golf Club was founded in 1902, but ceased to operate in the 1940s. The town centre hosts monthly farmers' and artisans' markets in East Street on the second and fourth Saturday of the month, respectively, together with the annual 'Light up Shoreham' Christmas market and event. Airshow crash Most years, in late summer, Shoreham Airport hosts the Royal Air Forces Association (RAFA) Shoreham Airshow. On 22 August 2015, a Hawker Hunter jet fighter taking part in the airshow crashed onto the busy A27 road just outside the airport, killing eleven people and injuring several others. Notable people Writer Brian Behan lived on a boat moored in the town in the late 1960s. Playwright Charles Bennett was born in Shoreham-by-sea in 1899. Mark Benson, former England cricketer and now a cricket umpire, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea in 1958. Havergal Brian, English composer, moved from London to Shoreham-by-Sea in 1958. He wrote twenty symphonies there over the next ten years. Paul Chaloner, shoutcaster in the Esports community, was born in Shoreham in 1971. Raymond O. Faulkner, philologist and compiler of the standard hieroglyphic dictionary, was born in Shoreham in 1894. Vanessa Howard, a horror and exploitation film actress, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea in 1948. Mel Hopkins, a former footballer with Tottenham Hotspur, Brighton and Hove Albion and Wales retired to Shoreham Beach. Artist Alison Lapper lives in Shoreham. Bert Longstaff, professional footballer who played for Shoreham F.C. and made over 400 appearances for Brighton & Hove Albion. Broadcaster Mike Mendoza lives on Shoreham Beach. Comedian Max Miller, lived in Kingston Lane for a period of time as indicated by a plaque on the building called Ashcroft. Fiona Mont, who was dubbed "Britain's most wanted woman" in 2000. It was claimed she was smuggled out of the country in a light aircraft from Shoreham Airport in 1999. Kjetil Mørland of the band Absent Elk lives in Shoreham-by-Sea. Prof Hugh Nicol, bacteriologist and agricultural chemist. Cecil Pashley, aviation pioneer. Phyllis Pearsall, painter, writer and creator of the A to Z map of London lived on Shoreham Beach before her death in 1996. Harry Ricardo founded Ricardo Consulting Engineers in Shoreham-by-Sea, where it still has its main offices. Captain Henry Roberts (1725–1796) was a native of Shoreham, where he raised his six children. He sailed with Captain James Cook on the second and third voyages and acted as cartographer. David Ryall, actor, was born in the town in 1935. Leo Sayer, British singer and recording artist, was born in 1948 in Shoreham-by-Sea. Hubert Scott-Paine, (the boss of R. J. Mitchell at Supermarine, who designed the Spitfire aircraft), was born in 1890 in Shoreham and had a yacht in Stowe's Yard, before moving to Southampton. Gemma Spofforth, Olympic swimmer, was born in Shoreham-By-Sea. Michael Standing, a professional footballer, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea in 1981. Marcus Tudgay, footballer, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea. Darren Tulett, football presenter on French television Judy Upton, playwright, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea in 1966 and has written several plays associated with Brighton. Nicholas van Hoogstraten, notorious British property tycoon, was born in Shoreham-by-Sea in 1946 and was educated at a local Jesuit school. Ted Walker, writer, was married in Shoreham. Many works describe the Shoreham coastline and Adur estuary. Nathaniel Woodard, the founder of Lancing College and the Woodard Schools, became the curate-in-charge of St. Mary's, New Shoreham in 1846 and his experience there inspired him to start creating schools to improve the level of middle class education. He also greatly developed the use of choral music in the Church. Amon Henry Wilds, English architect, moved to Old Shoreham in 1857. Twin towns Shoreham (along with the other urban districts of Adur) is twinned with Żywiec, Poland Riom, France See also Marlipins Museum Red Lion Inn, Shoreham-by-Sea Shoreham Harbour Lifeboat Station Southlands Hospital References External links Shoreham-by-Sea comes under Adur & Worthing Council Towns in West Sussex Beaches of West Sussex Populated coastal places in West Sussex Ports and harbours of West Sussex Unparished areas in West Sussex Adur District	6,006
doc-en-10112_0	The bibliography covers the main scholarly books, and a few articles, dealing with the History of Japan Surveys and reference Allinson, Gary D. The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History. (1999). 259 pp. excerpt and text search Beasley, W. G. The Modern History of Japan (1963) Clement, Ernest Wilson. A Short History of Japan (1915), 190pp online edition Cullen, L. M. A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds (2003) Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military. (1999). 384 pp. excerpt and text search Duus, Peter. Modern Japan (2nd ed 1998) online Goedertier Joseph M. A Dictionary of Japanese History. 1968. Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present (2003) excerpt and text search Hall, John Whitney. Japan: From Prehistory to Modern Times (New York: Delacorte Press, 1970) Hane, Mikiso. Modern Japan: A Historical Survey 2nd ed Westview Press, 1992, 474pp Henshall, Kenneth. A history of Japan: from stone age to superpower (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) Huffman, James L., ed. Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism. (1998). 316 pp. Hunter Janet. Concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History. (1984). online Iwao, Seiichi. Biographical dictionary of Japanese history (1978) online Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan (2002) excerpts and search online McClain, James L. Japan: A Modern History. (2001). 512 pp. excerpt and text search Morley, James William, ed. Japan's foreign policy, 1868-1941: a research guide (Columbia UP, 1974), Chapters by international experts who cover military policy, economic policy, cultural policy, and relations with Britain, China, Germany, Russia, and the United States; 635pp Mosk, Carl. Japanese Industrial History: Technology, Urbanization, and Economic Growth. M. E. Sharpe, 2001. 293 pp. Najita, Tetsuo. Japan: The Intellectual Foundations of Modern Japanese Politics (1980), 200 year interpretation excerpt and text search Perez, Louis G. The History of Japan (1998) 244pp Perkins, Dorothy. Encyclopedia of Japan : Japanese history and culture, from abacus to zori (1991) online free to borrow 410 pp. Reischauer, Edwin O. Japan: The Story of a Nation. 1990. Reischauer, Edwin O., and Albert M. Craig. Japan, Tradition and Transformation 1978. Sims, Richard. Japanese Political History since the Meiji Renovation, 1868-2000. (2001). 395 pp. Stockwin, J. A. A. Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Japan. (2003). 291pp * Tipton, Elise. Modern Japan: A Social and Political History (2002) excerpt and text search Totman, Conrad. A History of Japan. (3rd ed 2014). 620 pp.; stress on environment excerpts and search Totman, Conrad. Early Modern Japan: A Short History (1995) excerpt and text search Totman, Conrad. Japan before Perry (2nd paperback ed. 2008) excerpt and text search Totman, Conrad. Japan: An Environmental History (2014) Umesao, Tadao. An Ecological View of History: Japanese Civilization in the World Context. Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2003. 208 pp. East Asian history Best, Antony, ed. The International History of East Asia, 1900-1968: Trade, Ideology and the Quest for Order (London: Routledge, 2010). Chickering, Roger, and Stig Förster, eds. The Shadows of Total War: Europe, East Asia, and the United States, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). * Clyde, Paul Hibbert. The Far East: A History of the Impact of the West on Eastern Asia. (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1948). * Clyde, Paul Hibbert. A History of the Modern and Contemporary Far East: A Survey of Western Contacts with Eastern Asia during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1937). * Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History (2 vol. 2008-2013) Field, Andrew. Royal Navy Strategy in the Far East, 1919-1939: Preparing for War against Japan (Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2003). Holcombe, Charles. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century (2010) Jensen, Richard, Jon Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003). Lipman, Jonathan N. and Barbara A. Molony. Modern East Asia: An Integrated History (2011) Nimmo, William F. Stars and Stripes across the Pacific: The United States, Japan, and Asia/Pacific Region, 1895-1945 (Praeger, 2001). excerpt Prescott, Anne. East Asia in the World: An Introduction (2015) Reid, Anthony. A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads (Blackwell History of the World, 2015) Shavit, David. The United States in Asia: A Historical Dictionary (Greenwood Press, 1990). Vogel, Ezra F. China and Japan: Facing History (Harvard University Press, 2019) in-depth comparative history. excerpt to 1860 Clulow, Adam. The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan (Columbia University Press, 2014) Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850 (Westview Press, 2012) Gerstle, C. Andrew. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society (Routledge, 2012) Gramlich-Oka, Bettina, and Gregory Smits, eds. Economic Thought in Early Modern Japan. V. 1, Monies, Markets, and Finance in East Asia (Leiden: Brill, 2010) Hall, John W. ed. Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. IV, Early Modern Japan. (1991). 831pp Hall, S. Japan before Tokugawa: political consolidation and economic growth, 1500-1650 (Princeton University Press, 2014) Hane, Mikiso. Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey (1991) Hanley, Susan B. and Kozo Yamamura. Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan, 1600-1868 (1977) Jansen, Marius B., ed. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 5: The Nineteenth Century. (1989). 828 pp. and text search Jansen, Marius B., and Gilbert Rozman, eds. Japan in transition: from Tokugawa to Meiji (Princeton University Press, 2014) Maruyama, Masao. Studies in Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan (Princeton University Press, 2014) Sansom, Sir George B. A History of Japan, 3 vols. 1963, in dense, sophisticated prose vol 1 to 1334, excerpts and search V. 2 (to 1615) and search V. 3 (to 1867) Smitka, Michael, ed. The Japanese economy in the Tokugawa era, 1600-1868 (Routledge, 2012) Williams, E. Leslie. Japan Before Meiji: A Short Cultural History (University of Hawai'I Press, 2014) Wilson, George M. Patriots and Redeemers in Japan: Motives in the Meiji Restoration. (1992). 201 pp. Yamamura Kozo, ed. Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. III. Medieval Japan. (1990). Yamamura, Kozo. "Toward a Reexamination of the Economic History of Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1867." Journal of Economic History 33(3) (1973) pp. 509–546. in Jstor 1860 to 1945 Akagi, Roy Hidemichi. Japan's Foreign Relations 1542-1936: A Short History (1979) online 560pp. Bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (HarperCollins, 2001), a standard biography online; Pulitzer Prize. Bix, Herbert. "Emperor Hirohito's war." History Today 41.12 (1991): 12-19; short popular summary Black, Cyril, et al. eds. The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative Study (1977) Borton, Hugh. Japan's modern century (2nd ed 1970), 1850 to 1970; university textbook; online Cohen, Jerome B. Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction (1949) 545 pp. Dickinson, Frederick R. "Toward a Global Perspective of the Great War: Japan and the Foundations of a Twentieth-Century World." American Historical Review (2014) 119#4 pp1154–1183. The role of World War I Dower, John W. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. Pantheon, 1986. 398 pp. excerpt and text search Duus, Peter, ed. The Cambridge History of Japan: Vol. 6: The Twentieth Century. (1989). 866 pp. Havens, Thomas R. Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War II. 1978. Havens, Thomas R. "Women and War in Japan, 1937–1945." American Historical Review 80 (1975): 913–934. online in JSTOR Hunter, Janet. The emergence of modern Japan: an introductory history since 1853 (Routledge, 2014) Iriye, Akira. Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941-1945 (1981), Jansen, Marius B. and Rozman, Gilbert, eds. Japan in Transition, from Tokugawa to Meiji. (1986). 485 pp. modernization models Keene, Donald. Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World , 1852-1912. (2002). 928 pp. LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations. (1997). 544 pp. Megarry, Tim, ed. The Making of Modern Japan: A Reader (Greenwich University Press, 1995) 34 essays by scholars; 591pp Nakamura, Takafusa, et al. eds. Economic History of Japan 1914–1955: A Dual Structure (vol 3 2003) Perez, Louis G., ed. Japan at War: An Encyclopedia (2013) pp 477–98 excerpts and text search Ravina, Mark. To stand with the nations of the world: Japan's Meiji restoration in world history (Oxford UP, 2020) excerpt Sims, Richard. Japanese Political History since the Meiji Renovation, 1868-2000. Palgrave, 2001. 395 pp. Ward, Robert E., ed. Political Development in Modern Japan: Studies in the Modernization of Japan (Princeton University Press, 2015) Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People (Translated by Ethan Mark. Columbia University Press, 2015). 360 pp. online review Occupation: 1945-1952 Buckley, Roger. Occupation Diplomacy: Britain, the United States and Japan, 1945-1952. (1982). 294 pp. Cohen, Jerome B. Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction (1949) 545 pp. * Cohen, Theodore. Remaking Japan: The American Occupation as New Deal. (1987). 526 pp. Cook, Haruko Taya, and Theodore Cook. Japan at War: An Oral History 1992. Dower, John. Japan in War and Peace 1993. Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. (1999). 688 pp. excerpt and text search Eldridge, Robert. The Origins of the Bilateral Okinawa Problem: Okinawa in Postwar US-Japan Relations, 1945-1952 (2001) excerpt and text search Finn, Richard B. Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan. (1992). 413 pp. excerpt and text search Hane, Mikiso. Eastern Phoenix: Japan since 1945 (1996) Harvey, Robert. American Shogun: General MacArthur, Emperor Hirohito, and the Drama of Modern Japan. (2006). 480 pp. Hellegers, Dale M. We, the Japanese People: World War II and the Origins of the Japanese Constitution. (2 vol. 2002). 826 pp. Hewes Jr., Laurence I. Japan -- Land and Men: An Account of the Japanese Land Reform Program, 1945-51 154 pgs. (1955) Hirano, Kyoko. Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo: The Japanese Cinema under the American Occupation, 1945-1952. (1992). 400 pp. Koseki, Shoichi. The Birth of Japan's Postwar Constitution. (1997). 257 pp Koshiro, Yukiko. Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan. (1999). 295 pp. Molasky, Michael S. The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. (1999). 244 pp. Moore, Ray A. and Robinson, Donald L. Partners for Democracy: Crafting the New Japanese State under MacArthur. (2002). 409 pp. Orbaugh, Sharalyn. Japanese Fiction of the Allied Occupation: Vision, Embodiment, Identity. (2007). 515 pp. Sandler, Mark, ed. The Confusion Era: Art and Culture in Japan during the Allied Occupation, 1945-52. (1998). 112 pp. Schonberger, Howard B. Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952 (1989) Schaller, Michael. The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (1987) excerpt and text searcj Shibata, Masako. Japan and Germany under the US Occupation: A Comparative Analysis of Post-War Education Reform. (2005). 212 pp. Sodei, Rinjiro. Dear General MacArthur: Letters from the Japanese during the American Occupation. (2001). 308 pp., primary sources Takemae, Eiji. Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy. (2002). 800 pp. VanStaaveren, Jacob. An American in Japan, 1945-1948: A Civilian View of the Occupation. (1995). 286 pp. primary course Ward, Robert E. and Yoshikazu, Sakamoto. Democratizing Japan: The Allied Occupation. (1987). 456 pp. Williams, Justin, Sr. Japan's Political Revolution Under MacArthur: A Participant's Account. (1979). 317 pp. primary source Yoshida, Shigeru. The Yoshida Memoirs: The Story of Japan in Crisis 1961, primary source online edition Since 1952 Allinson, Gary D. Japan's Postwar History. (2nd ed 2004). 208 pp. excerpt and text search Beauchamp, Edward R., ed. Education and Schooling in Japan since 1945 (Routledge, 2014) Chapman, J.W.M., Reinhard Drifte, and Ian T.M. Gow, eds. Japan's Quest for Comprehensive Security: Defence-Diplomacy-Dependence (A&C Black, 2013) Duus, Peter, ed. The Cambridge History of Japan: Vol. 6: The Twentieth Century. (1989). 866 pp. Hane, Mikiso. Eastern Phoenix: Japan since 1945 (1996) online edition Hook, Glenn D. et al. Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security (2nd ed. Routledge, 2011) LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations. (1997). 544 pp., The standard history Neary, Ian. Leaders and leadership in Japan (Routledge, 2014) Scalapino, Robert A., ed. The Foreign Policy of Modern Japan (University of California Press, 1977) Shinoda, Tomohito. Contemporary Japanese Politics: Institutional Changes and Power Shifts (Columbia University Press, 2013) Sims, Richard. Japanese Political History since the Meiji Renovation, 1868-2000. Palgrave, 2001. 395 pp. Sugihara, Kaoru. Japan, China, and the Growth of the Asian International Economy, 1850-1949 - Vol. 1 (2005) online edition Sumiya, Mikio, ed. A History of Japanese Trade and Industry Policy. (2000). 662 pp. Van Wolferen, Karel. The enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation (1989)A that Cultural and social history Craig, Albert M.; Shively, Donald H. Personality in Japanese History (1995) Dore, R. P. Aspects of Social Change in Modern Japan (1971) Dumoulin, Heinrich. Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 2. Japan. (1989). 509 pp. Duus, Peter, ed. The Japanese Discovery of America: A Brief History with Documents. (1997). 226 pp. Earhart, H. Byron. Japanese Religion: Unity and Diversity (1974). Guttmann, Allen and Thompson, Lee. Japanese Sports: A History. (2001). 368 pp. Hanley, Susan B. and Kozo Yamamura. Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan, 1600-1868 (1977) Harootunian, Harry. History's Disquiet: Modernity, Cultural Practice, and the Question of Everyday Life. (2000). 182 pp. Keene, Donald. Japanese Literature: An Introduction for Western Readers (1955) Morris, Ivan. The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (1964) Kitagawa Joseph M. Religion in Japanese History. 1966. Kuitert, Wybe. Themes in the History of Japanese Garden Art (2002). 283 pp. Leiter, Samuel L. A Kabuki Reader: History and Performance. (2002). 430 pp. Mason, Penelope. History of Japanese Art. (1993). 431 pp. Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. A History of Japanese Economic Thought (1991) online edition Munsterberg, Hugo. The Arts of Japan: An Illustrated History (1957) Roberts, Laurance P. A. Dictionary of Japanese Artists. Tokyo: 1976. Sansom, Sir George B. Japan, A Short Cultural History. 1978. online edition Siever, Sharon Flowers in Salt: The Beginning of Feminine Consciousness in Modern Japan (1983) Standish, Isolde. A New History of Japanese Cinema: A Century of Narrative Film. (2005). 452 pp. Stanley, Amy. Selling women: Prostitution, markets, and the household in early modern Japan (U of California Press, 2012). excerpt Thomas, James Edward. Modern Japan: a social history since 1868 (Routledge, 2017) excerpt Tonomura, Hitomi; Walthall, Anne; and Haruko, Wakita. Women and Class in Japanese History (1999). Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. Modern Japanese Thought. (1998). 403 pp. excerpt and text search Varley, Paul Herbert. Japanese Culture (4th ed. 2000). online Economic history Allen, George. Short Economic History of Modern Japan (4th ed. 1981) online Cohen, Jerome B. Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction (1949) 545 pp; on 1940s Black, Cyril, ed. The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative Study (1975) online Dore, Ronald. Taking Japan seriously: A Confucian perspective on leading economic issues (A&C Black, 2013). Ericson, Steven J. The Sound of the Whistle: Railroads and the State in Meiji Japan (Harvard Council on East Asian Studies, 1996). Ferris, William W. Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History (2009) excerpt and text search Flath, David. The Japanese Economy (3rd ed. Oxford UP, 2014), On current conditions. Gordon, Andrew, ed. Postwar Japan as History (1993), pp 99–188, 259-292 online Hayami, Akira; Saito, Osamu; and Toby, Ronald P., eds. The Economic History of Japan, 1600-1990. Vol. 1: Emergence of Economic Society in Japan, 1600-1859. (2004). 420 pp. Kelley, Allen C. and Jeffrey G. Williamson, ed. Lessons from Japanese Development (1974) Kornicki, Peter F., ed. Meiji Japan: Political, Economic and Social History 1868–1912 (4 vol; 1998) 1336 pages of scholarly articles Kozo, Yamamura, and Yasuba Yasukichi, eds. The Political Economy of Japan: Volume 1—The Domestic Transformation (1987) Lechevalier, Sébastien, ed. The Great Transformation of Japanese Capitalism (2014) on 1980-2012 excerpt Morikawa, Hidemasa. A History of Top Management in Japan: Managerial Enterprises and Family Enterprises (2001) Morley, James William, ed. Japan's foreign policy, 1868-1941: a research guide (Columbia UP, 1974), covers Japan's economic foreign policies, 1868–1893, pp 118–52 Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. History of Japanese Economic Thought (1991) Nakamura, Takafusa, et al. eds. The Economic History of Japan: 1600–1990: Volume 1: Emergence of Economic Society in Japan, 1600–1859 (2004); Volume 3: Economic History of Japan 1914–1955: A Dual Structure (2003), Nakamura, James. Agricultural Production and the Economic Development of Japan, 1873–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1966) Ohtsu, Makoto. Inside Japanese Business: A Narrative History, 1960-2000. (2002). 459pp. Patrick, Hugh, Sooned. Japanese Industrialization and Its Social Consequences (1977) Rosovsky, Henry. "Rumbles in the Rice Fields," Journal of Asian Studies (February 1968): vol. 27, No. 2 pp 347–60. Smitka, Michael, ed. The Japanese economy in the Tokugawa era, 1600-1868 (Routledge, 2012) Sugihara, Kaoru. Japan, China, and the Growth of the Asian International Economy, 1850-1949 - Vol. 1 Tolliday, Steven. The Economic Development of Modern Japan, 1868–1945: From the Meiji Restoration to the Second World War (2 vol; 2001), 1376pp; reprints 50 scholarly articles Yamamura, Kozo. "Toward a Reexamination of the Economic History of Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1867." Journal of Economic History (1973) 33#3 pp: 509–546. in Jstor Foreign policy Akagi, Roy Hidemichi. Japan's Foreign Relations 1542-1936: A Short History (1979) online 560pp Beasley, William G. Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945 (Oxford UP, 1987) Burns, Richard Dean, and Edward Moore Bennett. Diplomats in Crisis: United States-Chinese-Japanese Relations, 1919-1941 (ABC-Clio, 1974); bibliography Cooney, Kevin J. Japan's Foreign Policy Since 1945 (2006) Hook, Glenn D. et al. Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security (2011) excerpt and text search Inoguchi, Takashi. Japan's foreign policy in an era of global change (A&C Black, 2013) Iriye, Akira. Japan and the wider world: from the mid-nineteenth century to the present (Longman, 1997) Jung-Sun, Han. "Rationalizing the Orient: The" East Asia Cooperative Community" in Prewar Japan." Monumenta Nipponica (2005): 481-514. in JSTOR Lafeber, Walter. The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations (1997), a standard scholarly history Langdon, Frank. Japan's foreign policy (U. British Columbia Press, 2011) Langer, William L. The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890-1902 (2nd ed. 1951), world diplomatic history Maslow, Sebastian, Ra Mason and Paul O’Shea, eds. Risk State: Japan’s Foreign Policy In An Age Of Uncertainty (Ashgate. 2015) 202pp excerpt Morley, James William, ed. Japan's foreign policy, 1868-1941: a research guide (Columbia UP, 1974), comprehensive coverage of diplomatic & military & cultural relations Nish, Ian Hill. The origins of the Russo-Japanese war (1985) Nish, Ian. Japanese Foreign Policy, 1869-1942: Kasumigaseki to Miyakezaka (2001) Nish, Ian. (1990) "An Overview of Relations between China and Japan, 1895–1945." China Quarterly (1990) 124 (1990): 601–623. online Scalapino, Robert A., and Edwin O. Reischauer, eds. The Foreign Policy of Modern Japan (1977) Shimamoto, Mayako, Koji Ito, and Yoneyuki Sugita. Historical Dictionary of Japanese Foreign Policy (2015) excerpt Sun, Youli, and You-Li Sun. China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1931-1941 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993) White, John Albert. The Diplomacy of the Russo-Japanese War (Princeton UP, 1964) Young, Louise. "Rethinking empire: Lessons from imperial and post-imperial Japan." The Oxford handbook of the ends of empire (2018): 212-230. online Military history Drea, Edward J. Japan's Imperial Army: Its Rise and Fall, 1853 - 1945 (2016) online Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military (1997) Farris, William Wayne. Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500–1300 (Harvard East Asian Monographs) (1996) Field, Andrew. Royal Navy Strategy in the Far East, 1919-1939: Preparing for War against Japan (Frank Cass, 2003). Friday K. F. "Bushido or Bull? A Medieval Historian's Perspective on the Imperial Army and the Japanese Warrior Tradition," The History Teacher (1994) 27:339–349, in JSTOR Harries, M. and S. Harries. Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army (1991). Morley, James William, ed. Japan's foreign policy, 1868-1941: a research guide (Columbia UP, 1974), Covers " Japan's military foreign policies.", pp 3–117 Nitobe Inazō. Bushido: The Soul of Japan (Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle, 1969) Perez, Louis G., ed. Japan at War: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2013). Pike, Francis. Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941-1945 (2016) excerpt Steinberg, John W., Bruce W. Menning, David Schimmelpenninck Van Der Oye, Shinji Yokote, and David Wolff, eds. The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero. Boston: Brill, 2005. Turnbull, Stephen (2002). War in Japan: 1467–1615. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Historiography Allinson, Gary D. The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History. (1999). 259 pp. excerpt and text search Beasley W. G., and E. G. Pulleyblank, eds. Historians of China and Japan. 1961. Bix, Herbert P. "Hiroshima in History and Memory: A Symposium, Japan's Delayed Surrender: A Reinterpretation." Diplomatic History 19.2 (1995): 197-225. Bix, Herbert P. "ar Responsibilit and Historical Memor: Hirohito's Apparition." Asia-Pacific Journal\| Japan Focus 6#5 (2008) 1–18. online Cullen, L. M. A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds (2003) pp 302–20. Hardacre, Helen and Kern, Adam L., eds. New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan. (1997). 782 pp. Hein, Laura, and Akiko Takenaka. "Exhibiting World War II in Japan and the United States since 1995." Pacific Historical Review 76.1 (2007): 61-94. Tanaka, Stefan. Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (1995), How Japanese historians created the equivalent of an "Orient" and built a new national historiography. Wray, Harry, and Hilary Conroy, eds. Japan Examined: Perspectives on Modern Japanese History (1983), historiography Scholarly journals East Asian History Journal of Japanese Studies Korean Studies Monumenta Nipponica, Japanese studies (in English) Sino-Japanese Studies Social Science Japan Journal Primary sources full text of useful travel guide Cook, Haruko Taya and Cook, Theodore F. eds. Japan at War: An Oral History. (1992). 504 pp., World War II homefront excerpt and text search De Bary, Wm Theodore, et al eds. Sources of Japanese tradition: 1600 to 2000 (2 vol; Columbia University Press, 2005). vol 1 to 1600 online; vol 1-2 1958 edition Lu, David J. Japan: A Documentary History: V. 1: The Dawn of History to the Late Eighteenth Century (Routledge, 2015); Japan: A Documentary History: V. 2: The Late Tokugawa Period to the Present (Routledge, 2015) excerpt vol 2 Huffman, James L. ed. Modern Japan: A History in Documents (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Tsunoda, Ryusaku, W. T. de Bary, and Donald Keene, eds. Sources of Japanese Tradition. 1958. online free to borrow Yoshida, Shigeru. The Yoshida Memoirs: The Story of Japan in Crisis 1961, on Occupation, 1945–51 References Historiography of Japan	6,827
doc-en-10118_0	On the afternoon of Monday, May 20, 2013, a large and extremely powerful EF5 tornado ravaged Moore, Oklahoma, and adjacent areas, with peak winds estimated at , killing 24 people (plus two indirect fatalities) and injuring 212 others. The tornado was part of a larger weather system that had produced several other tornadoes across the Great Plains over the previous two days, including five that struck portions of Central Oklahoma the day prior on May 19. The tornado touched down just northwest of Newcastle at 2:56 p.m. CDT (19:46 UTC), and stayed on the ground for 39 minutes over a path, crossing through a heavily populated section of Moore. The tornado was wide at its peak. It followed a roughly similar track to the deadlier 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado, which was smaller in size but just as severe; however, very few homes and neither of the stricken schools in the area had purpose-built storm shelters in the intervening years since the earlier tornado struck Moore. Meteorological synopsis On May 20, 2013, a prominent central upper trough moved eastward toward the Central United States, with a lead upper low pivoting over the Dakotas and Upper Midwest region. A Southern stream shortwave trough and a moderately strong polar jet moved east-northeastward over the southern Rockies to the southern Great Plains and Ozarks area, with severe thunderstorms forming during the peak hours of heating. With the influence of moderately strong cyclonic flow aloft, the air mass was expected to become unstable across much of the southern Great Plains, Ozarks, and middle Mississippi Valley by the afternoon hours. Evidence of an unstable air mass included temperatures in the low to mid 80s °F (27–30 °C), dewpoints that ranged in the upper 60s °F (20 °C) to the lower 70s °F (20–22 °C), and CAPE values ranging from 3500–5000 J/kg. Deep-layer wind shear speeds of enhanced storm structure and intensity. These were present ahead of a cold front extending from a surface low in the eastern Dakotas, southwestward to near the Kansas City area and western Oklahoma, and ahead of a dry line extending from southwest Oklahoma southward into northwestern and west-central Texas. Outflow remnants from the previous night and the early day convection across the Ozarks and the middle Mississippi Valley were a factor in severe weather development with the most aggressive heating and destabilization on the western edge of this activity across the southern Great Plains and just ahead of a cold front. The National Weather Service office in Norman, Oklahoma had warned as early as May 15 that there would be a possibility of severe weather on May 20. The most intense severe weather activity was expected to come across the southern Great Plains, specifically Central Oklahoma, during the afternoon hours on that Monday. As such, the Storm Prediction Center issued a moderate risk of severe thunderstorms during the early morning hours of May 20 from southeastern Missouri to north-central Texas. The degree of wind shear, moisture, and instability within the warm sector favored the development of supercells. Very large hail and tornadoes were both expected with these supercells, with the possibility of a few strong tornadoes. The Storm Prediction Center issued a tornado watch at 1:10 p.m. Central Daylight Time (CDT) early that afternoon for the eastern two-thirds of Oklahoma, northwestern Arkansas, and portions of north-central Texas. Given the atmospheric parameters thought to be in place at the time, the Storm Prediction Center inadvertently underestimated the threat of tornadic activity that afternoon; the probability table for the tornado watch – the 191st severe weather watch issued by the guidance center in 2013 – indicated a 40% (or "moderate") probability of two or more tornadoes and a 20% (or "low") probability of one or more tornadoes reaching between EF2 and EF5 intensity within the watch area. Storm development and track The thunderstorm that eventually produced the tornado developed less than one hour after the tornado watch was issued, around 2:00 p.m. CDT, across northern Grady County. Its rapid intensification resulted in the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman issuing a severe thunderstorm warning for northern Grady, northwestern Cleveland, northern McClain, and southwestern Oklahoma Counties (including southwestern portions of the immediate Oklahoma City area) at 2:12 p.m. CDT. The thunderstorm quickly attained supercell characteristics, with rotation at the mid-levels of the storm's cloud structure becoming apparent even before it was officially classified as severe, due to the sufficient amounts of wind shear present over central Oklahoma. Due to the expected intensity of the storms, which were expected to be equal – if not, stronger – in severity to the supercells that produced the five tornadoes in the expected area of greatest tornadic threat the day prior, three of the Oklahoma City market's five television news outlets − NBC affiliate KFOR-TV (channel 4), ABC affiliate KOCO-TV (channel 5) and CBS affiliate KWTV (channel 9) − suspended normal programming and went into wall-to-wall weather coverage immediately after the tornado watch went into effect (Fox affiliate KOKH-TV (channel 25) and Telemundo affiliate KTUZ-TV (channel 30) began their coverage as the first severe thunderstorms erupted southwest of the state capital), and subsequently began relaying their audio feeds to radio stations throughout central Oklahoma. As the forecast suggested that the most significant severe weather would occur in the mid-afternoon, around the time classes concluded for the day, many worried parents began arriving at schools throughout Moore and south Oklahoma City to pick up their children in advance of the storm. At 2:40 p.m. CDT, as rotation in the supercell was increasing at the cloud base, a tornado warning was issued for far northeastern Grady, western Cleveland, northern McClain, and southern Oklahoma Counties, as the storm approached the Oklahoma City metropolitan area. The tornado touched down at 2:56 p.m. CDT in northeastern Grady County, near Long Drive and the southwest corner of the North Country Club Road and Northwest 32nd Street intersection, roughly northwest of downtown Newcastle. Initially a narrow cone-shaped tornado, it first caused EF1 damage to a home and some trees before rapidly intensifying and striking a semi-rural subdivision on the north side of Northwest 32nd, where several homes were destroyed, two of which were leveled at EF4 intensity. At this point, the tornado began to grow rapidly in size, evolving into a large, wedge-shaped structure. Slight ground scouring began in this area, and several homes in a subdivision further to the northeast sustained EF3 damage. By 3:01 p.m. CDT, the National Weather Service issued a second, more strongly worded warning for the area: in a special weather statement that updated the existing tornado warning, the Norman forecast office declared a tornado emergency for southern Oklahoma City and Moore as various storm spotters confirmed that the large, violent tornado was approaching the area. The Twin Lakes dual-polarization NEXRAD radar (near Lake Stanley Draper) detected a tornado debris signature one mile in diameter within the accompanying hook echo, as the tornado crossed into portions of south Oklahoma City in northern Cleveland County. The supercell also produced straight-line winds of for at least one mile surrounding the tornadic circulation. The tornado maintained EF3 intensity as it crossed the Canadian River into Cleveland County, and a decommissioned U.S. 62/U.S. 277 bridge was severely damaged; this bridge had to be demolished after the tornado ripped part of it from its mount and tossed it across Interstate 44. The tornado then continued directly toward south Oklahoma City and Moore, roughly following Southwest 149th Street. At that point, it began to grow rapidly in width, and a second brief area of EF4 damage was noted near South May Avenue, where several homes were leveled, and one was swept clean from its foundation (this home was determined to have been nailed, rather than bolted to its foundation). A vehicle frame, engine block, and various other vehicle parts were found tangled within a grove of completely debarked trees in this area. As the tornado began to cross into south Oklahoma City, a traffic jam had occurred for a stretch of several miles along Santa Fe Avenue, as residents attempted to either escape from or pick up their children at schools located near the tornado's path. As the station's news helicopter was capturing live video of the tornado, then-KWTV chief meteorologist Gary England − upon seeing footage of the backup that was being relayed by pilot Jim Gardner − urged drivers caught in the jam that may have been listening to the station's audio simulcast on area radio outlets to use nearby streets to detour out of the tornado's expected track. The tornado weakened briefly to an EF3 before re-intensifying to EF4 intensity near Forman Drive, flattening several homes as it moved through mostly rural areas south of Southwest 149th Street. As the tornado struck an oil production site, four oil tanks were blown away, one of which was never found. The others were thrown considerable distances; one was found a mile away. The tornado maintained its intensity as it struck the Orr Family Farm and the Celestial Acres horse training area, where up to 100 horses were reported killed, some being tossed into and tangled in downed power lines or thrown on top of nearby buildings; several horses that survived the tornado suffered severe injuries, with some being impaled by tree limbs or boards. Every building at Celestial Acres was either leveled or swept away at EF4 intensity, the ground on the property was scoured to bare soil, debris from structures was granulated, and vehicles were thrown and stripped down to their frames. Surveyors noted that based on the contextual damage, the tornado was likely at EF5 intensity in this area, though the construction quality of the affected buildings only permitted an EF4 rating. A 10-ton propane tank on the Orr Farm property was picked up and thrown more than a half-mile through the air by the tornado, and a strip mall near the farm was completely leveled as well. The tornado continued east, heavily scouring an open grassy field before slamming into Briarwood Elementary School, which was completely destroyed. The NWS originally rated this damage EF5, but further evaluation and a 2014 study published by the American Meteorological Society revealed evidence of poor construction at the school, and the rating was downgraded to EF4. Remarkably, no fatalities occurred at the school. Two 12,000-gallon water tanks that were also swept off of the Orr Family Farm grounds were thrown into this area; the roof of Briarwood Elementary was struck by one of them − potentially aiding in compromising the building's structural integrity as it bent the steel girders that held up the roof − shortly before the main vortex struck the building, while the other fell onto and destroyed a home a few blocks east of the school. Past Briarwood Elementary, the tornado intensified even further and entered densely populated areas of western Moore, including the Westmoor subdivision where many well-built, anchor-bolted brick homes were flattened at EF4 intensity, and two were swept clean from their foundations, with damage at those two homes rated EF5. The tornado continued generally northeast at EF4 strength, completely debarking trees and leveling entire neighborhoods. Many homes were flattened in neighborhoods to the east of South Santa Fe Avenue. One anchor-bolted home that was reduced to a bare slab in this area was initially rated EF5, but was later downgraded to EF4 as closer inspection of the foundation revealed that the anchor bolts were missing their nuts and washers. The tornado then destroyed Plaza Towers Elementary School at EF4 intensity, where seven children were killed when a cinder block wall collapsed on top of them. More than a dozen homes in a subdivision just to the south of Plaza Towers Elementary were swept cleanly away, though they were revealed to have been nailed rather than bolted to their foundations, and damage to this subdivision was subsequently rated EF4, though the tornado was likely extremely violent as lawns in this area were completey scoured down to bare soil. Entire blocks of homes were flattened, trees were completely debarked and denuded, vehicles were thrown and mangled, and the ground was severely scoured in other residential areas nearby, with the damage also rated EF4 in these areas. Most of the fatalities from the tornado occurred in the Plaza Towers neighborhood of Moore. In one of these houses (a block away from Plaza Towers Elementary), a woman was killed as she tried to seek shelter in a closet. Further to the northeast, at least a dozen cars were piled up against the front entrance of the Moore Medical Center, which sustained EF4 damage. One car was lofted and thrown onto the roof. Many homes in neighborhoods near the medical center were completely destroyed, including a row of four well-built brick homes with anchor bolts that were swept away, with damage to those four homes rated EF5. An open field directly behind this row of homes was deeply scoured, with only bare soil and clumps of dirt remaining. A nearby manhole cover was removed, and multiple vehicles were mangled beyond recognition and caked in mud in this area as well. The nearby Warren Theater was spared a direct hit, but still sustained considerable damage to its exterior. A bowling alley in the area was leveled, and a 7-Eleven which was on the northern part of the damage path, was completely flattened with four people killed inside (including a three-month-old infant). The nearby Moore Cemetery was heavily damaged as well. The tornado briefly weakened and caused EF3 damage to some other businesses near Interstate 35, before crossing and mangling several vehicles in the process. The tornado regained EF4 intensity on the other side of the Interstate as it tore through several neighborhoods and destroyed numerous additional homes (though the EF4 damage swath was narrower at this point). A large grassy field between two subdivisions in this area was scoured to bare soil, with wind-rowed structural debris and several mangled vehicles strewn to the east. One brick home on Hunters Glen Court sustained EF5 damage, with only the slab foundation and anchor bolts remaining. Very little structural debris or house contents was recovered from that residence, and the small amount of debris that remained was wind-rowed well away from the site. Two vehicles were also lofted from the residence, one of which was thrown over . The tornado continued through Moore's eastern neighborhoods. Highland East Jr. High's main building was spared, but the separate gymnasium building was completely destroyed, and a set of lockers from the structure was lofted and thrown a considerable distance into a nearby neighborhood. The Moore Public Schools administration building, a converted former hospital located a few blocks to the east, was also struck and destroyed. The tornado was noticeably narrower at this point, but was still causing a continuous swath of EF4 damage to numerous homes as it moved through multiple subdivisions. A well-built, anchor-bolted home at the corner of Heatherwood Drive and Southeast 5th Street was reduced to a bare slab, sustaining EF5 damage. A large, well-bolted-down home at the end of a private drive near South Olde Bridge Road was also swept cleanly away at EF5 intensity. Debris was scattered well away from the site, a vehicle was thrown over 100 yards, and wind-rowing was again noted at that location. Further east, the tornado weakened to EF3 strength and exited the most populated parts of Moore, destroying six industrial buildings and damaging two others. A final small area of EF4 damage was noted nearby as two homes and a concrete building were leveled. The tornado then began to rapidly narrow and weaken, snapping and uprooting several trees and causing EF2 damage to a farm just east of Moore, where the house lost its roof and an outbuilding was destroyed. A pickup truck slid away from the farm into a field while remaining upright. The violent updrafts in the supercell that produced the tornado lofted debris from homes and other buildings in Moore at least outside of the tornado's outer circulation, with reports of various objects and personal possessions being found as far away as Midwest City. At 3:35 p.m. CDT, the tornado dissipated at a nearby treeline about one-third of a mile east of Air Depot Boulevard. Impact The Oklahoma Department of Emergency Management reported that 25 people were killed (with another death indirectly attributed to the tornado). An estimated 1,150 homes were destroyed, resulting in an estimated $2 billion in damages. The number of injured was 377. Entire subdivisions were obliterated, and houses were flattened in a large swath of the city. The majority of a neighborhood just west of the Moore Medical Center was destroyed. Witnesses said the tornado more closely resembled "a giant black wall of destruction" than a typical twister. Among the hardest hit areas were two public schools: Briarwood Elementary School and Plaza Towers Elementary School. A preliminary study of Briarwood Elementary School conducted in September 2013 by a group of structural engineers found some structural deficiencies that led to its collapse during the tornado. Chris Ramseyer, a structural engineer and an associate professor at the University of Oklahoma determined that the building's walls that were not reinforced with concrete, there had been a lack of connection between the masonry walls and support beams in several portions of the building, and anchor bolts were pulled from the ground by the tornado. Another engineer that was involved in the study stated that the deficiencies that Ramseyer pointed out were not uncommon building practices at the time, and that current building code standards would not ensure that Briarwood would have withstood winds in excess of 200 mph. At Plaza Towers, the second school to be hit, parents had been allowed to collect their children early in preparation for the oncoming storm. Therefore, by the time the tornado struck only about 75 students and teachers were in the building. Many students and teachers took shelter in bathrooms and closets, but in a newer addition to the building which housed the school's second and third grade classrooms, seven fatalities occurred. Third grade teacher Jennifer Doan was taking shelter with eleven of her students in a hallway when the tornado struck. Doan and her students were trapped when the walls of the corridor collapsed on top of them. Doan, who was two months pregnant with her third child at the time, suffered severe injuries to her back, but did not lose the baby. She and five of her students were pulled out, with the children suffering only minor to moderate injuries. Another six of her students along with a student from another third grade class died. The Moore Medical Center was heavily damaged, but no one present in the building was injured by the tornado. The center's staff had to relocate 30 patients to a hospital in Norman and another hospital. Part of Interstate 35 was shut down due to debris that had been thrown onto the freeway. On May 21, Moore still did not have running water. There were more than 61,500 power outages related to the tornado. More than 100 people were rescued from areas that sustained significant damage from the tornado. The Oklahoma Department of Insurance estimated that insurance claims for damage would likely be more than $1 billion. Some meteorologists estimated that the energy released by the storm could have been eight to more than 600 times greater than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Casualties In addition to erroneous reports concerning the status of Briarwood and Plaza Towers students, various reports regarding fatality and injury counts as well as persons unaccounted for were circulated by traditional and social media outlets in the immediate hours after the tornado struck, which could not immediately be confirmed or refuted due to communications disruptions in the affected areas or were the result of incorrect counting due to miscommunication of estimates. Within the first two days, it was reported that between 237 and 240 people had been injured, with the tally later increasing to over 350. The final count of injuries was later adjusted downward to 212. On the morning of May 21, the medical examiner's office incorrectly stated that 91 bodies of tornado victims had been received. This number was up from the earlier report of 51 bodies that were incorrectly stated as having been received. Upon the office's discovery that some victims were mistakenly counted twice due to communication errors made by Moore rescue response units that the bodies were admitted to area funeral homes (nearly all of the deceased were actually transported to the examiner's office in Oklahoma City), the actual number was revised downward and later confirmed at 24 tornado victims and two indirect victims. The first two deaths occurred in a house east of Briarwood Elementary School; one occurred near Santa Fe Avenue; seven occurred following a wall collapse at Plaza Towers Elementary; nine occurred within the neighborhoods mainly south of Plaza Towers Elementary; one occurred just east of Interstate 35; and one occurred in a home between Eastern Avenue and Bryant Avenue. A 90-year-old woman who suffered a fractured skull during the tornado later suffered a pair of strokes and died on August 5. On May 6, 2018, nearly five years after the tornado, a 14-year-old survivor who suffered posttraumatic stress disorder after losing seven of his friends at Plaza Towers Elementary School committed suicide. The 2013 Moore tornado was the deadliest tornado recorded in the U.S. since the Joplin, Missouri tornado that killed 158 people in May 2011. Patients were taken to Integris Southwest Medical Center and The Children's Hospital at OU Medical Center in Oklahoma City. Over 140 patients, including at least 70 children, were treated at hospitals. Aftermath Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin declared a state of emergency on May 20. She held her first post-tornado news conference at noon on May 21. The Federal Emergency Management Agency deployed urban search and rescue teams to the tornado-hit areas, and provided incident command personnel to organize and support rescue efforts. The Oklahoma National Guard was also deployed. Governor Mary Fallin requested assistance from then-President Barack Obama who declared a major disaster in the state and ordered federal aid to the affected areas. Governor Fallin quickly dismissed an idea to make a law that would require all schools in Oklahoma to have a shelter that would protect children during severe weather (prior to the tornado, only two of the twelve schools in the Moore Public Schools district had storm shelters, Kelley Elementary and Westmoore High School, which were rebuilt with concrete safe rooms after both were destroyed in the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado). Cleveland, Lincoln, McClain, Oklahoma, and Pottawatomie Counties received federal funding for hazard mitigation measure statewide. Obama visited the disaster-stricken areas on May 26. The third season finale of the sitcom Mike & Molly, titled "Windy City", was pulled by CBS from its original May 20 airdate within hours of the event due to the episode featuring a plotline involving a tornado descending on Chicago; the network later rescheduled the episode to air ten days later on May 30, 2013. At noon on May 21, the U.S. Senate held a moment of silence for the victims. Delegates from several countries and Pope Francis offered condolences, and the United Nations offered assistance in the recovery efforts. The Canadian Red Cross began accepting donations of money and supplies for their American counterparts, to assist with disaster relief and recovery. The United Methodist Committee on Relief, Direct Relief, Matt Kemp of the Los Angeles Dodgers, Kevin Durant of the Oklahoma City Thunder, Continental Resources, Devon Energy, ONEOK, Koch Industries, Hobby Lobby, and Carrie Underwood all pledged donations to the relief efforts. Moore Mayor Glenn Lewis stated that he would attempt to get an ordinance passed requiring storm shelters or safe rooms in new housing projects. On May 29, 2013, NBC aired Healing in the Heartland: Relief Benefit Concert, a fundraising concert that was held at Chesapeake Energy Arena in downtown Oklahoma City. The benefit was hosted by country singer and Oklahoma native Blake Shelton and featured performances from Miranda Lambert, Vince Gill, Reba McEntire, Rascal Flatts, Usher, Darius Rucker and Luke Bryan. The concert raised more than $6 million for the United Way of Central Oklahoma. On June 2, 2013, Discovery Channel aired an hour-long documentary about the storm titled Mile-Wide Tornado: Oklahoma Disaster. The documentary provides a comprehensive look at the tornado's impact and drew comparisons of the storm to the 1999 Bridge Creek-Moore tornado. The Moore City Council proposed a measure making twelve changes to its residential building codes, include requiring that new home construction in the city include hurricane clips or framing anchors, continuous plywood bracing and wind-resistant garage doors in order for homes to withstand winds up to 135 mph (equivalent to a high-end EF2 tornado). When the measure was passed in a unanimous vote held on March 17, 2014, Moore became the first city in the United States to adopt a building code addressing the effects of tornadoes on homes, which exceed the national standards set by the National Association of Home Builders. See also Tornadoes of 2013 Tornado outbreak of May 18–21, 2013 List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes List of tornado-related deaths at schools 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado – an even deadlier (rated F5) that struck nearby areas 14 years earlier 2003 Moore tornado – a slightly weaker F4 tornado that struck similar areas almost ten years earlier 2010 Moore – Choctaw tornado – a slightly weaker EF4 tornado that struck nearby areas three years earlier 2013 El Reno tornado – The largest tornado on record that struck nearby areas 11 days later (rated at EF3) References External links Preliminary Reconnaissance of the May 20, 2013, Newcastle-Moore Tornado in Oklahoma (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Moore, Oklahoma Tornadoes (1890–Present) from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Videos Family that lived through the tornado Maps Satellite images of Moore taken on May 22, 2013 – two days after the tornado from Google Crisis Response Map of tornado path and damage from The New York Times Map of tornadoes in OKC metro area since 1950 from the Los Angeles Times 2011 Moore City Map from City of Moore 2013 Oklahoma City Metro Map from Oklahoma Department Of Transportation Moore tornado Moore tornado F5 tornadoes Tornadoes in Oklahoma Moore tornado May 2013 events in the United States	5,630
doc-en-10130_0	Palm OS (also known as Garnet OS) is a discontinued mobile operating system initially developed by Palm, Inc., for personal digital assistants (PDAs) in 1996. Palm OS was designed for ease of use with a touchscreen-based graphical user interface. It is provided with a suite of basic applications for personal information management. Later versions of the OS have been extended to support smartphones. Several other licensees have manufactured devices powered by Palm OS. Following Palm's purchase of the Palm trademark, the currently licensed version from ACCESS was renamed Garnet OS. In 2007, ACCESS introduced the successor to Garnet OS, called Access Linux Platform; additionally, in 2009, the main licensee of Palm OS, Palm, Inc., switched from Palm OS to webOS for their forthcoming devices. Creator and ownership Palm OS was originally developed under the direction of Jeff Hawkins at Palm Computing, Inc. Palm was later acquired by U.S. Robotics Corp., which in turn was later bought by 3Com, which made the Palm subsidiary an independent publicly traded company on March 2, 2000. In January 2002, Palm set up a wholly owned subsidiary to develop and license Palm OS, which was named PalmSource. PalmSource was then spun off from Palm as an independent company on October 28, 2003. Palm (then called palmOne) became a regular licensee of Palm OS, no longer in control of the operating system. In September 2005, PalmSource announced that it was being acquired by ACCESS. In December 2006, Palm gained perpetual rights to the Palm OS source code from ACCESS. With this Palm can modify the licensed operating system as needed without paying further royalties to ACCESS. Together with the May 2005 acquisition of full rights to the Palm brand name, only Palm can publish releases of the operating system under the name 'Palm OS'. As a consequence, on January 25, 2007, ACCESS announced a name change to their current Palm OS operating system, now titled Garnet OS. OS overview Palm OS was a proprietary mobile operating system. Designed in 1996 for Palm Computing, Inc.'s new Pilot PDA, it has been implemented on a wide array of mobile devices, including smartphones, wrist watches, handheld gaming consoles, barcode readers and GPS devices. Palm OS versions earlier than 5.0 run on Motorola/Freescale DragonBall processors. From version 5.0 onwards, Palm OS runs on ARM architecture-based processors. The key features of the current Palm OS Garnet are: Simple, single-tasking environment to allow launching of full screen applications with a basic, common GUI set Monochrome or color screens with resolutions up to 480x320 pixel Handwriting recognition input system called Graffiti 2 HotSync technology for data synchronization with desktop computers Sound playback and record capabilities Simple security model: Device can be locked by password, arbitrary application records can be made private TCP/IP network access Serial port/USB, infrared, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi connections Expansion memory card support Defined standard data format for personal information management applications to store calendar, address, task and note entries, accessible by third-party applications. Included with the OS is also a set of standard applications, with the most relevant ones for the four mentioned PIM operations. Version history and technical background Manufacturers are free to implement different features of the OS in their devices or even add new features. This version history describes the officially licensed version from Palm/PalmSource/ACCESS. All versions prior to Palm OS 5 are based on top of the AMX 68000 kernel licensed from KADAK Products Ltd. While this kernel is technically capable of multitasking, the "terms and conditions of that license specifically state that Palm may not expose the API for creating/manipulating tasks within the OS." Palm OS 1.0 Palm OS 1.0 is the original version present on the Pilot 1000 and 5000. It was introduced in March 1996. Version 1.0 features the classic PIM applications Address, Date Book, Memo Pad, and To Do List. Also included is a calculator and the Security tool to hide records for private use. Palm OS 1.0 does not differentiate between RAM and file system storage. Applications are installed directly into RAM and executed in place. As no dedicated file system is supported, the operating system depends on constant RAM refresh cycles to keep its memory. The OS supports 160x160 monochrome output displays. User input is generated through the Graffiti handwriting recognition system or optionally through a virtual keyboard. The system supports data synchronization to another PC via its HotSync technology over a serial interface. The latest bugfix release is version 1.0.7. Palm OS 2.0 Palm OS 2.0 was introduced on March 10, 1997 with the PalmPilot Personal and Professional. This version adds TCP/IP network, network HotSync, and display backlight support. The last bugfix release is version 2.0.5. Two new applications, Mail and Expense are added, and the standard PIM applications have been enhanced. Palm OS 3.0 Palm OS 3.0 was introduced on March 9, 1998 with the launch of the Palm III series. This version adds IrDA infrared and enhanced font support. This version also features updated PIM applications and an update to the application launcher. Palm OS 3.1 adds only minor new features, like network HotSync support. It was introduced with the Palm IIIx and Palm V. The last bugfix release is version 3.1.1. Palm OS 3.2 adds Web Clipping support, which is an early Palm-specific solution to bring web-content to a small PDA screen. It was introduced with the Palm VII organizer. Palm OS 3.3 adds faster HotSync speeds and the ability to do infrared hotsyncing. It was introduced with the Palm Vx organizer. Palm OS 3.5 is the first version to include native 8-bit color support. It also adds major convenience features that simplify operation, like a context-sensitive icon-bar or simpler menu activation. The datebook application is extended with an additional agenda view. This version was first introduced with the Palm IIIc device. The latest bugfix release is version 3.5.3. As a companion, Palm later offered a Mobile Internet Kit software upgrade for Palm OS 3.5. This included Palm's Web Clipping software, MultiMail (which was later renamed to VersaMail) Version 2.26 e-mail software, handPHONE Version 1.3 SMS software, and Neomar Version 1.5 WAP browser. Palm OS 4.0 Palm OS 4.0 was released with the new Palm m500 series on March 19, 2001. This version adds a standard interface for external file system access (such as SD cards). External file systems are a radical change to the operating system's previous in-place execution. Now, application code and data need to be loaded into the device's RAM, similar to desktop operating system behavior. A new Universal Connector with USB support is introduced. The previous optional Mobile Internet Kit is now part of the operating system. Version 4.0 adds an attention manager to coordinate information from different applications, with several possibilities to get the user's attention, including sound, LED blinking or vibration. 16-bit color screens and different time zones are supported. This version also has security and UI enhancements. Palm OS 4.1 is a bugfix release. It was introduced with the launch of the Palm i705. The later minor OS update to version 4.1.2 includes a backport of Graffiti 2 from Palm OS 5.2. Palm OS 4.2 Simplified Chinese Edition is targeted especially for the Chinese market with fully Simplified Chinese support, co-released with Palm OS 5.3. No device has been manufactured with this version up to now. Palm OS 5.0 Palm OS 5.0 was unveiled by the Palm subsidiary PalmSource in June 2002 and first implemented on the Palm Tungsten T. It is the first version to support ARM devices and replaced the Kadak AMX68000 kernel with the custom MCK kernel, named for its developer, that was written in-house by Palm. Applications written for the prior OS versions use the older DragonBall 68K instruction set and are supported via the Palm Application Compatibility Environment (PACE) emulator in Garnet. Even with the additional overhead of PACE, Palm applications usually run faster on ARM devices than on previous generation hardware. New software can take advantage of the ARM processors with small units of ARM code, referred to as ARMlets. With a more powerful hardware basis, Palm OS 5 adds substantial enhancements for multimedia capabilities. High density 320x320 screens are supported together with a full digital sound playback and record API. Palm's separate Bluetooth stack is added together with an IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi stack. Secure network connections over SSL are supported. The OS can be customized with different color schemes. For Palm OS 5, PalmSource developed and licensed a web browser called PalmSource Web Browser based on ACCESS' NetFront 3.0 browser. Palm OS 5.2 is mainly a bugfix release, first implemented in the Samsung SGH-i500 in March 2003. It added support for 480x320 resolutions and introduced the new handwriting input system called Graffiti 2; the new input system was prompted by Xerox' lawsuit win against Palm. Graffiti 2 is based on Jot from CIC. The last bugfix release is version 5.2.8. Palm OS 5.3 Simplified Chinese Edition released in September 2003, added full Simplified Chinese support, further support for QVGA resolutions, and a standard API for virtual Graffiti called Dynamic Input Area. This version first shipped on Lenovo's P100 and P300 handhelds. Palm OS Garnet (5.4) added updated Bluetooth libraries and support for multiple screen resolutions ranging from 160x160 up to 480x320. It first shipped on the Treo 650 in November 2004. This version also introduced the Garnet moniker to distinguish it from Palm OS Cobalt 6.0. The last bugfix release is version 5.4.9. Garnet OS 5.5 dropped the Palm moniker and, , is the current version developed by ACCESS. This version is dedicated for use inside the Garnet VM virtual machine. Garnet VM was announced and released by ACCESS in November 2007 as a core part of the Access Linux Platform and as an emulator allowing Nokia Internet Tablets to run applications written for the Garnet OS. In June 2010, ACCESS release Garnet VM version 6 (a.k.a. Garnet VM Beta 6 1.05b). Palm OS Cobalt Palm OS Cobalt (6.0) was the designated successor for Palm OS 5. It was introduced on February 10, 2004, but is no longer offered by ACCESS (see next section). Palm OS 6.0 was renamed to Palm OS Cobalt to make clear that this version was initially not designated to replace Palm OS 5, which adopted the name Palm OS Garnet at the same time. Palm OS Cobalt introduced modern operating system features to an embedded operating system based on a new kernel with multitasking and memory protection, a modern multimedia and graphic framework (derived from Palm's acquired BeOS), new security features, and adjustments of the PIM file formats to better cooperate with Microsoft Outlook. Palm OS Cobalt 6.1 presented standard communication libraries for telecommunication, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth connectivity. Despite other additions, it failed to interest potential licensees to Palm OS Cobalt. Third-party OS enhancements Several licensees have made custom modifications to the operating system. These are not part of the official licensed version. Palm developed a Bluetooth API for external Bluetooth SDIO Cards for Palm OS 4.0 devices. The Bluetooth stack was later included in Palm OS 5 Palm added a virtual graffiti input area API especially for their Tungsten T3 device. This API was later superseded by the official Dynamic Input Area API in Palm OS 5.3. Palm added the Non-Volatile File System in Palm OS 5.4, and used Flash for storage instead of DRAM, preventing data-loss in the event of battery drain. However, this fundamentally changed the way programs were executed from the Execute-in-Place system that Palm OS traditionally used, and has been the source of many compatibility problems, requiring many applications to add explicit NVFS support for correct operation. For their camera-equipped devices, Palm added the CameraLib API. Sony added a library to support JogDial input available on their CLIÉ organizers. Modernization For several years, PalmSource had been attempting to create a modern successor for Palm OS 5 and have licensees implement it. Although PalmSource shipped Palm OS Cobalt 6.0 to licensees in January 2004, none adopted it for release devices. PalmSource made major improvements to Palm OS Cobalt with the release of Palm OS Cobalt 6.1 in September 2004 to please licensees, but even the new version did not lead to production devices. In December 2004, PalmSource announced a new OS strategy. With the acquisition of the mobile phone software company China Mobilesoft, PalmSource planned to port Palm OS on top of a Linux kernel, while still offering both Palm OS Garnet and Palm OS Cobalt. This strategy was revised in June 2005, when still no device with Palm OS Cobalt was announced. PalmSource announced it was halting all development efforts on any product not directly related to its future Linux based platform. With the acquisition of PalmSource by ACCESS, Palm OS for Linux was changed to become the Access Linux Platform which was first announced in February 2006. The initial versions of the platform and software development kits for the Access Linux Platform were officially released in February 2007. As of January 2011, the Access Linux Platform had then yet to ship on any devices, however development kits then existed and public demonstrations had been showcased. Palm, Inc. the main licensee of Palm OS Garnet did not license Access Linux Platform for their own devices. Instead, Palm developed another Linux-based operating system called Palm webOS. On February 11, 2009, Palm CEO Ed Colligan said there would be no additional Palm OS devices (excepting the Centro being released to other carriers). Palm was focusing on Palm webOS and Windows Mobile devices. On April 1, 2009, Palm announced the availability of a Palm OS emulator for its webOS. Built-in applications Palm OS licensees decide which applications are included on their Palm OS devices. Licensees can also customize the applications. Standard Palm OS applications Note: On the newer models, the standard PIM apps "Address", "Date Book", "Memo Pad" and "ToDos" were replaced by their improved counterparts "Contacts", "Calendar" "Memos" and "Tasks". The Palm's Address program stores contact information, keyed by any of several user-definable categories. Entries are displayed and sorted in last name, first name order (this can be changed only to Company, Last Name order). There are five slots for phone or e-mail, each of which may be designated Work, Home, Fax, Other, E-mail, Main, Pager or Mobile (the slot designations cannot be changed) The newer Contacts app adds the following features: several addresses, 9 new fields: Website, Birthday, More phone numbers, Instant Messaging with quick connect. Calc turns the Palm into a standard 4-function pocket calculator with three shades of purple and blue buttons contrasting with the two red clear buttons. It supports square root and percent keys and has one memory. It also has an option to display a running history of the calculations, much like the paper-tape calculators that were once common. Date Book shows a daily or weekly schedule, or a simple monthly view. The daily schedule has one line per hour, between user-selected begin and end times. Clicking on an empty line creates a new event. Empty lines are crowded out by actual events, whose start and stop times are shown by default bracketed in the left margin. The newer Calendar app adds the following features: New Day view, use of categories for events, event location, event can span midnight, event details, birthdays as timeless events. It supports time zone designation for events, a feature lacking in some more recent competitors. An event, or appointment, can be heralded by an alarm, any number of minutes, hours or days before it begins. These alarms sound even when the unit is switched off. Appointments can recur in a specified number of days, weeks, months or years and can contain notes. Expense tracks common business expenses. No totals are calculated on the Palm. The user must sync with a host computer and view the expense data in a worksheet (templates for Microsoft Excel are supplied). HotSync integrates with the user's PC. Usually activated by a press of the physical HotSync button on the Palm's cradle (a dock station), this application communicates with various conduits on the desktop PC to install software, backup databases, or merge changes made on the PC or the handheld to both devices. It can communicate with the PC through a physical connection (USB on newer models), Bluetooth or IrDA wireless connections, and direct network connections on devices with networking capability. In addition to the conduits provided by the licensee, developers can create their own conduits for integration with other Palm OS applications and desktop products. For example, a time tracking package could provide a conduit to communicate information between Palm OS and Windows executables. A Backup conduit included with the HotSync software backs up (and restores, if necessary) most of the data on a Palm OS device. This allows users to hard reset their Palm—thus clearing all of the data—with few noticeable consequences. This also allows users to migrate to new Palm devices of the same Palm OS version, a feature that is helpful to those who lose or damage their device. Some models of Palm keep their data storage in volatile memory and require constant power to maintain their memory. Although these handhelds attempt to save the contents of memory in low battery situations by not "turning on," leaving a "dead" handheld for an extended period of time can cause this reserve power to be used up and the contents of storage memory to be lost. Some later Palms use NVRAM or microdrive for storage. Memo Pad can hold notes of up to 4,000 characters each; the newer Memos app increases field size from 3 to 30 kB. Memos are ordered in two ways: alphabetically, and manually (which allows the user to choose the order of the memos), and memos can be grouped in user-configurable categories. Memo Pad is for text only, not for drawings, and text can be entered using the Graffiti alphabet, using hardware or software keyboards, or using the 'paste' function. When Palm devices first became available, some Palm users started to create and exchange Memo Pad documents containing generally useful information, which came to be known as Memoware. To do list creates personal reminders and prioritizes the things the user has to do. Each To Do List item may also have: a priority, categories (to organize and view items in logical groups), attached Note (to add more description and clarification of the task). To Do List item can be sorted by: due date, priority or category The newer Tasks app features the following improvements: new interface, repeating tasks, alarms, etc. Preferences (also referred to as Prefs) shows program files with a special preference panel type which are not shown by the normal launcher. Programs can be changed by switching the type to and vice versa. Palm OS contains approximately 15 preference panels by default and new preference panels can be added just like any other application. Preference panels allow users to manage a number of settings, including Graffiti settings, sound settings, text shortcuts, network settings and the system time. Security (which is a panel on newer Palm OS devices) is used to configure Palm OS's security settings. These include the password needed to display hidden records and unlock the device when locked, as well as set up an automatic lockdown time or inactivity threshold. On the PC, only Palm Desktop honors this password but other PC programs can view everything—in other words, all the data protected by this password can be seen by anyone opening the .dat files using a text editor or word processor. Common third-party core OS applications Starting with Palm OS version 5.2, Palm created customized versions of the common PIM application. Some new features have been added, e.g. support for Address categories, Ringtone associations to users, longer memo texts, etc.. They were also renamed to reflect designations from Microsoft Outlook, thus Address became Contacts, Datebook became Calendar, Memo Pad became Memos and To do list became Tasks. Blazer is a web browser for Palm handhelds. The versions 1.0 and 2.0 run on Palm OS 3.1 or higher handhelds, but they needed a proxy server which has been shut down, so they can no longer be used. Version 3.0 is used on the Treo 600 smartphone. The current version of Blazer is Blazer 4.5, which is compliant with most major standards. It is generally bundled with newer smartphones and newer Palm devices capable of accessing the Internet. Palm's Note Pad can be used for quick drawings. With neat handwriting, 20–30 words will fit on one page; for more text, Memo Pad is the better choice. There are three sizes of pen width, plus an eraser and a background color change feature in some models. It is possible to draw a very simple map. The more "advanced" desktop version saves the Memo pad drawings to the desktop. As of 2006, most new Palm handhelds include Photos, which creates a digital photo album used to view pictures on a Palm OS device. As with all the other photo programs, photos can be beamed to other mobile devices. Each photo can be labeled and organized into separate photo albums. A slideshow can also be shown for a specific album, and each photo in the album will be shown full screen. Photos can be edited with the Palm Photos PC software (Windows only), and when the photos are transferred to the handheld they will contain all changes made to the photo. The Palm Photos software is available in the Zire 71, Tungsten C, Tungsten E, Tungsten T2, Tungsten T3 and several others. With the support for Video, Palm Photos was later renamed to Media and even later to Pics& Videos. Some models feature the ability to make voice recordings which are synced using the Voice conduit and can be viewed on a desktop with the Voice Memo application which is part of the Palm Desktop Suite. Third-party applications There are many successful applications that can be installed on a Palm OS device. As of 2008, there were more than 50,000 third-party applications available for the Palm OS platform, which have various licensing types, including open-source, and various closed licensing schemes such as freeware, shareware, and traditional pay-up-front purchase. HackMaster is an extension manager for Palm OS that includes several patches improving OS features. Other third party OS extensions also require HackMaster to work. Application development Palm OS Garnet applications are primarily coded in C/C++. Two officially supported compilers exist: a commercial product, CodeWarrior Development Studio for Palm OS, and an open source tool chain called prc-tools, based on an old version of gcc. CodeWarrior is criticized for being expensive and is no longer being developed, whereas PRC-Tools lacks several of CodeWarrior's features. A version of PRC-Tools is included in a free Palm OS Developer Suite (PODS). OnBoardC is a C compiler, assembler, linker and programming editor that runs on the Palm itself. Palm OS Cobalt applications are also coded in a variation of gcc, but the Cobalt compilers have fewer limitations. There are development tools available for Palm programming that do not require low-level programming in C/C++, such as PocketC/PocketC Architect, CASL, AppForge Crossfire (which uses Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, or C#), Handheld Basic, Pendragon Forms, Satellite Forms and NSBasic/Palm (Visual Basic like languages). A Java Virtual Machine was previously available for the Palm OS platform, however on 12 January 2008, Palm, Inc. announced that it would no longer be available. Palm, Inc. further said "There is no alternate Java Virtual Machine that we are aware of for Palm OS." Waba and a derivative of it, SuperWaba, provide a Java-like virtual machine and programming language. A version of the Lua language, called Plua, is also available for Palm; however, due to the fact that it requires an additional runtime to be installed along with the application, it is only used for mainstream applications by a minority of software companies. Quartus Forth is an ISO/ANSI Standard Forth compiler that runs on the Palm itself. It also has an interactive console for dynamic development and debugging. Three environments allow programming in Pascal for Palm OS. The free PP Compiler runs directly on the handheld computer, while PocketStudio is a Delphi-like IDE for Windows Computers that has a visual form designer and generates PRC files for being transferred to handhelds via HotSync. The third option was HSPascal, developed by Danish developer Chriten Fihl, based on his experience with the High Speed Pascal compiler for various 16-bit computer systems, including the Commodore Amiga. As Palm has no connection drivers that enable the transfer of data with a server DBMS (Oracle, mySQL, MS SQL Server), the programmer can use Middleware software that enables this connectivity. A roughly R4RS-compatible implementation of Scheme, LispMe, provides the Palm platform with a GPL-licensed onboard Lisp REPL with some Palm OS-specific adaptations, but although it is functionally a compiler it does not produce code that operates outside the development environment, so its use is restricted to prototyping. Legal issues Palm OS has been involved in various lawsuits over the years. Xerox vs. Palm Computing (1997) – In 1997, Xerox was granted covering the "Unistroke" input system developed by David Goldberg, Xerox PARC in 1993. Xerox filed suit against Palm (then U.S. Robotics), alleging that Palm's Graffiti infringed on this patent. The Palm OS switch from Graffiti 1 to Graffiti 2 was triggered in part by Palm losing this lawsuit to Xerox. The patent was invalidated in May 2004 due to prior art developed at Bell Laboratories in 1982. Pilot Pen Corporation vs. Palm Computing (1998) – The original name for Palm OS handhelds was Pilot. However, a lawsuit from Pilot Pen Corporation forced a name change to PalmPilot, then eventually to Palm. Palm vs. Microsoft (1998) – In 1998, Microsoft planned to name the next version of their handheld computing platform "Palm PC". Palm filed suit against Microsoft, forcing the name change to, first, Palm-sized PC, and later, Pocket PC. E-Pass Technologies vs. Palm, Microsoft and HP (2000) – In 2000, E-Pass Technologies filed suit against Palm, alleging that its handhelds infringed on an E-Pass's patent (#5,276,311) for a multi-function, credit card-sized computer that allows users to securely store account numbers, PIN codes, etc. NCR vs. Handspring and Palm (2001) – In 1987, NCR was granted a patent for a portable e-commerce terminal. In 2001, NCR sued Handspring and Palm. This case was ruled without merit in 2002, a decision that was upheld on appeal. RIM vs. Handspring (2002) – In 2002, Research In Motion (makers of the BlackBerry), sued Handspring. By year end, both Handspring and Palm licensed the patents and the suit was dropped. Peer-to-Peer Systems vs. Palm (2002) – Also in 2002, Peer-to-Peer systems filed lawsuit against Palm that alleges Palm infringed on its patent for wireless gaming. This lawsuit was settled as of February 9, 2005. Forgent Networks vs. HP, Toshiba, palmOne, etc., etc. (2004) – Starting in 2002, Forgent Networks began offering licenses for a patent that encumbers JPEG. In 2004, it filed suit against various companies, including palmOne. The JPEG or 672 patent has been reviewed by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, which has rejected 19 of the 47 claims based on prior art. See also Access Linux Platform, planned successor of the Palm OS Graffiti (Palm OS) List of Palm OS devices, includes emulators Memoware Palm, Inc. Palm Desktop Palm webOS PalmSource, Inc. References External links Palm.com Palm OS 4.1 Screenshots PalmDB – Archive for Palm OS Software Preservation Palm OS Wiki – Palm OS Knowledge & History Preservation Wiki ARM operating systems Computer-related introductions in 1996 Discontinued operating systems Embedded operating systems Mobile operating systems Personal digital assistants	6,348
doc-en-6897_0	{{Infobox COA case \|Litigants=In re Bilski \|Court=United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit \|ArgueDate=May 8 \|ArgueYear=2008 \|DecideDate=October 30 \|DecideYear=2008 \|FullName=In re Bernard L. Bilski and Rand A. Warsaw \|Citations=545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 \|Prior=Claims rejected, Ex parte Bilski (BPAI 2006), appealed to CAFC, en banc hearing ordered sua sponte. \|Subsequent=Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. ___(2010) (Aff'd, Machine or Transformation test not the sole test for patent-eligible subject matter) \|Holding=The "useful, concrete and tangible result" test of State Street should no longer be relied on. A method claim is surely patentable subject matter if (1) it is tied to a particular machine or apparatus, or (2) it transforms a particular article into a different state or thing. BPAI affirmed. \|Judges=En banc Court: Chief Judge Paul Redmond Michel; Circuit Judges Pauline Newman, Haldane Robert Mayer, Alan David Lourie, Randall Ray Rader, Alvin Anthony Schall, William Curtis Bryson, Arthur J. Gajarsa, Richard Linn, Timothy B. Dyk, Sharon Prost, and Kimberly Ann Moore \|Majority=Michel \|JoinMajority=Lourie, Schall, Bryson, Gajarsa, Linn, Dyk, Prost and Moore \|Concurrence=Dyk \|JoinConcurrence=Linn \|Dissent=Newman \|Dissent2=Mayer \|Dissent3=Rader \|LawsApplied= }}In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 U.S.P.Q.2d 1385 (Fed. Cir. 2008), was an en banc decision of the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC) on the patenting of method claims, particularly business methods. The Federal Circuit court affirmed the rejection of the patent claims involving a method of hedging risks in commodities trading. The court also reiterated the machine-or-transformation test as the (meaning sole) applicable test for patent-eligible subject matter, and stated that the test in State Street Bank v. Signature Financial Group should no longer be relied upon. The Supreme Court of the United States issued an opinion on appeal (as Bilski v. Kappos) that affirmed the judgment of the CAFC, but revised many aspects of the CAFC's decision. In its decision, handed down on June 28, 2010, the Supreme Court rejected the machine-or-transformation test as the sole test of process patent eligibility based on an interpretation of the language of § 101. The majority, however, had high praise for the Federal Circuit opinions, advising that "[s]tudents of patent law would be well advised to study these scholarly opinions." Background and prior history The applicants (Bernard L. Bilski and Rand Warsaw) filed a patent application (on 10 April 1997) for a method of hedging risks in commodities trading via a fixed bill system. Such patent claims are often termed business method claims. The serial number for the patent application is 08/833,892. The text is available on the USPTO web site. The patent application describes a method for providing a fixed bill energy contract to consumers. Under fixed bill energy contracts, consumers pay monthly prices for their future energy consumption in advance of winter based on their past energy use. The monthly prices remain the same no matter how much energy they then use. Thus, consumers save money relative to others if, for example, a given winter is unusually cold and they use an unusually large amount of energy for heating. On the other hand, consumers pay more than others if a winter is unusually warm and their energy use is lower than average. Method claim 1 of the patent application claims a three-step method for a broker to hedge risks for purchaser-users of an input of a product or service (termed a commodity). For example, an electric power plant might be a purchaser and user of coal, which it purchases from coal-mining companies (producer-sellers) and uses to make electricity. The power plant might seek to insulate itself from upward changes in the price of coal by engaging in "hedging" transactions. The risk can be quantified in terms of dollars (termed a "risk position"). Thus, if the purchaser-user uses 1000 tons of coal in a given period, and the potential price spike is $10 per ton, the purchaser-user's total risk position for that period is 1000 × $10, or $10,000. The claimed process comprises these steps (simplified for easier readability): initiating a series of sales or options transactions between a broker and purchaser-users by which the purchaser-users buy the commodity at a first fixed rate based on historical price levels; identifying producer-sellers of the commodity; and initiating a series of sales or options transactions between the broker and producer-sellers, at a second fixed rate, such that the purchasers' and sellers' respective risk positions balance out. The patent examiner rejected all 11 of the claims on the grounds that "the invention is not implemented on a specific apparatus and merely manipulates [an] abstract idea and solves a purely mathematical problem without any limitation to a practical application, therefore, the invention is not directed to the technological arts." The applicants appealed the rejection to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences (BPAI), which affirmed the rejection, although on different grounds. The Board held that the examiner erred to the extent he relied on a "technological arts" test because the case law does not support such a test. Further, the Board held that the requirement of a specific apparatus was also erroneous because a claim that does not recite a specific apparatus may still be directed to patent-eligible subject matter "if there is a transformation of physical subject matter from one state to another." The Board concluded that Applicants' claims did not involve any patent-eligible transformation, holding that transformation of "non-physical financial risks and legal liabilities of the commodity provider, the consumer, and the market participants" is not patent-eligible subject matter. The Board also held that Applicants' claims "preempt[] any and every possible way of performing the steps of the [claimed process], by human or by any kind of machine or by any combination thereof," and thus concluded that they only claim an abstract idea ineligible for patent protection. Finally, the Board held that Applicants' process as claimed did not produce a "useful, concrete and tangible result," and for this reason as well was not drawn to patent-eligible subject matter. The applicants appealed the rejection to the Federal Circuit. The case was argued before a panel of the court on October 1, 2007. The court then ordered an en banc rehearing sua sponte, which was held on May 8, 2008. The Federal Circuit issued its decision on October 30, 2008. Majority opinion The en banc Federal Circuit upheld the rejection, 9–3. The majority opinion by Chief Judge Paul Redmond Michel characterized the issue as whether the claimed method is a patent-eligible "process," as the patent statute (35 U.S.C. § 101) uses that term. While any series of actions or operations is a process in the dictionary sense of that term, the court explained, the Supreme Court has held that the statutory meaning is narrower than the dictionary meaning which "forecloses a purely literal reading." Patent-eligible processes do not include "laws of nature, natural phenomena, [or] abstract ideas." The limiting legal principle applies not just to processes, but to anything on which a patent is sought. As a trilogy of Supreme Court decisions on patent-eligibility from approximately three decades ago had taught, "Phenomena of nature, though just discovered, mental processes, and abstract intellectual concepts are not patentable, as they are the basic tools of scientific and technological work." Therefore, the question was whether Bilski's process fell within any of the prohibited categories (that is, was a claim to a "principle"), and the underlying legal question was what legal tests or criteria should govern that determination when a claim is directed to a principle. The court concluded that prior decisions of the Supreme Court were of limited usefulness as guides because they represented polar cases on the abstraction and concreteness spectrum. Nonetheless, a legal test could be distilled from them: "A claimed process is surely patent-eligible under § 101 if: (1) it is tied to a particular machine or apparatus, or (2) it transforms a particular article into a different state or thing." Not only did the patent-eligibility trilogy (Benson, Flook, and Diehr) support this test, the court explained, but so too did earlier Supreme Court precedents dating back well into the 19th century. The court then considered whether this two-branch test should be considered all-inclusive, that is, as stating indispensable conditions of patent-eligibility. It concluded that the answer was affirmative, even though much of the language in the Supreme Court's patent-eligibility trilogy was more reserved. The Federal Circuit placed great weight on the use of the definite article in several Supreme Court statements that transformation and use of a particular machine provided "the clue to the patentability of a process claim." At the same time the court placed no weight on the fact that the Benson Court had not accepted the Government's argument that the case law "cannot be rationalized otherwise." The Federal Circuit observed that two caveats exist to the transformation-machine test: (1) a field-of-use limitation is insufficient to avoid the prohibition against pre-emption, as Flook expressly held; and (2) conventional or obvious "insignificant post-solution activity" does not make what is otherwise a claim to a principle patent-eligible (again referring to Flook). The court added that insignificant pre-solution activity (such as data-gathering) is equally ineffective, and so too is an insignificant step in the middle of a process (such as recording a result). The court then rejected other proposed tests of patent-eligibility that had been suggested since the Supreme Court's trilogy. Several Federal Circuit panel decisions had held that a process was patent-eligible if it produced "a useful, concrete, and tangible result" — such as the transformation of financial data from one form to another form. Thus, in the State Street Bank v. Signature Financial Group case the court had upheld a patent on a tax-avoidance scheme under this standard. The court now recognized that this test is "inadequate," as a dissenting Supreme Court opinion had already stated, and therefore backed away from the language, denying that the Federal Circuit had ever "intended to supplant the Supreme Court's test." The court did not, however, expressly hold that State Street should be overruled: it merely dropped a footnote stating that "those portions of our opinions in State Street and AT&T relying solely on a 'useful, concrete and tangible result' analysis should no longer be relied on." The court next turned to the "technological arts" test (a patent-eligible advance must be "technological" in nature) and rejected it on several grounds: The meanings of "technological arts" and "technology" are disputed and ambiguous. No court has ever adopted the test. The technological-arts test is not an equivalent of or "shortcut," the court insisted, that can be used instead of the transformation-machine test. "Rather, the machine-or-transformation test is the only applicable test and must be applied, in light of the guidance provided by the Supreme Court and this court, when evaluating the patent-eligibility of process claims." On the other hand, the court refused to adopt a test that barred business methods, under that rubric, from patent-eligibility. Also, while the court stated that the machine-or-transformation test was the applicable test, the Supreme Court in Benson had stated that there could be cases where a claim that fails the "requirements of [its] prior precedents" may still nonetheless be patent-eligible subject matter. Benson, 409 U.S. at 71. Similarly, software could not categorically be excluded. The court also stated that future developments may alter the standing or the application of the test. Bilski's method Turning finally to Bilski's method, the court held it patent-ineligible. First, the court said, Bilski did not argue that the rejected claims recited any specific or "particular" machine, so that the court found it unnecessary to decide any issues relating to the machine-implementation branch of the test. "We leave to future cases the elaboration of the precise contours of machine implementation, as well as the answers to particular questions, such as whether or when recitation of a computer suffices to tie a process claim to a particular machine." Second, the court turned to transformation of articles from one thing or state to another. What is an "article"? Benson had made it clear that tanning hides, smelting ores, and vulcanizing rubber were all instances of transforming articles. This corresponded to the transformation test as the PTO and some amici curiae articulated it: one physical substance is transformed into a second physical substance. But what of electronic signals and electronically manipulated data? Or even more abstract constructs such as legal obligations, which the Bilski case involved? No Supreme Court precedents addressed such entities. Some Federal Circuit decisions, however, had held some transformations of signals and data patent-eligible. For example, the Abele decision approved a dependent claim to a method transforming X-ray attenuation data produced in a X-Y field by an X-ray tomographic scanner to an image of body organs and bones — while at the same time the Abele court rejected a more generic and abstract independent claim to a process of graphically displaying variances from their average values of unspecified data obtained in an unspecified manner. The court said that this kind of difference between the two claims was critical to patent-eligibility. The dependent claim, unlike the independent claim, involved signal data representing tangible physical objects, which were electronically manipulated to provide a screen image of the physical objects. But Bilski's process had nothing to do with such a procedure. Like State Street, Bilski involved manipulation of financial data. Bilski's method claim was patent-ineligible because it did not "transform any article to a different state or thing." Legal obligations (such as options and futures contracts) and business risks "cannot meet the test because they are not physical objects or substances, and they are not representative of physical objects or substances." Moreover, to the extent that signals are involved and are transformed, they are not "representative of any physical object or substance." Accordingly, Bilski's claim entirely failed the transformation-machine test. Concurrences and dissents Concurrence by Judge Dyk Judge Dyk, joined by Judge Linn, concurred in the majority opinion upholding the PTO's rejection of Bilski's patent, but concurred also in Judge Mayer's historical analysis that the framers of the Constitution intended to exclude from the operation of the US patent system "methods for organizing human activity that do not involve manufactures, machines, or compositions of matter." Since Bilski's method failed that test, it is patent-ineligible. Dissent by Judge Mayer Judge Mayer dissented, first, on the ground that the majority opinion failed to overrule State Street explicitly. Whether this should be done was a question that the court had asked to be briefed on the re-argument. "I would answer that question with an emphatic 'yes.'" He then moved to the major thrust of his dissent: business-method patents are unconstitutional, or the patent statute must be interpreted not to extend to them in order to avoid unconstitutionality. He maintained: The patent system is intended to protect and promote advances in science and technology, not ideas about how to structure commercial transactions. Claim 1 of the application . . . is not eligible for patent protection because it is directed to a method of conducting business. Affording patent protection to business methods lacks constitutional and statutory support, serves to hinder rather than promote innovation and usurps that which rightfully belongs in the public domain. State Street and AT&T should be overruled. Pointing to the Statute of Monopolies and the public hostility to the "odious monopolies," he concluded that when Congress enacted the first patent statute (in language substantially unchanged to this day in regard to patent-eligibility), Congress did not want the system to allow patents on methods of conducting trade. State Street was a grave error. "Before State Street led us down the wrong path, this court had rightly concluded that patents were designed to protect technological innovations, not ideas about the best way to run a business." Judge Mayer also criticized the majority opinion for doing nothing to remedy the ills of a "patent system [that] has run amok," for evading crucial issues, and for failing to enlighten users of the patent system in regard to three of the thorniest issues in the patentability thicket: (1) the continued viability of business method patents, (2) what constitutes sufficient physical transformation or machine-implementation to render a process patentable, and (3) the extent to which computer software and computer-implemented processes constitute statutory subject matter. Dissent by Judge Rader Judge Rader dissented on the ground that the majority should have "said in a single sentence: 'Because Bilski claims merely an abstract idea, this court affirms the Board's rejection.'" He then complained that instead of doing that, the majority opinion propagates unanswerable questions: What form or amount of "transformation" suffices? When is a "representative" of a physical object sufficiently linked to that object to satisfy the transformation test? (E.g., Does only vital sign data taken directly from a patient qualify, or can population data derived in part from statistics and extrapolation be used?) What link to a machine is sufficient to invoke the "or machine" prong? Are the "specific" machines of Benson required, or can a general purpose computer qualify? What constitutes "extra-solution activity?" If a process may meet eligibility muster as a "machine," why does the Act "require" a machine link for a "process" to show eligibility? Judge Rader indicated his belief that nothing is wrong with patents on business methods or natural phenomena, so long as they are claimed to "achieve a useful, tangible, and concrete result." In his view, the LabCorp dissent's criticism of that test, and of business method patents generally, misses the point of the needs of 21st century innovation and entrepreneurship. Dissent by Judge Newman Judge Newman dissented on the ground that the PTO should have allowed Bilski's patent. The opinion largely constitutes a debate with Judge Dyk's concurrence about whether the Statute of Monopolies, common law precedents, and the widespread opposition to the "odious monopolies" led to a ban on business-method patents in the US. Judge Newman insists that "[i]t is inconceivable that on this background the Framers, and again the enactors of the first United States patent statutes in 1790 and 1793, intended sub silentio to impose the limitations on 'process' now created by this court." In short, Judge Newman felt that the current definition of the word process used by the court directly contradicted the statute, the precedent, and the constitutional mandate to promote the useful arts and science. Because the court's decision could affect thousands of patents already granted, Newman warned of uncertainty in patent eligible matter which serves as a disincentive to innovation. Impact Prior to the Supreme Court's decision on appeal, it was widely reported that the Bilski decision would call into question the validity of many already issued business method patents. This issue has received global news coverage with a generally favorable assessment of the judgment. According to the Associated Press, the decision "could reshape the way banks and high-tech firms protect their intellectual property." Moreover, as a result of the decision, according to The Washington Post and others, many business method patents, possibly thousands, may now be invalid. Subsequent decisions by the BPAI used Bilski to reject claims related to more traditional computer implemented inventions. Four out of five of the initial rejections based on Bilski, for example, involved IBM patent applications not in the business method area. In January 2009, Bilski and Warsaw petitioned the U.S. Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari, seeking to overturn the Federal Circuit decision. It was granted on June 1, 2009. (This eventually led to the Supreme Court's decision in Bilski v. Kappos.) In March 2009, a Federal Circuit panel split over what Bilski had held. In In re Ferguson the majority opinion (per Judge Gajarsa, joined by Judge Mayer) stated that Bilski has held that the "useful, concrete and tangible result test" "is insufficient to determine whether a claim is patent-eligible under § 101," that it "is inadequate," and that "those portions of our opinions in State Street and AT&T Corp. v. Excel Communications, Inc. relying on a 'useful, concrete and tangible result' analysis should not longer be relied on." In addition, the Ferguson majority said, "In Bilski, this court also rejected the so-called Freeman-Walter-Abele Test, the "technological arts" test, and the "physical steps" test." In her dissenting opinion, Judge Newman took issue with the majority opinion as an erroneous "sweeping rejection of precedent." She insisted that Bilski had left State Street partly in effect. She argued that Bilski had "recognized that the State Street Bank test was directed to processes performed by computer, "thus meeting the Bilski test" and pointed to note 18 of the Bilski opinion, which stated, "In State Street, as is often forgotten, we addressed a claim drawn not to a process but to a machine." A March 2009 district court opinion interpreting Bilski "ponder[ed] whether the end has arrived for business method patents." The court then observed: <blockquote> Without expressly overruling State Street, the Bilski majority struck down its underpinnings. This caused one dissenter, Judge Newman, to write that State Street "is left hanging," while another dissenter, Judge Mayer, registered "an emphatic 'yes'" to rejecting State Street.... Although the majority declined to say so explicitly, Bilski'''s holding suggests a perilous future for most business method patents. </blockquote> The court concluded, "The closing bell may be ringing for business method patents, and their patentees may find they have become bagholders." While the Supreme Court's opinion in Bilski v. Kappos, affirming the judgment but limiting the scope of the machine-or-transformation test, largely superseded the Federal Circuit's Bilski opinion as a precedent, nonetheless, much of the substantive content of the Federal Circuit majority opinion is repeated and found in the Supreme Court's Bilski opinion and subsequently in Alice'' as well. The statistics on invalidations under § 101, show that, as of June 2015, "the 73.1% invalidity rate in the federal courts breaks down into 70.2% (66 of 96) in the district courts and a stunning 92.9% in the Federal Circuit (13 for 14)." At the same time, final rejections of business-method patent claims before the PTO "soared into the 90% range." References External links In re Bilski (Fed. Cir. 2008) (en banc) (pdf) Certiorari petition. Transcript of oral arguments of Bilski v. Kappos Links to Briefs, incl. amici, on Cert. petition and merits in Bilski v. Kappos Commentary The Bilski Decision Is In: Buh-Bye (Most) Business Methods Patents Ex Parte Bilski: On the Briefs (links to many amici curiae of the Court of Appeals case) Bilski Briefs (links to many amici curiae of the Supreme Court case) Chart of Bilski Amicus Briefs (Summary of amicus briefs courtesy of Franklin Pierce Law Center) Predictability and Patentable Processes: The Federal Circuit's in Re Bilski Decision and Its Effect on the Incentive to Invent, 11 Columbia Science & Technology Law Review 1 (W. Michael Schuster II) Patent Eligibility and Computer-Related Processes: A Critique of In re Bilski and the Machine-or-Transformation Test, 14 Virginia Journal of Law and Technology 181 (Andrew Patrick) Patent Law at a Crossroads: Bilski and Beyond Eben Moglen @ Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, NYC (Nov 2 2009) (audio/video) Patent Absurdity: how software patents broke the system Documentary film about the case (2010) Bilski Information Center Articles and audio commentary analyzing the impact of Bilski (2010) Hideo Furutani Patentability of Business Method Inventions in Japan Compared with the US and Europe (PDF file) Presented at USPTO, Arlington, Virginia (2003) Software patent case law United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit cases United States patent case law 2008 in United States case law	5,459
doc-en-10148_0	The Negative Zone is a fictional setting, an antimatter universe appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The location is depicted in various publications from Marvel, most frequently in Fantastic Four and Captain Marvel. Created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, it first appeared in Fantastic Four #51 (June 1966). Fictional description The Negative Zone in the Marvel Universe is used as a fictional dimension. Essentially, it is a universe parallel to Earth's. The two have many similarities, but a few noteworthy differences include: all matter in the Negative Zone is negatively charged; the Negative Zone is entirely filled with a pressurized, breathable atmosphere; and near the center of the Negative Zone is a deadly vortex of unspeakable power. Since the Negative Zone is largely uninhabited, several would-be conquerors have attempted to bridge the gap to Earth and take over its population. A few notable residents of the Negative Zone include Blastaar and Annihilus. The Negative Zone is often visited by the Fantastic Four as Mister Fantastic discovered it, and has mapped portions of it extensively. The Age of Apocalypse version of Blink also visited it once, which proved that there's only one Negative Zone, as Annihilus remembered the Fantastic Four even though they never existed in the Age of Apocalypse. For a number of years, Captain Mar-Vell and Rick Jones were bonded to each other, causing one of them to exist in the Negative Zone while the other would exist in the regular universe. They exchanged places by clasping the special bracelets each wore or automatically after a few hours. Spider-Man has also visited the Negative Zone, and acquired a costume that allowed him to merge with shadows and become practically invisible. When he was framed by Norman Osborn a few weeks later, he used the costume to become the dark, mysterious Dusk (one of his four new superhero identities during the Identity Crisis story arc). A few months later after Spider-Man's name was cleared, Cassie St. Commons was given the guise of Dusk and joined the Slingers. Cletus Kasady also visited the Negative Zone, finding and bonding with a symbiote there, as he had lost the original Carnage symbiote when Venom absorbed it into his own symbiote. History The earliest origins of the Negative Zone and its culture have not been revealed, but rough estimates place its height of science and art over 1.5 million years ago, nearly coinciding with the rise of the Skrull and Kree races. It is believed that around that time the Negative Zone ceased expanding and began its "Big Crunch", contracting toward a central nexus. Some of the most powerful and influential races thereby faced destruction and sought to preserve their lives. One of the more aggressive races at this time were the Tyannans. The lion-like bipeds explored much of the Negative Zone and eventually began to seed many of the planets, including Baluur, with their "spores of life". However, their final mission went awry. A debris field had begun forming around Tyanna, which was at the very heart of the Negative Zone. The Big Crunch had begun pulling the universe back towards its center and planets crumbled under the increased pressure. One of the last remaining Tyannan ships careened off a large chunk of rock and crashed on the desolate planet of Arthros. The ship's engines dead and food processors destroyed, the Tyannan captain ordered the release of their life spores. Life slowly began to evolve on the planet, much as it did on Earth. Farther from the core of the Negative Zone, other cultures thrived. One culture had gone so far as to cover half of their planet with a giant city, and then developed an artificial brain for it. The city, Ootah, even began to develop a sense of self-preservation and drove the inhabitants out of its boundaries, building up greater defenses to prevent them from returning. Farther still from the core, the world of Kestor also flourished. It was the first recorded world beyond Tyanna that faced obliteration at the hands of the Big Crunch, roughly 10,000 years ago. Unlike Tyanna, whose gravitational force became greater than could sustain life, Kestor's sun was pulled toward the nexus. This caused the planet's several moons to shift their respective orbits and wreak havoc on the planet itself. As 20,000 beings left Kestor in a great space ark, the sun exploded with the fury of a supernova, substantially damaging their ship. All but 500 of the crew died and the navigational systems were destroyed, eliminating all hope of finding a new planet to call home. One of the planets the Tyannans spored, Baluur, developed in a more barbarous manner. The inhabitants grew very large and powerful, and even the meek among them were stronger than an ordinary human. While they did progress technologically, their advances were at least partially driven by war. But they apparently began to experience the effects of the Big Crunch and several millennia ago they took their cities underneath the planet's surface. A sole entrance exists and is known only to the Baluurians themselves. They established a quiet monarchy and became very reclusive, only venturing into space on rare occasions. Sentient life eventually developed on Arthros. A lone insect-like creature emerged from the primordial marsh one thousand years ago, and began to reason. A frail creature, he used his superior intellect to avoid larger predators and soon stumbled upon the Tyannan's derelict ship. Inside the craft, he donned a helmet in an attempt to warm himself. The helmet in fact had recordings of all the Tyannan technology and culture, and the creature was deftly able to assimilate all of it. He took the power from discarded life canisters and created a Cosmic Control Rod, capable of granting the wielder great power. Taking the name Annihilus, he set out to not only right those who wronged him, but to ensure that no one should ever harm him again. While Annihilus forcibly took control of his immediate sector of space, a king rose to prominence on Baluur. Blastaar was a ruthless and powerful leader who sought to expand Baluurian domain. The other Baluurians feared him and were eventually able to depose him by sedating him heavily and sending him to what they hoped would be his destruction in the center of the Negative Zone. Discovery While searching for a way to travel through sub-space, Reed Richards stumbled upon a gateway to the Negative Zone. He spent a fair amount of time studying it through probes, and determined that it was largely unpopulated. So much so, in fact, that he—and others—used the Negative Zone on several occasions to get rid of difficult enemies, such as the Mad Thinker's android, the Super-Adaptoid, and even Galactus. Reed and the Fantastic Four have since done more detailed explorations of the Zone and no longer use it to dispose of villains. For some time, the Norse realm of Asgard was lost in the Negative Zone. Civil War In the Super-Hero Civil War, a group of heroes led by Iron Man, Mister Fantastic and Yellowjacket have created a massive prison in the Negative Zone (similar to the Vault) to house captured non-registering heroes as they wait for their trials. It is designated Negative Zone Prison Alpha but nicknamed Fantasy Island by inmates. Tony Stark himself named it "Project 42", as it had been the 42nd idea out of a hundred that he, Reed Richards and Hank Pym had created following the Stamford Disaster. There are portals to it planned for every single state so prisoners can be transported there by the different teams in the Fifty State Initiative- including one at Ryker's Island. It is very clean, with sanitation, but extremely heavily guarded, including password-changes every ten minutes. Its most notable former inmates were Iron Fist (posing as Daredevil at the time), Cloak and Dagger, Speedball, Prodigy and Prowler. It is also the setting for the final battle of the super hero civil war, as Iron Man lays a trap for Captain America but the Captain retaliates by using his planted mole, Hulkling, to release all the prisoners of 42 who come to his aid. Though in the ensuing battle Cloak manages to teleport all its superhuman detainees out, it remains as a prison for villains such as Lady Deathstrike and Taskmaster. (Taskmaster was later released to become the trainer for new Initiative recruits and Deathstrike seemingly escapes to assist in the Purifiers crusade during the Messiah Complex.) It also holds many of the Sakaaran forces from World War Hulk. In the one-shot Civil War: The Return, the Prison's warden was revealed as the first Captain Marvel, apparently back from the dead. Although he was later revealed as a Skrull sleeper agent named Khn'nr, whose conditioning was so strong he kept believing he was the Captain even after he had realized he really was not. Secret Invasion In the Secret Invasion: Fantastic Four limited series, the Skrull warrior Lyja (posing as Susan Richards) sends the Baxter Building into the Negative Zone. She reveals herself to Johnny Storm (her former spouse) and attacks him, feeling angry that he had forgotten her. During the course of their battle, Johnny saves Lyja from being hit by a police car, pulled in through the portal. The two reconcile after that, but a Negative Zone creature attacks them. They manage to defeat the creature, but Lyja passes out from her injuries. A bit later, when the "new" Fantastic Four fly off to the prison, Franklin and Valeria are grabbed by Negative Zone creatures, but Lyja saves them. Later when Ben, Johnny, Franklin, Val and the Tinkerer are ready to leave the Negative Zone she refuses to leave, because she wants to find out who she is. War of Kings After the events of Secret Invasion, the inmates of the prison took control of the facility after their correction officers abandoned the prison. Blastaar later overrun the prison during the prelude to the War of Kings story arc. Cataclysm The Negative Zone is used to dispose of Earth-616's Galactus when he is accidentally transferred to the Ultimate Marvel universe due to the temporal distortions caused by the events of Age of Ultron. The heroes of the Ultimate Marvel universe reasoned that Galactus will starve to death in the Negative Zone because it is a universe made of antimatter and Galactus would not have anything to eat there. Annihilation: Scourge The Negative Zone is later visited by the Sentry, who is struggling to understand his new state of self and find a way to separate himself from the Void. Upon soaking up the negative cosmic rays, the Sentry is able to separate himself from the Void but is left in the powerless form of Bob Reynolds. The Void was then drawn to the Cancerverse realm, where nothing could die, and impersonating and taking on the appearance of the Sentry, the Void became the new leader of its forces. He then led them back to the Negative Zone, forcing longtime enemies Blastaar and Annihilus to team up against them to prevent the Negative Zone kingdoms from being ravaged by the Undying Ones. Led by the Revengers, an ever-growing army of zombie-esque drones slaughter and infect their way from world to world giving no quarter as they leave destruction in their wake. As their desperate attempt to defend their domain fails, both rulers discover in the process that the Void is planning to conquer the Negative Zone and its denizens before returning to his own universe to spread the Cancerverse's infection even further. Annihilus then crosses into the positive matter universe to seek assistance, only to land right in the lap of Richard Ryder the last Nova, however, the past trauma at the hands of the Cancerverse, caused Ryder to flee, leaving Annihilus at the mercy of his enemies. The Void then attempt to cross over into the positive Universe, but was stopped by Beta Ray Bill and Lockjaw, with Beta Ray Bill forced to sacrifice his magical hammer, Stormbreaker, in the process. Unique features The Crossroads of Infinity Initially, it was generally believed that getting caught in the gravitational pull of the vortex at the center of the Zone meant certain death. However, some theorized that if one could survive entry into the vortex, one could travel to another dimension. However, this was only a theory until Doctor Doom gambled the lives of the Fantastic Four to prove it. Once inside the so-called Crossroads, individuals flip through a series of other parallel dimensions while progressing through. Coming to a halt seems to stabilize the Crossroads and then allows movement in the universe arrived in. However, it still remains a risky trip for a number of reasons. First and foremost is the expenditure of energy necessary to keep from imploding. On one occasion, it required the use of both Annihilus' Cosmic Control Rod and the Invisible Woman's force field to stave off death. Second, and almost equally important, is the lack of control one has while passing through different dimensions. Even with the precise calculations of Dr. Doom, it required several hops to reach the dimension he sought. Staying on a straight course to the very heart of the Crossroads leads one to Tyanna. Although it was believed to have been destroyed centuries earlier, the Tyannans' technology proved capable of sustaining them within the center of the vortex. Using their advanced machines, they were able to modify their bodies to exist safely in the immense pressures, but at the cost of being forced to remain hidden within the Crossroads. The Tyannans remain there, content to pursue their scientific interests. The Distortion Area Normally beings enter the Negative Zone through the Distortion Area. This is an invisible sphere of energy that resides in the Negative Zone but is accessible from many parts of Earth. By hitting the field with a precise wavelength of energy, a rift opens between both dimensions connected by the Distortion Area. This area acts as a buffer between the two polar opposite universes and alters a traveler's own polarity so that they may exist in the other dimension without harm. When activated, the Distortion Area appears from the outside as a crackling energy source roughly six feet in circumference. This effect only lasts as long as the field is activated and, once closed, becomes invisible again. Nearby matter is sucked into the near-vacuum of the Distortion Area and "falls" for about 50 seconds before emerging on the other side. The Distortion Area itself is nothing short of indescribable. Humans cannot begin to accurately fathom or record what transpires within the Distortion Area and travelers' minds try to compensate with a bizarre display of light and color. Combined with the natural turbulence in the area, many find the trip rather nauseating. Like any other mode of transport, choosing where to enter the Distortion Area in part affects where an individual is deposited on the other side. Reed Richards' former lab in the Baxter Building, for example, deposited someone at the outskirts of the Debris Field near Arthros. A rift opened on Yancy Street, however, dropped a traveler on the planet Tarsuu. Other methods may be employed to reach the Negative Zone but, while they tend to be more spatially accurate, they are very difficult to come by. Generally, this mode of transport is reserved by extremely powerful entities like Thor, the Supreme Intelligence, Galactus and the Watchers. Captain Mar-Vell's Nega-Bands could also transport the wearer to the Negative Zone but the precise destination was dependent upon the location of the Nega-Band's counterparts worn by Rick Jones. Emotions One of the rather undocumented side-effects the Negative Zone has on people seems to involve bringing forth what are usually considered negative emotions. At this point, it is difficult to determine the cause of this unusual phenomenon, but a number of dealings with the Negative Zone have given the impression that something inherent within it can lead to emotional distress. The severity of this distress can vary greatly. On a few occasions, it has manifested itself as a citywide panic. Other times, it merely caused a single person to temporarily lose their hope. Still other times, it caused several individuals to experience emotionally charged flashbacks, pulled from their subconscious. And, although it could be attributed to his psyche, Annihilus' main motivation is an obsessive fear of death. Not all inhabitants of the Negative Zone experience anything beyond normal anxieties, but the number of known instances of unusual psychological distress seems rather high. Visitors to the Zone may or may not experience anything emotionally disturbing. While there is no concrete evidence to show the correlation the Negative Zone has with emotional discord, it remains a significant feature of the region. Life As mentioned previously, the Negative Zone was originally thought to be largely uninhabited. Though this is now known to be incorrect, life having arisen on a number of its planets, the Zone is still mostly unoccupied space. Most of the encounters heroes have had with the Negative Zone revolve around Annihilus and/or Blastaar. Curiously, for as little life as there exists in the Negative Zone, it is very capable of supporting life. There, outer space itself is permeated with an oxygen-rich atmosphere, closely approximating Earth's. Consequently, humans can exist peacefully in space without the need for cumbersome pressure suits or oxygen masks. It is perhaps an issue of gravitational pull that is one of the biggest hindrances to life in the Negative Zone. While all objects of reasonably sized mass (planets, moons, asteroids, etc.) obviously have their own gravitational pull, it is weak enough to be overcome with minimal effort. Most heroes with flight capabilities can escape a planet's gravitational field with ease, as can any machine with the capacity for flight. Because of this lowered gravity, it is believed that vegetation has difficulty seeding properly, giving life a tenuous foothold at best on any given planet. Moisture also seems to be an issue in the dearth of life in the Negative Zone. While each planet has hardly been explored in full, many of the ones studied—including those that are inhabited—have shown few, if any, natural water sources. Most planets appear to be very arid, with cultures adapting to the lack of moisture much as was done on Earth's deserts. Time Being a different dimension with different laws of physics, time flows differently in the Negative Zone than it does on Earth. Although a comprehensive analysis has never been completed, preliminary findings suggest that two weeks pass in the Negative Zone for every hour on Earth, making a 336:1 ratio. On a smaller scale, every minute on Earth is a little over five and half hours in the Negative Zone. It seems, however, that this ratio changes as one approaches the center of the Negative Zone. Since there have been several instances of pan-dimensional conversations between the two planes, it appears the time ratio is much closer to 1:1 when one is at the nexus of the Negative Zone. It is currently unclear at what rate the time difference increases as one moves away from the vortex or if there is an upper limit to how great the difference between the two universes can become. Planets The Negative Zone includes the following planets: Argor – A planet that is home to the Argorans. Arthros – A planet that is home to Annihilus and the Arthosians (a race of insectoids). Baluur – A planet that is home to Blastaar. Kestor – A planet that was destroyed causing the Kestorians to become nomads. Tarsuu – Tyanna – A planet that is home to the Tyannans (a race of lion-like aliens). Tyanna is located at the Crossroads of Infinity. The Tyannan scientists genetically engineered a spore that could be scattered over an uninhabited planet's surface where they can grow into new plants and animals. This terraforming made the planet habitable. Other versions In the Blink miniseries, it is established that there is in fact only one Negative Zone in the multiverse of Marvel Universe, with exit points to different realities and timelines, as the Blink from the Age of Apocalypse found herself in a Negative Zone that still remembered the Fantastic Four's role in defeating Annihilus despite the fact that the team never existed in her world. This goes along with the Mutant X Universe, where Havok tried to get back from the Mutant X-verse to the main Marvel earth by a detour through the Negative Zone. Additionally both Rikki Barnes and Onslaught traveled from the Pocket Universe of Heroes Reborn to the mainstream Marvel Universe through the Negative Zone. During the Cataclysm event it is again established that there is in fact only one Negative Zone in the multiverse of Marvel Universe, with exit points to different realities and timelines, as the Ultimate Marvel heroes, after a brief trip to Earth-616 to acquire local information on Galactus, eventually manage to send Galactus to the Negative Zone, reasoning that he will eventually starve to death because Negative Zone is made of anti-matter, however, following an incident on Earth 616 where the Eternal known as Ikaris is brainwashed by a Kree device called the God's Whisper, the Eternals retrieve, with help from Aarkus, the comatose Galactus from the Negative Zone, and state that they plan to use the God's Whisper to unleash him upon the Kree when he awakens as revenge for what they did to Ikaris. Ultimate Marvel (The N-Zone) The Ultimate Marvel equivalent of the Negative Zone was originally called the N-Zone, a zone that exists directly below the Ultimate Marvel universe. It is tied to the powers granted to the Fantastic Four and is the homeplace of the Ultimate Fantastic Four villain Nihil. The N-Zone is a universe in the later stages of entropic heat death, with less than a million years of existence left to it. There are few stars still burning, mostly long-lived red dwarf stars, and despite the advanced technology of many races, life barely maintains a toehold on its existence. Space is also apparently foreshortened in this universe, with the Fantastic Four's shuttle Awesome achieving speeds that would be impossible in our own universe. It has an atmosphere that is lethally acidic to humans and the Ultimate Fantastic Four, with the exception of the Thing, required space suits to live. Later it was reckoned that the N-Zone is one of many other zones, labeled with letters (e.g. the Z-Zone and the Q-Zone) implying that the N is merely a categorization, not a shortening of the word "negative" therefore no logger connected to the Negative Zone. A proper Negative Zone was eventually introduced in the Ultimate Marvel where The Ultimates confront Reed Richards. Heroes Reborn (2021) In an alternate reality depicted in the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" miniseries, the Negative Zone is used by the Squadron Supreme of America to imprison Earth's most dangerous villains, such as General Annihilus, Doctor Juggernaut, the Hulk, Mister Beyonder, Namor, and Hank Pym / Ultron. In other media Television The Negative Zone appears in the 1994 Fantastic Four animated series episode, "Behold the Negative Zone". In a scripted, but unproduced episode of The Silver Surfer titled "Down to Earth" Part 3, Reed Richards uses the Negative Zone as a means to contain Terrax. The Negative Zone appears in Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes. This version is depicted as an alternate dimension inhabited by an array of various serpentine and insectoid creatures. According to Doctor Doom, the Negative Zone is a nexus for various other universes and claims that he discovered it years before Reed Richards. The Negative Zone appears in the two-part Iron Man: Armored Adventures episode "The Makluan Invasion". It is depicted as a dark empty void which the Mandarin banished S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Helicarrier to before rescuing it at the end of the episode following the titular event. The Negative Zone appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. It debuts in the episode "The Man Who Stole Tomorrow", when Thor, Ant-Man, and the Wasp place Blizzard in Negative Zone Prison 42. In the episode "Assault on 42", Annihilus and his insectoid slaves attack Prison 42, but were defeated by the joint forces of Captain America, Thor, Wasp, Miss Marvel, and the imprisoned supervillains of Prison 42. In the episode "Avengers Assemble", Mister Fantastic and Iron Man create a portal to the Negative Zone to send Galactus there to feed on its infinite anti-matter instead of Earth, using Galactus's own emitted energy as a tractor beam. The Negative Zone appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episodes "Doorway to Destruction", "Into the Negative Zone", and "Days of Future Smash" Pt. 5. Film In the original script for the Fantastic Four reboot by Jeremy Slater, the Negative Zone was reinvented as a planet that was home to ancient alien civilization before being destroyed by Galactus. However, after re-shoots and edits, the Negative Zone was renamed Planet Zero, and reworked into a planet with a cracked landscape and unstable energy that becomes the source of the titular characters' and Victor von Doom's mutations. Video games The Negative Zone appears in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2. It contains "Prison 42", a prison for unregistered heroes and nanite-controlled supervillains, and where the Fold first becomes active before Nick Fury destroyed it to keep the Fold from invading Earth. The Negative Zone appears in the Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet video game. See also Phantom Zone Qward References External links Negative Zone at Marvel.com Negative Zone at Marvel Wiki Marvel Comics dimensions	5,619
doc-en-10152_0	A junk is a type of Chinese sailing ship with fully battened sails. There are two types of junk in China: the northern junk, which developed from Chinese river boats, and southern junk, which developed from Austronesian ship designs used in trade with the Eastern Han dynasty since the 2nd century AD. They continued to evolve in later dynasties, and were predominantly used by Chinese traders throughout Southeast Asia. Similar junk designs were also adopted by other East Asian countries, most notably Japan where junks were used as merchant ships to trade goods with China. They were found, and in lesser numbers are still found, throughout Southeast Asia and India, but primarily in China. Historically, a Chinese junk could be one of many types of small coastal or river ships, usually serving as a cargo ship, pleasure boat, or houseboat, but also ranging in size up to large ocean-going vessel. Found more broadly today is a growing number of modern recreational junk-rigged sailboats. There can be significant regional variations in the type of rig or the layout of the vessel; however, they all employ fully battened sails. The term "junk" (Portuguese junco; Dutch jonk; and Spanish junco) was also used in the colonial period to refer to any medium- to large-sized ships of the Austronesian cultures in Island Southeast Asia, with or without the junk rig. Examples include the Indonesian and Malaysian jong, the Philippine karakoa and lanong, and the Maluku kora kora. Etymology Views diverge on whether the origin of the word is from a dialect of Chinese or from a Javanese word. The term may stem from the Chinese chuán (, "boat; ship") — The modern Mandarin Chinese word for an ocean-going wooden cargo vessel is cáo (). Pierre-Yves Manguin and Zoetmulder, among others, point to an Old Javanese origin, in the form of jong. The word can be traced from an Old Javanese inscription in the 9th century. It entered the Malay and Chinese languages by the 15th century, when a Chinese word list identifies it as a Malay word for ship. The late 15th century Undang-Undang Laut Melaka, a maritime code composed by Javanese shipowners in Melaka, uses jong frequently as the word for freight ships. European writings from 1345 through 1601 use a variety of related terms, including jonque (French), ioncque, ionct, giunchi, zonchi (Italian), iuncque, joanga, juanga (Spanish), junco (Portuguese), and ionco, djonk, jonk (Dutch). These terms commonly used to describe all kinds of large ships encountered in the Southeast Asia, as well as Chinese ships. The origin of the word "junk" in the English language can be traced to the Portuguese word junco, which is rendered from the Arabic word j-n-k (جنك). This word comes from the fact that the Arabic script cannot represent the sound spelled with the digraph "ng". The word was used to denote both the Javanese/Malay ship (jong or djong) and the Chinese ship (chuán), even though the two were markedly different vessels. After the disappearance of jongs in the 17th century, the meaning of "junk" (and other similar words in European languages), which until then was used as a transcription of the word "jong" in Malay and Javanese, changed its meaning to exclusively refer to the Chinese ship (chuán). Construction The historian Herbert Warington Smyth considered the junk as one of the most efficient ship designs, stating that "As an engine for carrying man and his commerce upon the high and stormy seas as well as on the vast inland waterways, it is doubtful if any class of vessel… is more suited or better adapted to its purpose than the Chinese or Indian junk, and it is certain that for flatness of sail and handiness, the Chinese rig is unsurpassed". Sails The sail of Chinese junks is an adoption of the Malay junk sail, which used vegetable matting attached to bamboo battens, a practice originated from Indonesia. The full-length battens keep the sail flatter than ideal in all wind conditions. Consequently, their ability to sail close to the wind is poorer than other fore-and-aft rigs. Hull Classic junks were built of softwoods (although after the 17th century teak was used in Guangdong) with the outside shape built first. Then multiple internal compartment/bulkheads accessed by separate hatches and ladders, reminiscent of the interior structure of bamboo, were built in. Traditionally, the hull has a horseshoe-shaped stern supporting a high poop deck. The bottom is flat in a river junk with no keel (similar to a sampan), so that the boat relies on a daggerboard, leeboard or very large rudder to prevent the boat from slipping sideways in the water. Another characteristic of junks, interior compartments or bulkheads, strengthened the ship and slowed flooding in case of holing. Ships built in this manner were written of in Zhu Yu's book Pingzhou Table Talks, published by 1119 during the Song dynasty. Again, this type of construction for Chinese ship hulls was attested to by the Moroccan Muslim Berber traveler Ibn Battuta (1304–1377 AD), who described it in great detail (refer to Technology of the Song dynasty). Benjamin Franklin wrote in a 1787 letter on the project of mail packets between the United States and France: Due to the numerous foreign primary sources that hint to the existence of true watertight compartments in junks, historians such as Joseph Needham proposed that the limber holes were stopped up as noted above in case of leakage. He addresses the quite separate issue of free-flooding compartments on pg 422 of Science and Civilisation in Ancient China: Similar wet wells were also apparent in Roman small craft of the 5th century CE. Leeboards and centerboards Other innovations included the square-pallet bilge pump, which was adopted by the West during the 16th century for work ashore, the western chain pump, which was adopted for shipboard use, being of a different derivation. Junks also relied on the compass for navigational purposes. However, as with almost all vessels of any culture before the late 19th century, the accuracy of magnetic compasses aboard ship, whether from a failure to understand deviation (the magnetism of the ship's iron fastenings) or poor design of the compass card (the standard drypoint compasses were extremely unstable), meant that they did little to contribute to the accuracy of navigation by dead reckoning. Indeed, a review of the evidence shows that the Chinese embarked magnetic pointer was probably little used for navigation. The reasoning is simple. Chinese mariners were as able as any and, had they needed a compass to navigate, they would have been aware of the almost random directional qualities when used at sea of the water bowl compass they used. Yet that design remained unchanged for some half a millennium. Western sailors, coming upon a similar water bowl design (no evidence as to how has yet emerged) very rapidly adapted it in a series of significant changes such that within roughly a century the water bowl had given way to the dry pivot, a rotating compass card a century later, a lubberline a generation later and gimbals seventy or eighty years after that. These were necessary because in the more adverse climatic context of north western Europe, the compass was needed for navigation. Had similar needs been felt in China, Chinese mariners would also have come up with fixes. They didn't. Steering Junks employed stern-mounted rudders centuries before their adoption in the West for the simple reason that Western hull forms, with their pointed sterns, obviated a centreline steering system until technical developments in Scandinavia created the first, iron mounted, pintle and gudgeon 'barn door' western examples in the early 12th century CE. A second reason for this slow development was that the side rudders in use were, contrary to a lot of very ill-informed opinion, extremely efficient. Thus the junk rudder's origin, form and construction was completely different in that it was the development of a centrally mounted stern steering oar, examples of which can also be seen in Middle Kingdom (c.2050–1800 BCE) Egyptian river vessels. It was an innovation which permitted the steering of large ships and due to its design allowed height adjustment according to the depth of the water and to avoid serious damage should the junk ground. A sizable junk can have a rudder that needed up to twenty members of the crew to control in strong weather. In addition to using the sail plan to balance the junk and take the strain off the hard to operate and mechanically weakly attached rudder, some junks were also equipped with leeboards or dagger boards. The world's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a junk dating from before the 1st century AD. History 2nd century (Han dynasty) Chinese sea-going ships engaged in cross-ocean expeditions by 2nd century BC. The Book of Han mentions sea-going voyages taking 12 months to reach the furthest country. Large Austronesian trading ships docking in Chinese seaports with as many as four sails were recorded by scholars as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). They called them the kunlun bo or kunlun po (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of the [dark-skinned] Kunlun people"). They were booked by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims for passage to Southern India and Sri Lanka. The 3rd century book "Strange Things of the South" (南州異物志) by Wan Chen (萬震) describes one of these Austronesian ships as being capable of 600-700 people together with more than 10,000 hu (斛) of cargo (250-1000 tons according to various interpretations - 600 tons deadweight according to Manguin). The ships could be more than 50 meters in length and had a freeboard of 5.2–7.8 meters. When seen from above they resemble covered galleries. He explains the ships' sail design as follows: A 260 CE book by K'ang T'ai (康泰) described ships with seven sails called po for transporting horses that could travel as far as Syria. He also made reference to monsoon trade between the islands (or archipelago), which took a month and a few days in a large po. Southern Chinese junks were based on keeled and multi-planked Austronesian jong (known as po by the Chinese, from Javanese or Malay perahu - large ship). Southern Chinese junks showed characteristics of Austronesian jong: V-shaped, double-ended hull with a keel, and using timbers of tropical origin. This is different from northern Chinese junks, which are developed from flat bottomed riverine boats. The northern Chinese junks had flat bottoms, no keel, no frames (only water-tight bulkheads), transom stern and stem, and would have been built out of pine or fir wood, and would have its planks fastened with iron nails or clamps. 10–13th century (Song dynasty) The trading dynasty of the Song developed the first junks based on Southeast Asian ships. By this era they also have adopted the Malay junk sail. The ships of the Song, both mercantile and military, became the backbone of the navy of the following Yuan dynasty. In particular the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–84), as well as the Mongol invasion of Java (both failed), essentially relied on recently acquired Song naval capabilities. Worcester estimates that Yuan junks were 11 m (36 ft) in beam and over 30 m (100 ft) long. In general they had no keel, stempost, or sternpost. They did have centreboards, and watertight bulkhead to strengthen the hull, which added great weight. Further excavations showed that this type of vessel was common in the 13th century. By using the ratio between number of soldiers and ships in both invasions, it can be concluded that each ship may carry 20-70 men. 14th century (Yuan dynasty) Yuan dynasty ships carry on the tradition of Song, the Yuan navy is essentially Song navy. Both Song and Yuan employed large trading junks. The large ships (up to 5,000 liao or 1520-1860 tons burden) would carry 500-600 men, and the second class (1,000-2,000 liao) would carry 200-300 men. Unlike Ming treasure ships, Song and Yuan great junks are propelled by oars, and have with them smaller junks, probably for maneuvering aids. The largest junks (5,000 liao) may have a hull length twice that of Quanzhou ship (1,000 liao), that is 68 m. The enormous dimensions of the Chinese ships of the Medieval period are described in Chinese sources, and are confirmed by Western travelers to the East, such as Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta and Niccolò da Conti. According to Ibn Battuta, who visited China in 1347:…We stopped in the port of Calicut, in which there were at the time thirteen Chinese vessels, and disembarked. On the China Sea traveling is done in Chinese ships only, so we shall describe their arrangements. The Chinese vessels are of three kinds; large ships called chunks (junks), middle sized ones called zaws (dhows) and the small ones kakams. The large ships have anything from twelve down to three sails, which are made of bamboo rods plaited into mats. They are never lowered, but turned according to the direction of the wind; at anchor they are left floating in the wind. A ship carries a complement of a thousand men, six hundred of whom are sailors and four hundred men-at-arms, including archers, men with shields and crossbows, who throw naphtha. Three smaller ones, the "half", the "third" and the "quarter", accompany each large vessel. These vessels are built in the towns of Zaytun (a.k.a. Zaitun; today's Quanzhou; 刺桐) and Sin-Kalan. The vessel has four decks and contains rooms, cabins, and saloons for merchants; a cabin has chambers and a lavatory, and can be locked by its occupants. This is the manner after which they are made; two (parallel) walls of very thick wooden (planking) are raised and across the space between them are placed very thick planks (the bulkheads) secured longitudinally and transversely by means of large nails, each three ells in length. When these walls have thus been built the lower deck is fitted in and the ship is launched before the upper works are finished. - Ibn Battuta 15–17th century (Ming dynasty) Expedition of Zheng He The largest junks ever built were possibly those of Admiral Zheng He, for his expeditions in the Indian Ocean (1405 to 1433), although this is disputed as no contemporary records of the sizes of Zheng He's ships are known. Instead the dimensions are based on Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi (1597), a romanticized version of the voyages written by nearly two centuries later. Maodeng's novel describes Zheng He's ships as follows: Treasure ships, used by the commander of the fleet and his deputies (Nine-masted junks, claimed by the Ming Shi to be about 420 feet long and 180 feet wide). Horse ships, carrying tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (Eight-masted junks, about 340 feet long and 140 feet wide) Supply ships, containing food-staple for the crew (Seven-masted junks, about 260 feet long and 115 feet wide). Troop transports (Six-masted junks, about 220 feet long and 83 feet wide). Fuchuan warships (Five-masted junks, about 165 feet long). Patrol boats (Eight-oared, about 120 feet long). Water tankers, with 1 month's supply of fresh water. Louise Levathes suggests that the actual length of the biggest treasure ships may have been between long and wide. Modern scholars have argued on engineering grounds that it is highly unlikely that Zheng He's ship was 450 ft in length, Guan Jincheng (1947) proposed a much more modest size of 20 zhang long by 2.4 zhang wide (204 ft by 25.5 ft or 62.2 m by 7.8 m) while Xin Yuan'ou (2002) put them as 61–76 m (200–250 feet) in length. Comparing to other Ming records, the Chinese seem to have exaggerated their dimensions. European East Indiamen and galleons were said to be 30, 40, 50, and 60 zhang (90, 120, 150, and 180 m). It was not until the mid to late 19th century that the length of the largest western wooden ship began to exceed 100 meters, even this was done using modern industrial tools and iron parts. Sea ban From the mid-15th to early 16th century, all Chinese maritime trading was banned under the Ming Dynasty. The shipping and shipbuilding knowledge acquired during the Song and Yuan dynasties gradually declined during this period. Capture of Taiwan In 1661, a naval fleet of 400 junks and 25,000 men led by the Ming loyalist Zheng Chenggong (Cheng Ch'eng-kung in Wade–Giles, known in the West as Koxinga), arrived in Taiwan to oust the Dutch from Zeelandia. Following a nine-month siege, Cheng captured the Dutch fortress Fort Zeelandia. A peace treaty between Koxinga and the Dutch Government was signed at Castle Zeelandia on February 1, 1662, and Taiwan became Koxinga's base for the Kingdom of Tungning. Javanese junk Javanese junks differed from Chinese junks in several respects. The Javanese junk was made of very thick wood, and as the ship got old, it was fixed with new boards, with four closing boards, stacked together. The rope and the sail was made with woven rattan. The jong was made using jaty/jati wood (teak) at the time of this report (1515), at that time Chinese junks are using softwood as the main material. The jong's hull is formed by joining planks to the keel and then to each other by wooden dowels, without using either a frame (except for subsequent reinforcement), nor any iron bolts or nails. The planks are perforated by an auger and inserted with dowels, which remains inside the fastened planks, not seen from the outside. On some of the smaller vessels parts may be lashed together with vegetable fibers. The vessel was similarly pointed at both ends, and carried two oar-like rudders and lateen-rigged sails (actually tanja sail), but it may also use junk sail, a sail of Indonesian origin. It differed markedly from the Chinese vessel, which had its hull fastened by strakes and iron nails to a frame and to structurally essential bulkheads which divided the cargo space. The Chinese vessel had a single rudder on a transom stern, and (except in Fujian and Guangdong) they had flat bottoms without keels. Encounters with giant jongs were recorded by Western travelers. Florentine merchant Giovanni da Empoli (1483-1517), one of the first Italian agents to join a Portuguese armada to India in 1503-1504, said that the junks of Java were no different in their strength than a castle, because the three and four boards, layered one above the other, could not be harmed with artillery. They sailed with their women, children, and families, with everyone mainly keeping to their respective rooms. Portuguese recorded at least two encounters with large Djongs, one was encountered off the coast of Pacem (Samudera Pasai Sultanate) and the other was owned by Pati Unus, who went on to attack Malacca in 1513. Characteristics of the 2 ships were similar, both were larger than Portuguese ship, built with multiple plankings, resistant to cannon fire, and had two oar-like rudders on the side of the ship. At least Pati Unus' jong was equipped with three layers of sheathing which the Portuguese said over one cruzado in thickness each. The Chinese banned foreign ships from entering Guangzhou, fearing the Javanese or Malay junks would attack and capture the city, because it is said that one of these junk would rout twenty Chinese junks. Main production location of Djong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially around Rembang-Demak (along the Muria strait) and Cirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and adjacent islands. A common feature of these places was their accessibility to forests of teak, this wood was highly valued because of its resistance to shipworm, whereas Borneo itself would supply ironwood. Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there. Accounts of medieval travellers Niccolò da Conti in relating his travels in Asia between 1419 and 1444, describes huge junks of about 2,000 tons in weight: Other translations of the passage give the size as a 2000 butts, which would be around a 1000 tons, a butt being half a ton. Christopher Wake noted that the transcription of the unit is actually vegetes, that is Venetian butt, and estimated a burthen of 1300 tons. The ship of Conti may have been a Burmese or Indonesian jong. Also, in 1456, the Fra Mauro map described the presence of junks in the Indian Ocean as well as their construction: Fra Mauro further explains that one of these junks rounded the Cape of Good Hope and travelled far into the Atlantic Ocean, in 1420: 19th century (Qing dynasty) Large, ocean-going junks played a key role in Asian trade until the 19th century. One of these junks, Keying, sailed from China around the Cape of Good Hope to the United States and England between 1846 and 1848. Many junks were fitted out with carronades and other weapons for naval or piratical uses. These vessels were typically called "war junks" or "armed junks" by Western navies which began entering the region more frequently in the 18th century. The British, Americans and French fought several naval battles with war junks in the 19th century, during the First Opium War, Second Opium War and in between. At sea, junk sailors co-operated with their Western counterparts. For example, in 1870 survivors of the English barque Humberstone shipwrecked off Formosa, were rescued by a junk and landed safely in Macao. 20th century In 1938, E. Allen Petersen escaped the advancing Japanese armies by sailing a junk, Hummel Hummel, from Shanghai to California with his wife Tani and two White Russians (Tsar loyalists). In 1955, six young men sailed a Ming dynasty-style junk from Taiwan to San Francisco. The four-month journey aboard the Free China was captured on film and their arrival into San Francisco made international front-page news. The five Chinese-born friends saw an advertisement for an international trans-Atlantic yacht race, and jumped at the opportunity for adventure. They were joined by the then US Vice-Consul to China, who was tasked with capturing the journey on film. Enduring typhoons and mishaps, the crew, having never sailed a century-old junk before, learned along the way. The crew included Reno Chen, Paul Chow, Loo-chi Hu, Benny Hsu, Calvin Mehlert and were led by skipper Marco Chung. After a journey of , the Free China and her crew arrived in San Francisco Bay in fog on August 8, 1955. Shortly afterward the footage was featured on ABC television's Bold Journey travelogue. Hosted by John Stephenson and narrated by ship's navigator Paul Chow, the program highlighted the adventures and challenges of the junk's sailing across the Pacific, as well as some humorous moments aboard ship. In 1959 a group of Catalan men, led by Jose Maria Tey, sailed from Hong Kong to Barcelona on a junk named Rubia. After their successful journey this junk was anchored as a tourist attraction at one end of Barcelona harbor, close to where La Rambla meets the sea. Permanently moored along with it was a reproduction of Columbus' caravel Santa Maria during the 1960s and part of the 1970s. In 1981, Christoph Swoboda had a 65 feet (LoA) Bedar built by the boatyard of Che Ali bin Ngah on Duyong island in the estuary of the Terengganu river on the East coast of Malaysia. The Bedar is one of the two types of Malay junk schooners traditionally built there. He sailed this junk with his family and one friend to the Mediterranean and then continued with changing crew to finally finish a circumnavigation in 1998. He sold this vessel in 2000 and in 2004 he started to build a new junk in Duyong with the same craftsmen: the Pinas (or Pinis) Naga Pelangi, in order to help keep this ancient boat building tradition alive. This boat finished to be fitted out in 2010 and is working as a charter boat in the Andaman and the South China Sea. Notes See also Casco (barge), flat hulled barges of the Philippines Junk rig Pinisi Keying Lorcha Tongkang Shipyards in Macau References Works cited External links World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Keying II Hong Kong Junk China Seas Voyaging Society The Free China, homepage of one of the last remaining 20th century junks, with video. The Junk and Advanced Cruising Rig Association, The JRA Pirates and Junks in Late Imperial South China Chinese inventions Four-masted ships Naval history of China Sailboat types Ship types Merchant sailing ship types Sailing rigs and rigging Ships of China Three-masted ships Traditional boats Austronesian ships	5,785
doc-en-10185_0	Hun () and po () are types of souls in Chinese philosophy and traditional religion. Within this ancient soul dualism tradition, every living human has both a hun spiritual, ethereal, yang soul which leaves the body after death, and also a po corporeal, substantive, yin soul which remains with the corpse of the deceased. Some controversy exists over the number of souls in a person; for instance, one of the traditions within Daoism proposes a soul structure of sanhunqipo ; that is, "three hun and seven po". The historian Yü Ying-shih describes hun and po as "two pivotal concepts that have been, and remain today, the key to understanding Chinese views of the human soul and the afterlife". Characters The Chinese characters and for hun and po typify the most common character classification of "radical-phonetic" or "phono-semantic" graphs, which combine a "radical" or "signific" (recurring graphic elements that roughly provide semantic information) with a "phonetic" (suggesting ancient pronunciation). Hun (or ) and po have the "ghost radical" gui "ghost; devil" and phonetics of yun "cloud; cloudy" and bai "white; clear; pure". Besides the common meaning of "a soul", po was a variant Chinese character for po "a lunar phase" and po "dregs". The Book of Documents used po as a graphic variant for po "dark aspect of the moon" – this character usually means ba "overlord; hegemon". For example, "On the third month, when (the growth phase, ) of the moon began to wane, the duke of Chow [i.e., Duke of Zhou] commenced the foundations, and proceeded to build the new great city of Lǒ". The Zhuangzi "[Writings of] Master Zhuang" wrote zaopo (lit. "rotten dregs") "worthless; unwanted; waste matter" with a po variant. A wheelwright sees Duke Huan of Qi with books by dead sages and says, "what you are reading there is nothing but the [] chaff and dregs of the men of old!". In the history of Chinese writing, characters for po "lunar brightness" appeared before those for hun "soul; spirit". The spiritual hun and po "dual souls" are first recorded in Warring States period (475–221 BCE) seal script characters. The lunar po or "moon's brightness" appears in both Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE) Bronzeware script and oracle bone script, but not in Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle inscriptions. The earliest form of this "lunar brightness" character was found on a (ca. 11th century BCE) Zhou oracle bone inscription. Etymologies The po soul's etymology is better understood than the hun soul's. reconstructs hun "'spiritual soul' which makes a human personality" and po "vegetative or animal soul ... which accounts for growth and physiological functions" as Middle Chinese γuən and pʰak from Old Chinese wûn and phrâk. The (c. 80 CE) Baihu Tang gave pseudo-etymologies for hun and po through Chinese character puns. It explains hun with zhuan "deliver; pass on; impart; spread" and yun "rue (used to keep insects out of books); to weed", and po with po " compel; force; coerce; urgent" and bai "white; bright". What do the words hun and [po] mean? Hun expresses the idea of continuous propagation ([zhuan] ), unresting flight; it is the qi of the Lesser Yang, working in man in an external direction, and it governs the nature (or the instincts, [xing] ). [Po] expresses the idea of a continuous pressing urge ([po] ) on man; it is the [qi] of the Lesser Yin, and works in him, governing the emotions ([qing] ). Hun is connected with the idea of weeding ([yun] ), for with the instincts the evil weeds (in man's nature) are removed. [Po] is connected with the idea of brightening ([bai] ), for with the emotions the interior (of the personality) is governed. Etymologically, Schuessler says pò "animal soul" "is the same word as" pò "a lunar phase". He cites the Zuozhuan (534 BCE, see below) using the lunar jishengpo to mean "With the first development of a fetus grows the vegetative soul". Pò, the soul responsible for growth, is the same as pò the waxing and waning of the moon". The meaning 'soul' has probably been transferred from the moon since men must have been aware of lunar phases long before they had developed theories on the soul. This is supported by the etymology 'bright', and by the inverted word order which can only have originated with meteorological expressions ... The association with the moon explains perhaps why the pò soul is classified as Yin ... in spite of the etymology 'bright' (which should be Yang), hun's Yang classification may be due to the association with clouds and by extension sky, even though the word invokes 'dark'. 'Soul' and 'moon' are related in other cultures, by cognation or convergence, as in Tibeto-Burman and Proto-Lolo–Burmese s/ʼ-la "moon; soul; spirit", Written Tibetan cognates bla "soul" and zla "moon", and Proto-Miao–Yao bla "spirit; soul; moon". Lunar associations of po are evident in the Classical Chinese terms chanpo "the moon" (with "toad; toad in the moon; moon") and haopo "moon; moonlight" (with "white; bright; luminous"). The semantics of po "white soul" probably originated with "lunar whiteness". Zhou bronze inscriptions commonly recorded lunar phases with the terms jishengpo "after the brightness has grown" and jisipo "after the brightness has died", which Schuessler explains as "second quarter of the lunar month" and "last quarter of the lunar month". Chinese scholars have variously interpreted these two terms as lunar quarters or fixed days, and Wang Guowei's lunar-quarter analysis the most likely. Thus, jishengpo is from the 7th/8th to the 14th/15th days of the lunar month and jisipo is from the 23rd/24th to the end of the month. Yü translates them as "after the birth of the crescent" and "after the death of the crescent". Etymologically, lunar and spiritual po < pʰak < phrâk are cognate with bai < bɐk < brâk "white". According to Hu Shih, po etymologically means "white, whiteness, and bright light"; "The primitive Chinese seem to have regarded the changing phases of the moon as periodic birth and death of its [po], its 'white light' or soul." Yü says this ancient association between the po soul and the "growing light of the new moon is of tremendous importance to our understanding of certain myths related to the seventh day of the months." Two celebrated examples in Chinese mythology are Xi Wangmu and Emperor Wu meeting on the seventh day of the first lunar month and The Princess and the Cowherd or Qixi Festival held on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The etymology of hun < γuən < *wûn is comparatively less certain. Hu said, "The word hun is etymologically the same as the word yun, meaning "clouds." The clouds float about and seem more free and more active than the cold, white-lighted portion of the growing and waning moon." Schuessler cites two possibilities. Since pò is the 'bright' soul, hún is the 'dark' soul and therefore cognate to yún 'cloud', perhaps in the sense of 'shadowy' because some believe that the hún soul will live after death in a world of shadows. Semantics The correlative "soul" words hun and po have several meanings in Chinese plus many translations and explanations in English. The table below shows translation equivalents from some major Chinese-English dictionaries. Both Chinese hun and po are translatable as English "soul" or "spirit", and both are basic components in "soul" compounds. In the following examples, all Chinese-English translation equivalents are from DeFrancis. hunpo "soul; psyche" linghun "soul; spirit" hunling "(colloquial) soul; ghost" yinhun "soul; spirit; apparition" sanhunqipo "soul; three finer spirits and several baser instincts that motivate a human being" xinpo "soul" Hunpo and linghun are the most frequently used among these "soul" words. Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen, eminent historians of science and technology in China, define hun and po in modern terms. "Peering as far as one can into these ancient psycho-physiological ideas, one gains the impression that the distinction was something like that between what we would call motor and sensory activity on the one hand, and also voluntary as against vegetative processes on the other." Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein cautions about hun and po translations: "Although the term "souls" is often used to refer to them, they are better seen as two types of vital entities, the source of life in every individual. The hun is Yang, luminous, and volatile, while the po is Yin, somber, and heavy." History Based on Zuozhuan usages of hun and po in four historical contexts, Yü extrapolates that po was the original name for a human soul, and the dualistic conception of hun and po "began to gain currency in the middle of the sixth century" BCE. Two earlier 6th century contexts used the po soul alone. Both describe Tian "heaven; god" duo "seizing; taking away" a person's po, which resulted in a loss of mental faculties. In 593 BCE (Duke Xuan 15th year), after Zhao Tong behaved inappropriately at the Zhou court, an observer predicted: "In less than ten years [Zhao Tong] will be sure to meet with great calamity. Heaven has taken his [] wits away from him." In 543 BCE (Duke Xiang 29th year, Boyou from the state of Zheng acted irrationally, which an official interpreted as: "Heaven is destroying [Boyou], and has taken away his [] reason." Boyou's political enemies subsequently arranged to take away his hereditary position and assassinate him. Two later sixth-century Zuozhuan contexts used po together with the hun soul. In 534 BCE, the ghost of Boyou (above) was seeking revenge on his murderers, and terrifying the people of Zheng (Duke Zhao, Year &). The philosopher and statesman Zi Chan, realizing that Boyou's loss of hereditary office had caused his spirit to be deprived of sacrifices, reinstated his son to the family position, and the ghost disappeared. When a friend asked Zi Chan to explain ghosts, he gave what Yu calls "the locus classicus on the subject of the human soul in the Chinese tradition". Compare the translation of Needham and Lu, who interpret this as an early Chinese discourse on embryology. In 516 BCE (Duke Zhao, Year 20), the Duke of Song and a guest named Shusun were both seen weeping during a supposedly joyful gathering. Yue Qi , a Song court official, said: Hun and po souls, explains Yü, "are regarded as the very essence of the mind, the source of knowledge and intelligence. Death is thought to follow inevitably when the hun and the p'o leave the body. We have reason to believe that around this time the idea of hun was still relatively new." Soon after death, it was believed that a person's hun and po could be temporarily reunited through a ritual called the fu "recall; return", zhaohun "summon the hun soul", or zhaohun fupo "to summon the hun-soul to reunite with the po-soul". The earliest known account of this ritual is found in the (3rd century BCE) Chuci poems Zhao Hun "Summons of the Soul" and Dazhao "The Great Summons". For example, the wu Yang () summons a man's soul in the "Zhao Hun". Hu proposed, "The idea of a hun may have been a contribution from the southern peoples" (who originated Zhao Hun rituals) and then spread to the north sometime during the sixth century BCE. Calling this southern hypothesis "quite possible", Yü cites the Chuci, associated with the southern state of Chu, demonstrating "there can be little doubt that in the southern tradition the hun was regarded as a more active and vital soul than the p'o. The Chuci uses hun 65 times and po 5 times (4 in hunpo, which the Chuci uses interchangeably with hun). The identification of the yin-yang principle with the hun and po souls evidently occurred in the late fourth and early third centuries BCE, and by "the second century at the latest, the Chinese dualistic conception of soul had reached its definitive formulation." The Liji (11), compounds hun and po with qi "breath; life force" and xing "form; shape; body" in hunqi and xingpo . "The [] intelligent spirit returns to heaven the [] body and the animal soul return to the earth; and hence arose the idea of seeking (for the deceased) in sacrifice in the unseen darkness and in the bright region above." Compare this modern translation, "The breath-soul (hun-ch'I ) returns to heaven; the bodily soul (hsing-p'o ) returns to earth. Therefore, in sacrificial-offering one should seek the meaning in the yin-yang principle." Yü summarizes hun/po dualism. Loewe explains with a candle metaphor; the physical xing is the "wick and substance of a candle", the spiritual po and hun are the "force that keeps the candle alight" and "light that emanates from the candle". The Yin po and Yang hun were correlated with Chinese spiritual and medical beliefs. Hun is associated with shen "spirit; god" and po with gui "ghost; demon; devil". The (ca. 1st century BCE) Lingshu Jing medical text spiritually applies Wu Xing "Five Phase" theory to the Zang-fu "organs", associating the hun soul with liver (Chinese medicine) and blood, and the po soul with lung (Chinese medicine) and breath. The Lingshu Jing also records that the hun and po souls taking flight can cause restless dreaming, and eye disorders can scatter the souls causing mental confusion. Han medical texts reveal that hun and po departing from the body does not necessarily cause death but rather distress and sickness. Brashier parallels the translation of hun and po, "If one were to put an English word to them, they are our 'wits', our ability to demarcate clearly, and like the English concept of "wits," they can be scared out of us or can dissipate in old age." During the Han Dynasty, the belief in hun and po remained prominent, although there was a great diversity of different, sometimes contradictory, beliefs about the afterlife. Han burial customs provided nourishment and comfort for the po with the placement of grave goods, including food, commodities, and even money within the tomb of the deceased. Chinese jade was believed to delay the decomposition of a body. Pieces of jade were commonly placed in bodily orifices, or rarely crafted into jade burial suits. Generations of sinologists have repeatedly asserted that Han-era people commonly believed the heavenly hun and earthly po souls separated at death, but recent scholarship and archeology suggest that hunpo dualism was more an academic theory than a popular faith. Anna Seidel analyzed funerary texts discovered in Han tombs, which mention not only po souls but also hun remaining with entombed corpses, and wrote, "Indeed, a clear separation of a p'o, appeased with the wealth included in the tomb, from a hun departed to heavenly realms is not possible." Seidel later called for reappraising Han abstract notions of hun and po, which "do not seem to have had as wide a currency as we assumed up to now." Pu Muzhou surveyed usages of the words hun and po on Han Dynasty bei "stele" erected at graves and shrines, and concluded, "The thinking of ordinary people seems to have been quite hazy on the matter of what distinguished the hun from the po." These stele texts contrasted souls between a corporeal hun or hunpo at the cemetery and a spiritual shen at the family shrine. Kenneth Brashier reexamined the evidence for hunpo dualism and relegated it "to the realm of scholasticism rather than general beliefs on death." Brashier cited several Han sources (grave deeds, Book of the Later Han, and Jiaoshi Yilin) attesting beliefs that "the hun remains in the grave instead of flying up to heaven", and suggested it "was sealed into the grave to prevent its escape." Another Han text, the Fengsu Tongyi says, "The vital energy of the hun of a dead person floats away; therefore a mask is made in order to retain it. Daoism Hun and po spiritual concepts were important in several Daoist traditions. For instance, "Since the volatile hun is fond of wandering and leaving the body during sleep, techniques were devised to restrain it, one of which entailed a method of staying constantly awake." The sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" were anthropomorphized and visualized. Ge Hong's (ca. 320 CE) Baopuzi frequently mentions the hun and po "ethereal and gross souls". The "Genii" Chapter argues that the departing of these dual souls cause illness and death. All men, wise or foolish, know that their bodies contain ethereal as well as gross breaths, and that when some of them quit the body, illness ensues; when they all leave him, a man dies. In the former case, the magicians have amulets for restraining them; in the latter case, The Rites [i.e., Yili] provide ceremonials for summoning them back. These breaths are most intimately bound up with us, for they are born when we are, but over a whole lifetime probably nobody actually hears or sees them. Would one conclude that they do not exist because they are neither seen nor heard? (2) This "magicians" translates fangshi "doctor; diviner' magician". Both fangshi and daoshi "Daoist priests" developed methods and rituals to summon hun and po back into a person's body. The "Gold and Cinnabar" chapter records a Daoist alchemical reanimation pill that can return the hun and po souls to a recent corpse: Taiyi zhaohunpo dan fa "The Great One's Elixir Method for Summoning Souls". In T'ai-i's elixir for Summoning Gross and Ethereal Breaths the five minerals [i.e., cinnabar, realgar, arsenolite, malachite, and magnetite] are used and sealed with Six-One lute as in the Nine-crucible cinnabars. It is particularly effective for raising those who have died of a stroke. In cases where the corpse has been dead less than four days, force open the corpse's mouth and insert a pill of this elixir and one of sulphur, washing them down its gullet with water. The corpse will immediately come to life. In every case the resurrected remark that they have seen a messenger with a baton of authority summoning them. (4) For visualizing the ten souls, the Baopuzi "Truth on Earth" chapter recommends taking dayao "great medicines" and practicing a fenxing "divide/multiply the body" multilocation technique. My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror, and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression. My teacher also used to say that you should take the great medicines diligently if you wished to enjoy Fullness of Life, and that you should use metal solutions and a multiplication of your person if you wished to communicate with the gods. By multiplying the body, the three Hun and the seven Po are automatically seen within the body, and in addition it becomes possible to meet and visit the powers of heaven and the deities of earth and to have all the gods of the mountains and rivers in one's service. (18) The Daoist Shangqing School has several meditation techniques for visualizing the hun and po. In Shangqing Neidan "Internal Alchemy", Baldrian-Hussein says, the po plays a particularly somber role as it represents the passions that dominate the hun. This causes the vital force to decay, especially during sexual activity, and eventually leads to death. The inner alchemical practice seeks to concentrate the vital forces within the body by reversing the respective roles of hun and po, so that the hun (Yang) controls the po (Yin). Number of souls The number of human "souls" has been a long-standing source of controversy among Chinese religious traditions. Stevan Harrell concludes, "Almost every number from one to a dozen has at one time or another been proposed as the correct one." The most commonly believed numbers of "souls" in a person are one, two, three, and ten. One "soul" or linghun is the simplest idea. Harrell gives a fieldwork example. When rural Taiwanese perform ancestral sacrifices at home, they naturally think of the ling-hun in the tablet; when they take offerings to the cemetery, they think of it in the grave; and when they go on shamanistic trips, they think of it in the yin world. Because the contexts are separate, there is little conflict and little need for abstract reasoning about a nonexistent problem. Two "souls" is a common folk belief, and reinforced by yin-yang theory. These paired souls can be called hun and po, hunpo and shen, or linghun and shen. Three "souls" comes from widespread beliefs that the soul of a dead person can exist in the multiple locations. The missionary Justus Doolittle recorded that Chinese people in Fuzhou Believe each person has three distinct souls while living. These souls separate at the death of the adult to whom they belong. One resides in the ancestral tablet erected to his memory, if the head of a family; another lurks in the coffin or the grave, and the third departs to the infernal regions to undergo its merited punishment. Ten "souls" of sanhunqipo "three hun and seven po" is not only Daoist; "Some authorities would maintain that the three-seven "soul" is basic to all Chinese religion". During the Later Han period, Daoists fixed the number of hun souls at three and the number of po souls at seven. A newly deceased person may return () to his home at some nights, sometimes one week () after his death and the seven po would disappear one by one every 7 days after death. According to Needham and Lu, "It is a little difficult to ascertain the reason for this, since fives and sixes (if they corresponded to the viscera) would have rather been expected." Three hun may stand for the sangang "three principles of social order: relationships between ruler-subject, father-child, and husband-wife". Seven po may stand for the qiqiao "seven apertures (in the head, eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth)" or the qiqing "seven emotions (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, worry, grief, fright)" in traditional Chinese medicine. Sanhunqipo also stand for other names. See also Soul dualism, similar beliefs in other animistic beliefs Ancient Egyptian beliefs of the soul, in which the ancient Egyptians believed that every person's soul consisted of the jb (heart), sheut (shadow), ren (name), ba (personality), and ka (vitality), along with other souls known as aakhu, khaibut, and khat. Once the deceased was given the proper funerary rites and constant offerings, his or her ba and ka unite to become an akh (effective one). The Ti bon ange and the Gros bon ange in Haitian Vodou; Soul dualism in Haitian Vodou. Baci, a religious ceremony in Laos practiced to synchronize the effects of the 32 souls of an individual person, known as kwan. Diyu, the Chinese underworld, eventually understood as a form of Hell "The Great Summons" a Chuci piece focused on the hun. Heaven, known in modern Chinese as Tiantang Hugr (inner self), fetch (the soul that reincarnates into a new body), fylgja (fortune), and hamingja (luck), which are considered as the multiple souls of every person in some interpretations of Norse paganism and Heathenry. "Hymn to the Fallen" a piece from Chuci, featuring hunpo being steadfast and acting as hero-ghosts (). Mingqi, traditional Chinese grave goods "Zhao Hun", a Chuci poem focused on the hun. References Review at Oxford Academic. {{cite book \|translator-last=Ware \|translator-first=James R. \|date=1966 \|title=Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei Pien of Ko Hung \|publisher=MIT Press \|isbn=9780262230223 \|ref=CITEREFWare1966 }} Footnotes Further reading External links page 1461, Kangxi Dictionary entries for hun and po'' What Is Shen (Spirit)?, Appendix: Hun and Po The Indigenous Chinese Concepts of Hun and P'o Souls, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy, Singapore Paranormal Investigators – link obsolete – Internet Archive copy , Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association Chinese culture Chinese philosophy Concepts in Chinese folk religion Afterlife Spiritualism pl:Hun (religia chińska)	5,951
doc-en-10198_0	West Hartford is a town in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States, west of downtown Hartford. The population was 64,083 at the 2020 census. The town's popular downtown area is colloquially known as "West Hartford Center," or simply "The Center," and is centered on Farmington Avenue and South/North Main Street. West Hartford Center has been the community's main hub since the late 17th century. Incorporated as a town in 1854, West Hartford was previously a parish of Hartford, founded in 1672. Among the southernmost of the communities in the Hartford-Springfield Knowledge Corridor metropolitan region, West Hartford is home to University of Hartford and the University of Saint Joseph. West Hartford is home to regular events which draw large crowds from neighboring towns, including the Elizabeth Park Concert Series. The town also hosts the annual Celebrate West Hartford event, which includes fairground rides, food vendors, and stalls by local businesses. History According to archaeological evidence, the Wampanoag people used West Hartford as one of their winter camps. Fishing and hunting along the Connecticut River, the area of West Hartford offered the Wampanoag people a refuge from the cold winter wind and the river's severe spring flooding. In 1636 Reverend Thomas Hooker led a group of followers from what is now Cambridge, Massachusetts to the "Great River" and established Hartford, Connecticut and the Connecticut Colony. As the colony grew, additional land was needed. In 1672 the Proprietors of Hartford ordered that a Division be created to the West. A total of "72 Long Lots" were laid out between today's Quaker Lane in the East and Mountain Road in the West. The northern boundary was Bloomfield, and the Southern, present day New Britain Avenue. (The western boundary was extended in 1830 to include part of Farmington). In the 1670s, the area was referred to as the "West Division" of Hartford. This remained the official name until 1806 when Connecticut General Assembly started referring to it as "the Society of West Hartford." It is believed that the first homesteader to West Hartford was Stephen Hosmer whose father was in Hooker's first group of Hartford settlers and who later owned just north of the present day Center. In 1679, Stephen Hosmer's father sent him to establish a sawmill on the property. Young Hosmer would eventually go back to live in Hartford, but in his 1693 estate inventory, in West Hartford along with a house and a sawmill are listed. For nearly a century the property would be handed down throughout the family. Evidence still remains of the Town's first industry, as Stephen Hosmer's mill pond and dam can still be found today on the westernmost side of North Main Street. By the time of the American Revolution, the once rugged wilderness had been largely clear and a new agricultural-based community had developed with a population of just over 1,000 residents and 3,000 sheep. At its core was the parish meeting house. The First Congregational Meeting House was built around 1712. Now in its 5th building, the church stands proudly at what is now the southeast corner of Main Street and Farmington Avenue. As the focus of early religious, political, and social life, the meeting house helped to provide this area with a name, a title that it still holds today – "The Center." Evidence in the Hartford Courant and in the 1790s census show that some of the more prosperous households relied on laborers and slaves for fieldwork and domestic help. The Sarah Whitman Hooker House was one such residence and still stands on New Britain Avenue. Evidence shows that the Hookers owned several slaves. One such slave, Bristow, bought his freedom from Thomas Hart Hooker in April 1775 as Hooker set off to fight in the Revolutionary War. Bristow continued to live with the family after Thomas Hart Hooker was killed in the war. Bristow became an agricultural expert and left his property to the Hookers' two children when he died. He is the only known African American to be buried in West Hartford's Old Center Burial Yard. West Hartford's Bristow Middle School is named in his honor. Coming of industry One of the first major industries to arise centered on the pottery and brick works. Extending from Hartford to Berlin is a sizable deposit of fine clay. In 1770, Ebenezer Faxon came from Massachusetts and settled in what would become the Elmwood section of West Hartford. There he established a pottery on South Road (what is today New Britain Avenue) which took advantage of the local geological landscape. It was Seth Goodwin, however, who helped to establish a pottery dynasty. Goodwin started his pottery works around 1798. For over a hundred years, the Goodwin name would be associated with West Hartford pottery. Producing utilitarian items such as jugs for the gin manufactured in local distilleries, to terra cotta designs and fine china, the Goodwin Company employed up to 75 people in its heyday. The Goodwin Brothers Pottery Company (as it came to be known) burned for the third time in 1908 and never recovered. In 1879 Edwin Arnold established the Trout Brook Ice & Feed Company. Ice from Trout Brook, a stream that runs through the middle of West Hartford, was harvested in the winter, sawn into blocks, and placed into a series of ice houses through an escalator system. Insulated in sawdust, the blocks of ice were used as refrigeration locally and shipped as far away as New York City. By the late 19th century, the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad ran through part of Elmwood in the southeast corner of town. A variety of companies cropped up in this area including Whitlock Coil Pipe Company in 1891, and later Royal Typewriter, Wiremold, Abbot Ball, Colt's Manufacturing and Uncle Bill's Silver Grippers (producer of tweezers). The largest of West Hartford manufacturers was Pratt & Whitney (now Pratt & Whitney Measurement Systems, which later lent its name to Pratt & Whitney, the aerospace corporation headquartered in East Hartford). In 1940 it built a plant on and at the height of World War II it employed over 7,000 people. It would stand until 1991, when Pratt & Whitney Measurement Systems was acquired and operations were relocated to Plainville. A new town In 1792 a committee of residents was appointed to ask permission from Hartford to secede, and were denied. Five years later they petitioned again and again were denied. In the spring of 1854, the Connecticut General Assembly was meeting in New Haven (co-capitol with Hartford at the time). Most likely taking advantage of the distance from Hartford, a petition dated March 21 was delivered to the General Assembly by delegates from West Hartford. Signed by 153 residents, the petition claimed that residences were "subjected to many inconveniences on account of their present connection with the town and city of Hartford and that their convenience and prosperity would be essentially promoted by being set off as a separate town." On April 26, about 100 residents from West Hartford presented their own case against secession. After review and an opportunity for Hartford to make an argument for keeping West Hartford, the General Assembly voted on May 3 for West Hartford's independence. The 1854 vote was not however the end of the debate. In 1895 wealthy residents from the "East Side" of West Hartford petitioned Hartford for annexation. Their call was rebuffed by other West Hartford residents. Then in 1923 and 1924 Hartford wanted to annex West Hartford back so that it could achieve a "Greater Hartford Plan." Town residents rallied in opposition and the plan was defeated by a vote of 2,100 to 6137. Emergence as a streetcar suburb It is transportation that has had the biggest impact on West Hartford and its evolution from sleepy crossroads to modern suburb. In the late 18th and early 19th century three turnpikes ran through West Hartford. Around these roads, taverns, blacksmith and wheelwright shops, general stores and many other places of businesses sprang up. Early maps provide a sense of how important these byways were in the development of commerce and industry. Then came the trolleys – starting in 1845, Fred Brace began running a horse-drawn omnibus from his home on the corner of Farmington Avenue and Dale Street into downtown Hartford. Even more significant were the horse-drawn trolley lines and later electric trolleys that in 1889 began to weave their way from the inner city of Hartford to the countryside of West Hartford. Trolley lines opened up a land that had been inaccessible to many, and made it possible for professionals and their families to settle along Prospect Avenue, then north of Farmington Avenue. By the 1880s, Hartford began to experience an economic boom. As such Hartford's business leaders began building their mansions along Prospect Avenue. Prospect Hill, situated on a ridge boasting impressive views of the burgeoning city, became the area's most prestigious address. Homes are characteristic of the architectural styles popular in that period are represented, particularly Late 19th and 20th Century Revivals. Many homes in the area on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Connecticut Governor's Residence, built in 1908. Prospect Avenue is adjacent to Elizabeth Park, designed by acclaimed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted in 1896 and named for the wife of Charles M. Pond, who bequeathed the land to the City of Hartford. In 1900, the Hartford Golf Club opened its links on the other side of Asylum Avenue just west of Prospect Avenue, adding to the area's ideal suburban sensibility. In 1895, Wood, Harmon and Company created one of the town's first subdivisions on property known as Stanley Farm, a tract sloping upward from the trolley line that then ran along Farmington Avenue, across from Reservoir No. 1. Called Buena Vista, it was promoted it "Hartford's New and Handsome Suburb." Their literature highlighted "splendid suburban electric car service" and proximity to Reservoir No. 1. Other developments followed including "Elmhurst" in Elmwood (1901), and Sunset Farm (1917). One of the most exclusive of these early developments was West Hill. Located on the former estate of Cornelius Vanderbilt, son of the famous financier and transportation magnet, it was the brainchild of Horace R. Grant. Designed by some of Hartford's best architects in the 1920s, West Hill is significant historically because it is an excellent example of a planned real estate development of the early 1920s that proceeded under specific design restrictions to achieve outstanding success as a well-crafted and prestigious neighborhood. The architecture is characteristic of the Colonial Revival and Tudor Revival styles popular in the period. It was declared a National Historic District in 1996. The automobile By the 1920s and 30s the impact of the automobile was felt in West Hartford as the town became more accessible to Hartford's middle and working class citizens. Between 1910 and 1930 the population of West Hartford grew from 4,808 to 24,941 residents. Then with the end of the Great Depression, World War II, and the exodus from urban centers, West Hartford witnessed a tremendous influx of people as its population swelled from 33,776 in 1940 to 62,382 people by 1960. This era ushered in major housing developments and retail spaces throughout the community. In the 50s, the primary avenues — Albany, Asylum and Farmington — became important arteries for commuters, and the access made West Hartford attractive to middle-class families. During the decade, the town built one new elementary school each year to accommodate the growing population. In the 1960s, construction began on Interstate 84, completed in 1969. The interstate had many ramifications on the community, the most visible was that it bisected the town, isolating the more industrial and ethnically diverse neighborhood of Elmwood with a physical barrier from the rest of West Hartford. Furthermore, The interstate allowed for increased accessibility as the population increased with the Baby Boom and development, and recalibrated the traditional retail sites. Subsequent residential development continued on through the late '70s, particularly in the town's northern, western and far southwestern fringes, as evidenced by the many large colonial, ranch, and split level-style homes in these areas. In 1971, the Bishops Corner development was inaugurated. Housing tenants such as Lord & Taylor, F.W. Woolworth, and Doubleday Book Shop drew shoppers from across the region; the Center with its largely independently owned stores, were negatively impacted by the new retail traffic patterns. Towards the town's southwest fringe lies Westfarms Mall. Opened in 1974 with original anchors JC Penney, G. Fox & Co., and Sage-Allen, the mall further recalibrated retail in West Hartford. It became well known for its lavish ceilings and waterfall-style fountain. Sitting astride I-84, conveniently connected to the town's main internal arteries, and comprising more than of stores and restaurants, it is the third largest indoor mall in Connecticut. Blue Back Square Opening in 2007, Blue Back Square is a pioneer mixed-use development in the Center that blends retail and residential living space on a large scale. The five-building complex contains of ground floor retail space and 120 luxury space. Medical office space encompasses , and other professional offices total another square feet. A six-screen movie theatre as well as two 500-space parking garages were also built. Named after Noah Webster's popular spelling book, Blue-Back Speller, the development has significantly altered the Center and furthered West Hartford's status as a regional dining and shopping destination. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 1.91%, is water. The west side of West Hartford is flanked by the Metacomet Ridge, a mountainous trap rock ridgeline that stretches from Long Island Sound to nearly the Vermont border. Notable features of the Metacomet Ridge in West Hartford include Talcott Mountain and a number of highland water reservoirs belonging to the Metropolitan District, which maintains watershed and recreation resources on the property. The Metacomet Trail traverses the ridge. The town's web site indicates that the highest point in town is above sea level on Talcott (Avon) Mountain. The altitude at Town Hall is . West Hartford is adjacent to and west of Hartford, the state capital, and borders Bloomfield, Newington, New Britain, Farmington, and Avon. West Hartford is approximately southwest of Boston and northeast of New York City. Interstate 84 runs through West Hartford. Demographics As of the 2010 Census, there were 63,268 people, 25,258 households, and 16,139 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,888.9 people per square mile (1,117.0/km). There were 25,332 housing units at an average density of 1,152.3/square mile (445.0/km). The racial makeup of the town was 79.6% White, 6.3% African American, 0.2% Native American, 7.4% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 3.8% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.8% of the population. Of West Hartford residents, 49.85% reported a religious affiliation. Out of all residents, 31.74% were Catholic, 3.29% Presbyterian, 2.19% Baptist, 2.19% Methodist, 1.59% Jewish, 1.39% Lutheran, 1.31% Episcopalian, 1.19% Pentecostal, 0.4% Mormon, 3.38% of another Christian denomination, and 0.34% were Muslim. There were 25,258 households, out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.1% were non-families. 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.06. In the town, the population was spread out, with 23.3% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 28.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.2 males. In 2018, the median household income was $99,280 and the per capita income for the town was $54,601. About 3.7% of families and 6.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.6% ages 65 or older. Economy Top employers Top employers in West Hartford according to the town's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report Government West Hartford has had council–manager government since 1919. It was the first town in the state and one of the first in the country to adopt this form of government, where the council acts as the elected policy board and the town manager serves as the chief executive officer responsible for carrying policies out. In 1921, voters switched to elections by the single transferable vote, using it for two elections, before the General Assembly overturned it in 1923. Town Council members are elected at large for two years and represent all of West Hartford, and the town clerk is elected for four years. Elected by the Town Council in 2017, Matthew W. Hart is the Town Manager. Connecticut municipalities, as with neighboring Massachusetts and Rhode Island), provide nearly all local services (such as fire and rescue, education, snow removal, etc.), as county government has been abolished since 1960. Infrastructure Transportation Railroad West Hartford is a planned stop along the Hartford Line, a commuter rail service from to that uses the current Amtrak-owned New Haven–Springfield Line, with a possible shuttle bus connection in to Bradley International Airport. Service launched on June 16, 2018. The State of Connecticut has secured funding for the construction of a new train station at Flatbush Avenue at the corner of New Park Avenue. In 2019 Governor Lamont's CT2030 transportation investment plan, which included tolling cars and trucks in 14 locations, was soundly rejected by Republicans and Democrats, leaving less funding for rail projects. Currently there is not enough funding to build a rail station in West Hartford. Bus West Hartford is served by several bus routes of Connecticut Transit. Major roads served are Albany Avenue (Route 58), New Britain Avenue (Routes 37, 39, and 128), Park Street (Routes 31 and 33), South/North Main Street (Route 153) Farmington Avenue (Routes 60, 62, 64, and 66), Asylum Avenue (Route 72), Hillside Avenue (Route 63), and Boulevard/South Quaker Lane (Route 69). Bus rapid transit CTfastrak, Connecticut's first bus rapid transit corridor, opened in 2015, providing a separated right-of-way between Hartford and New Britain. West Hartford is served by two stations: : Corner of New Park Avenue and New Britain Avenue : Corner of Flatbush Avenue and New Park Avenue Emergency services Fire department The West Hartford fire department operates out of five fire stations, that provide fire protection and emergency medical services at the Advanced life support level. Utilities Electricity: Eversource Energy Water: Metropolitan District Commission Natural gas: Connecticut Natural Gas Telephone, ADSL/Fiber internet, IPTV television: Frontier Communications Cable television/Cable internet: Comcast Education Public schools The town is home to two public high schools, Conard (home of the Conard Chieftains) and Hall (home of the Hall Warriors), as well as 11 elementary schools and three middle schools in the West Hartford Public Schools system. The elementary schools are Aiken, Braeburn, Bugbee, Charter Oak, Duffy, Morley, Norfeldt, Smith, Webster Hill, Whiting Lane and Wolcott. The middle schools are King Philip, Sedgwick, and the newest, Bristow Middle School, on the former site of Kingswood-Oxford Middle School. The elementary schools are evenly distributed to either King Philip or Sedgwick, and those who enroll at Bristow are chosen by lottery. After middle school, students continue on to high school with their same student body. Sedgwick's graduates go to Conard High School, and King Philip's go to Hall. Bristow students return to the school district they were in during elementary school. The two high schools hold many events and recognize the tension between the two high schools. Rivalry As of 2020, both of West Hartford's public high schools, Hall and Conard were ranked in the top 15 in the state and top 5% nationally according to U.S. News. The schools have been neck and neck in competing in educational aspects, but especially in sports. Hall versus Conard sports rivalry has gone on since the beginning of 1957, when their first football game against each other was held. The competition and school spirit is just as alive today, if not, more extreme than it was over 60 years ago. On February 23rd, 2015, the rivalry went too far when a fight occurred between both teams at the varsity basketball game held at Hall High School. The score of the game was 43-42 and teammates began fighting after a minor issue happened with the buzzer beater. As the entire Hall team stormed the court to celebrate, students began throwing punches at each other and eventually the entire team and coaches were stuck in the middle of a brawl. The fight was recorded entirely for the town to see online and identify which students were at fault, which led to 10 students being arrested. The Hall-Conard fan section was packed per usual and bleachers were filled to capacity as seen in multiple video recordings. Private schools Saint Thomas the Apostle School Saint Timothy Middle School Northwest Catholic High School St. Brigid-St. Augustine Partnership School American School for the Deaf Kingswood Oxford School Renbrook School Hebrew High School of New England Solomon Schechter Day School of Greater Hartford German School of Connecticut Colleges and universities Institutions of higher learning in the town include: University of Hartford University of Saint Joseph The University of Connecticut Greater Hartford Campus was formerly located in West Hartford adjacent to the University of Saint Joseph campus, however it was moved to downtown Hartford in 2017. Military The 76th Infantry Division was a unit of the United States Army in World War I, World War II and the Cold War. The 76th Division was reconstituted in October 1946 and reactivated in November of that year as a part of the Organized Reserve, and was headquartered in West Hartford, Connecticut. Units of the division were spread throughout the six New England states. The 405th Army Hospital Unit took over the South Quaker lane facility in 1996. Media Print The Jewish Ledger, weekly newspaper West Hartford Life, monthly newspaper West Hartford News, weekly newspaper West Hartford Press, weekly newspaper Radio WNWW WWUH WNPR TV West Hartford Community Television (WHCTV) WVIT Notable people In alphabetical order: Chip Arndt, gay rights activist, philanthropist, and co-winner of The Amazing Race 4 Stephen Barnett (1935–2009), legal scholar who opposed the Newspaper Preservation Act of 1970 E. Alexander Bergstrom (1919–73), conservationist Manute Bol (1962–2010), NBA player Ben Bova, science fact and fiction author Tim Brennan, guitar player and songwriter for Dropkick Murphys Chris Carrabba, singer–songwriter from Dashboard Confessional John Droney, politician and lawyer Dominick Dunne (1925–2009) and John Gregory Dunne, (1932–2003), writers, were born in Hartford and grew up in West Hartford John L. Flannery - chairman & CEO, General Electric (GE) John Franklin Enders, Nobel Laureate 1954 for Medicine Martin Hayes, Six Time All Ireland Fiddle Champion Lemuel Haynes, clergyman, first African American to be ordained Grayson Hugh (singer-songwriter), songs featured in Oscar-winning films Thelma and Louise and Fried Green Tomatoes Katharine Houghton Hepburn (1878–1951), social activist Liz Janangelo, professional golfer on the LPGA Tour Jared Jordan, drafted 45th by Los Angeles Clippers in the 2007 NBA Draft Charlie Kaufman, Academy Award winner and screenwriter of Being John Malkovich and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind Joan R. Kemler, state representative and the first woman to serve as Connecticut State Treasurer (1986–87) Edward Lorenz, mathematician and meteorologist, early pioneer of chaos theory, inventor of the strange attractor notion, made the term "butterfly effect" popular Frank Luntz, Republican pollster Kenny Mayne, ESPN personality Joseph Mascolo, actor and soap opera veteran Brett H. McGurk, Special Adviser to the United States Ambassador to Iraq Edward Morley, namesake of Morley Elementary School, scientist best known for the Michelson–Morley experiment John O'Hurley, actor on Seinfeld television series and former Family Feud host. Peter Paige, actor Miles S. Rapoport, state representative and Secretary of the State of Connecticut (1995–99) John P. Reese, money manager and financial columnist Ryen Russillo, ESPN personality William Thompson Sedgwick, professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a key figure in shaping U.S. public health Michael Schur, creator of Parks and Recreation and The Good Place Scott Van Pelt, ESPN personality Kyle Wallack, head hockey coach at Albertus Magnus College Noah Webster, lexicographer, textbook author, Bible translator, spelling reformer, writer, and editor John Woodruff, congressman Gregory S. Woodward, president of the University of Hartford Korczak Ziolkowski (1908–82), sculptor of Crazy Horse Memorial in South Dakota Alex Mighten, professional soccer player for Nottingham Forest in Nottingham, UK Points of interest Bishops Corner Blue Back Square Elizabeth Park Elmwood Fern Park Noah Webster House Park Road West Hartford Center West Hartford Reservoir Westfarms Mall Westmoor Park See also National Register of Historic Places listings in West Hartford, Connecticut References External links Town of West Hartford official website West Hartford History West Hartford Center West Hartford, Connecticut Populated places established in 1854 Towns in Connecticut Towns in Hartford County, Connecticut Regions of Connecticut Greater Hartford 1854 establishments in Connecticut	5,859
doc-en-10227_0	The Indigo Tribe is a fictional organization that appears in DC Comics publications, primarily those of the Green Lantern series. In the DC Universe, it is one of the seven major groups known as the Corps of the emotional spectrum. The group was created by comic book writer Geoff Johns and comic book artist Ethan Van Sciver. It made its debut in the issue #25 of Green Lantern (vol. 4) in December 2007. Background The Indigo Tribe is one of the seven Corps of the emotional spectrum within the DC Universe setting. Each "Emotional Spectrum" Corps has both a corresponding color of the rainbow and an emotional theme attached to it, with several of the Corps (e.g. the Green Lantern Corps and Red Lantern Corps) being named after their respective color; the Indigo Tribe, which is one of the Corps named after their associated color, uses indigo-light-powered rings and staffs. Its emotional theme is compassion. The group first appeared in issue #25 of Green Lantern (vol. 4), published in December 2007, where it is described as having a reclusive nature that makes it the most elusive group among its peers; the Tribe's stated purpose is to spread goodwill throughout the universe. In a March 2009 interview with Newsarama, creator Geoff Johns said that the Indigo Tribe would be introduced within the upcoming Blackest Night series. "I've been very careful with Indigo because they're not what everyone expects, and they act very differently than what everyone expects." In April 2009, artist Ed Benes posted the artwork for the companion mini-series Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps, which features a member from each of the Seven Corps; the solicitation copy announced "the first appearance of the mysterious Indigo, leader of the Indigo Tribe!" Johns later revealed the leader's name to be Indigo-1. The June 2009 Blackest Night #0 promotional material describes the group as being unknown to the DC Universe at large. The Indigo Tribe made its first extended appearance in the July 2009 issue Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1. Ethan Van Sciver, who created the initial design for the Indigo Tribe, said that members of the group abandon everything and devote themselves to compassion. Their uniforms have a basic, hand-made appearance, their bodies are adorned with the Indigo Lantern symbol written in body paint, and they carry carved, lantern-like staffs with them. Van Sciver also designed the staff, which he wanted to look "lovingly handmade by people who had better things to do than make themselves look good," and said that his initial thoughts were that the Tribe would be opposites to the Orange Lanterns. Group history The Indigo Tribe is a major participant in the Blackest Night crossover storylines, covered by Blackest Night #0-#8 (May 2009-March 2010), and Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1-#3 (July 2009). The group is involved in one of the arcs in the follow-up Brightest Day storyline, specifically in Green Lantern (vol.4) #53-62, where it and other representatives of the Lantern Corps attempt to find the Entities of the emotional spectrum. Indigo-1 participates in the War of the Green Lanterns storyline that is covered in Green Lantern (vol. 4) #63-67, Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #58-60, and Green Lantern: Emerald Warriors #8-10 The Indigo Tribe is active in The New 52 storylines from Green Lantern (vol. 5). Blackest Night A group of Indigo Tribesmen, led by Indigo-1, traverses a desert landscape in Sector 3544, where it observes explosive displays of green and yellow light in the distance. The group investigates the site and finds a wounded porcine Green Lantern Corps member lying on the ground. He reports that he was in a conflict with a "being who knows no mercy," and despite his coughing up blood, difficulty speaking, and open head injuries, he tells the group to stay away so as to not attract the being's attention. Indigo-1 says something, but when the Green Lantern member asks his ring to translate, it replies that it cannot, despite having a catalog of known languages in the DC Universe. Indigo-1 kneels and places her hand on his heart; her indigo power ring responds with the word "will". Drawing power from him, she creates a simple green light construct that smothers him. Although he struggles, she persists, and smothers him until he is dead. The attacker, a member of Sinestro Corps, emerges and exclaims that he will not be taken down as easily as he fires a beam of yellow energy at Indigo-1; however, Indigo-1 is not fazed by his threat; her power staff absorbs the beam. As her power ring says "fear", she creates a monstrous yellow light construct that frightens her attacker away. Indigo-1 and Munk arrive on Earth to help Hal Jordan, the Flash, and the Atom escape from a group of Black Lanterns, which are former superheroes that have been reanimated. Indigo-1 channels Jordan's green light through her staff, and turns Black Lanterns Elongated Man and Sue Dibny to ash by destroying their rings. Indigo-1 and Munk teleport the group to the Hall of Justice where it is revealed that they can speak English "when they wish to." Indigo-1 explains that, in the beginning, the DC Universe is only darkness until light becomes strong enough to suppress it. As the darkness fights back, it shatters the light into the seven colors of the emotional spectrum. She explains that the Black Lanterns can only truly be defeated if the Corps work together. If all seven Corps cooperate, they can recreate the white light of creation and permanently destroy the Black Lanterns and their power source. As a group of Black Lanterns infiltrates the Hall of Justice, Indigo-1 and Munk escape with Jordan. They go to the planet Zamaron, where they save Carol Ferris and Sinestro from a Black Lantern onslaught. Indigo-1 brings Jordan, Ferris, and Sinestro to Korugar, where Sinestro defeats Mongul and becomes the leader of Sinestro Corps. Meanwhile, Munk transports himself to Oa, and assists the Green Lanterns against their fallen comrades, who have been reanimated as Black Lanterns. Indigo-1, along with Hal Jordan, Sinestro, Carol Ferris and Saint Walker, go to Okaara to recruit Atrocitus and Larfleeze. After the pair agrees, the group travels to Ryut but discovers that the Black Central Power Battery has been moved to Earth. The group goes to Earth; Indigo-1 and the allied members combine powers to make the white light of creation to try to destroy the battery; however, the light is insufficient. Meanwhile, Nekron, the leader of the Black Lanterns, expands his army by resurrecting more former superheroes and converting them into Black Lanterns. Indigo-1 and her allies encounter "the Entity" which is explained as the embodiment of life itself in the DC Universe. Hal Jordan bonds with the Entity; they convert the Black Lanterns into White Lanterns, and bring back Black Hand. Without Black Hand as a tether, Nekron is eventually defeated and destroyed. Afterwards, Saint Walker says that the Indigo Tribe has disappeared. The Indigo Tribe is shown in a vast procession led by Indigo-1 and Munk. The tribe members tow a shackled Black Hand, who bears an imprint of the Indigo Tribe symbol and carries a power staff. Brightest Day During the search for the emotional entities, Indigo-1 returns to Earth to infuse Proselyte, the Indigo Tribe's emotional entity, into Shane Thompson, a paramedic who prioritized the care of a mortally wounded patient over a less-wounded man that had insurance. Indigo-1 and Black Hand revisit Hal Jordan, Barry Allen, Sinestro, Saint Walker and Larfleeze. Black Hand explains that the ring has "cured" him of William Hand's sickness. The others realize that the Indigo Tribe cannot feel any emotion without the rings. Given Hand's role in Blackest Night, Jordan suspects that other Indigo Tribe members may have committed evil deeds in the past. The Indigo Tribe offers to take the remaining emotional entities into protective custody, but Jordan declines. Parallax takes over Flash, and wants to take over Jordan. Adara, the entity of hope, fights a cloaked villain who reveals himself to be Krona, who has been planning on capturing all of the Entities with the gathering. Proselyte frees Flash from Parallax's control by reigniting his emotion for compassion over his fear. War of the Green Lanterns In the War of the Green Lanterns storyline, Krona has trapped Indigo-1 and the allied Corps members in the Book of the Black, where they are forced to re-live their lives prior to acquiring their current rings. Meanwhile, John Stewart, whose Green Lantern ring has been contaminated by Krona and Parallax, bears Indigo-1's ring, but has trouble trying to wield its power. When Sinestro tries to break free of the book, he finds in a prison cell Indigo-1, who went by the name Iroque prior to joining the Indigo Tribe. Iroque angrily proclaims that she will escape whatever Abin Sur has planned for her. When Kyle Rayner frees her from the book, Iroque does not remember her Indigo-1 identity until she puts on her indigo ring. The New 52 In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, the Indigo Tribe learns that Sinestro is returning to Earth to assume his old role of Green Lantern. Sinestro asks Hal Jordan to work with him as the Guardians are planning to replace the Green Lantern Corps with the Third Army; however, the Indigo Tribe goes to Earth and captures Sinestro. Jordan follows them to Nok, the Indigo homeworld, but he is captured and delivered to Indigo Tribe member Black Hand. Jordan tricks Black Hand into recharging his ring, and escapes; however, he discovers that Sinestro has been forcibly inducted into the Indigo Tribe. As he flees into the jungles of Nok, Jordan finds the Indigo Central Battery and meets its guardian, Natromo, who tells him of the Indigo Tribe's history. The group is originally created to fight the Guardians in case they ever become mad with power. Abin Sur discovers the Indigo light on the planet Nok during a mission; he and Natromo forge it into a battery. Sur brings Iroque, his mortal enemy who killed his daughter, and converts her to become the first Indigo Tribe member. The others are selected from the most dangerous criminals and psychopaths of their worlds. Sur foresees the danger that the Guardians would pose once the Blackest Night passes, and seeks a way to stop the Guardians by converting them instead of fighting them. However, when Jordan reveals that Sur is dead, Natromo destroys the battery, believing that there is no hope with Abin Sur dead. This restores Sinestro to normal, just as Jordan is discovered, but leaves them at the hands of the once-again-psychotic former Tribesmen. Jordan and Sinestro are pursued by the former Tribesmen through the forests of Nok. They run into Natromo, who is on his way back to his people. Jordan asks Natromo to reforge the Indigo Central Battery, but Natromo says that it is an impossible task since the compassion within the battery has already dissipated throughout the universe, and it will take weeks to forge more out of the rivers of Nok. They are then approached by Iroque, who begs Natromo to find a way to restore their rings. The sadness and compassion she feels for what she did to Abin Sur and his daughter is the spark that enables Natromo to reforge the battery. As a result, the former Tribesmen and Sinestro become members of the Tribe again, although Black Hand refuses to submit to the process by leaping to his death. Jordan implores the Indigo Tribe to release Sinestro; Indigo-1 agrees, but only on the condition that Jordan swear that Sinestro can be redeemed without having to use an indigo ring. Meanwhile, Munk has joined the New Guardians as the representative for the Indigo Tribe. He works alongside Fatality as they investigate the Orrery that has turned Kyle Rayner into a ring magnet. In the New Guardians' fight against Larfleeze, Munk duplicates Larfleeze's ring, which proves to be the New Guardians' only effective weapon against Larfleeze. Members Prominent members In Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1, the Indigo Tribe is presented as a Corps that travels in a large nomadic procession. Indigo-1 explains that the group eschews everything associated with individualism, including names. However, while interacting with others, some members allow themselves to be addressed by name: (Iroque) (Sector unknown): A violet-skinned female humanoid who serves as the chosen leader of the Indigo Tribe. Unlike the other members of the tribe, Indigo-1 wears indigo-colored garments. During Blackest Night, she helps Hal Jordan assemble members from each of the Lantern Corps to combat the Black Lanterns. She claims to have once met Abin Sur at a time when she was "self-centered and self-important". Sinestro later encounters a pre-Tribe version of her in the Book of the Black where she waits in a prison cell for Abin Sur to pass judgment on her. Her original identity is revealed to be Iroque, Sur's greatest enemy, who is responsible for the death of his daughter. She becomes the first person to convert to the Indigo Tribe. When she is freed from her ring, she initially reverts to her old, violent personality; however, because of the previous influence of the Indigo power of compassion, she comes to regret her actions, and begs to have her ring and status returned. (Sector unknown): A humanoid who acts as the Indigo Tribe's second-in-command. He accompanies Indigo-1 to Earth, and then to Zamaron, before teleporting himself to Oa in order to assist the Green Lantern Corps. Munk represented the Indigo Tribe in the Green Lantern: New Guardians series before the team was disbanded. Natromo: An inhabitant of planet Nok, Natromo is the Keeper of the Indigo Light; however, he does not wield an Indigo Power Ring or Staff, so the light of compassion has no influence over him. He and Sur created the first Indigo Tribe ring. While Sur leaves the planet, Natromo remains and forges more rings to convert the worst beings from the other worlds into Indigo Tribe members. Kreaven (Sector unknown): A bird-like alien, who was the worst psychopath on his world. Slog the Slayer (Sector unknown): Slog is also a former psychopath who was converted to a member of the Indigo Tribe. Former members John Stewart (of Sector 2814): During the Brightest Day and War of the Green Lanterns storyline, after Krona launches his attack on Oa and restores Parallax to the Green Central Battery, Stewart is forced to remove his green power ring to avoid being contaminated by the yellow impurity. Later Hal Jordan gives Stewart Indigo-1's ring so he can fight Krona, and while at first he cannot control the Indigo power properly, he later masters the ability to the point that he can tap into the remnants of the Black Lantern Corps around Mogo's core. Atom (Ray Palmer) (of Sector 2814): A professor at Pace University, who is the second variation of the superhero known as the Atom and selected by an Indigo Power Ring as a deputy member of the Indigo Tribe during the Blackest Night crisis. He is later discharged from the Tribe after the final battle. He is the only known Indigo Tribe member selected by a ring because of his abundance of compassion instead of his lack of it. (of Sector 2814): A paramedic who was pinned under an ambulance in an accident, yet still attempted to help the wounded. Instead of becoming a regular member of the Indigo Tribe, Thompson becomes the host for Proselyte, the Indigo Tribe's entity of compassion. He is later discharged after Krona captures Proselyte. Thaal Sinestro (of Sector 1417): In The New 52 storyline, he is captured by and forcibly recruited into the Indigo Tribe. He is freed when guardian Natromo destroys the Indigo Central Battery. When Natromo later restores the battery, Sinestro becomes a member again, but Hal Jordan implores the Indigo Tribe to release Sinestro, so he can be redeemed without the aid of an indigo ring. Black Hand (William Hand) (of Sector 2814): In the final issue of Blackest Night, Black Hand is seen with the Indigo Tribe as a prisoner and recently converted member. In Green Lantern (vol.4) #56, he is with the Tribe on Earth. In The New 52 storyline, he is tricked by Hal Jordan into recharging Jordan's ring. He is freed when guardian Natromo destroys the Indigo Central Battery. When the battery is later restored, he kills himself rather than return to the Indigo Tribe. A Black Power Ring later emerges from his corpse and revives him as a Black Lantern. Krona (of sector 0): Krona temporarily becomes a member of the Indigo Tribe during the War of the Green Lanterns story line when he puts on Indigo-1's power ring. After he's killed, the power ring returns to Indigo-1. Oath As with the other Corps of the emotional spectrum, the Indigo Tribe charges its rings by reciting an oath, but uses a power staff instead of a power battery. In its first extended appearance, the Indigo Tribe speaks a language that the power ring cannot translate, although Indigo-1 later explains that her Tribe can speak languages others can understand. Regardless, the oath has only been rendered in the aforementioned fictional language. Johns has said that the Corps oaths have a tempo regardless of what language they are spoken in, adding: "But speaking of languages, the Indigo Tribe speaks an interesting one." Entity: Proselyte is the embodiment of compassion; it is the emotional spectrum entity for the Indigo Tribe. The entity is revealed during the Blackest Night storyline. In Green Lantern (vol. 4) #52, Proselyte's origins is explained as: "Rage grows from murder. Hope from Prayer. And at last, compassion is offered to us all." It takes the form of a cephalopod with four visible appendages, which represent its reaching out to offer itself to all living beings. Its inner surface is lined with features that resemble the Indigo Tribe's insignia. In the Brightest Day storyline, Proselyte is attracted by the Entity to Earth, where it is heavily sought after by the Indigo Tribe, the allied Corps members and Krona. Atrocitus uses a divining ritual and locates Proselyte in the mid-Atlantic United States. The Indigo Tribe finds Proselyte and uses its powers to convert Black Hand to the Tribe. Proselyte possesses the body of Shane Thompson, a paramedic who cares full-heartedly for his dying patients. In human form, it is able to "exorcise" Parallax from Barry Allen's body by using the energy of the various spectra. Proselyte and the emotional entity Adara are captured by Krona. After he invades Oa, Krona forces Proselyte to possess one of the Guardians of the Universe. Proselyte is eventually freed when Hal Jordan kills Krona. Afterwards, it remains at large in the Universe. While the Indigo Tribe members are capable of channeling only one emotion at a time, Proselyte is capable of channeling all emotions in the area at once. Proselyte soon began suffering from a strange illness, later revealed to be the reservoir of the emotional spectrum was becoming exhausted. After Relic wiped out the Blue Lantern Corps and forcefully drained the green light from Oa's Central Power Battery and destroying the planet in the process, Proselyte sacrifices himself by passing into the Source Wall in order for the reservoir to be refilled. Powers and abilities The Indigo Tribe harnesses the indigo light of compassion. Robin S. Rosenberg, a clinical psychologist and editor of the anthology The Psychology of Superheroes, describes compassion as being able to have empathy for someone while maintaining enough distance to understand their motivations. The indigo ring has basic power ring abilities such as flight and aura projection, as shown on the cover of Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #3. Members can use indigo light to teleport themselves and others over vast intergalactic distances; this drains much of the ring's power, so the wearer uses it sparingly. The indigo light can also heal individuals with great empathy but exposes people to the pain they have inflicted on others. The Indigo Tribe distinguishes itself from the other Corps in that a member uses a power staff instead of power battery to charge the indigo ring, as depicted in Blackest Night #5. Unlike the power battery lanterns, the staff appears to be a part of the Indigo Tribe's uniform, appearing whenever a user puts on the ring and transforms into costume. The Indigo ring not only stores indigo light energy, but also is capable of channeling the energy of other emotional lights; the ring can therefore emulate the abilities from other Corps. In Blackest Night, Indigo-1 and Munk use a combination of different emotional lights to destroy members of the Black Lantern Corps. Black Hand is able to charge Hal Jordan's ring with green light although it is not as powerful as a standard charging. In Green Lantern Corps (vol. 2) #42, Munk explains that this ability is only effective from "direct and intimate discharges." Whereas a Corps member projects a light display in front of the emblem on the uniform when using abilities, the Indigo Tribe member projects the Corps symbol in an indigo light display from the "pod" on the staff. When the Tribe member manipulates another light, the symbol of the Corps corresponding to that light is projected in front of the Indigo Tribe emblem painted on his or her forehead. In the bonding process, the indigo ring forces its wearer to feel nothing but compassion. By blocking out all other emotions, the wearer can channel other emotions without being affected by them. The ring is classified as a parasite type like the orange ring, but differs in that it bonds most effectively with a user that lacks compassion. A wearer who has compassion before the bonding is unable to block out the other emotions, and either becomes heavily influenced by the channeled emotion or is unable to channel the emotion. When the ring is removed, the wearer loses the memories of the time with the ring and reverts to his or her old behavior, although this can be undone by re-donning the ring. If the ring is removed for a longer term, the wearer may gradually regain some memories without the emotional modifications. The ring appears to only "brainwash" those who are reluctant to accept it; in the cases where the person voluntarily dons the ring, such as Ray Palmer in Blackest Night and John Stewart in War of the Green Lanterns, the wearer can use the powers without being mentally altered. Other versions The Lightsmiths In the universe prior to the current one, groups managed to tap into the wellspring of power created by the Emotional Spectrum. In this universe those who tapped into the indigo light were known as the Lightsmiths of the Indigo Light of Empathy. Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War In a possible future, when Nekron launches a new assault on the universe, rapidly recruiting the dead as his agents against the living as his forces claim even more lives, Ganthet triggers a 'last light' protocol that uses the last of his energy to send himself, the rings of six of the seven Corps (Minus a Green Lantern ring) and the last surviving members of the seven Corps to another universe to try and escape Nekron's assault, the various ring-wielders and the rings arriving in the new Star Trek universe. Although the Blue, Violet and Indigo rings find wielders in Pavel Chekov, Nyota Uhura and Leonard McCoy, the Yellow, Red, and Orange rings choose Klingon general Chang, a Gorn leader and a Romulan councillor as their wielders. While other members of the other Corps survive, McCoy's ring is apparently the only Indigo ring to make it into the new universe, as no other members of the Indigo Tribe are witnessed in the storyline. In the final confrontation with Nekron, McCoy transfers his ring to Spock on Captain Kirk's request, Kirk realising that Spock alone has sufficient emotional and psychological strength to channel all seven Corps and restore the White entity to vanquish Nekron. In other media Video games The Indigo Tribe appears in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, with Indigo-1 being a playable character and voiced by Kari Wahlgren. Indigo-1 was originally captured by Brainiac in order to use the powers of Indigo-1 and the other Lanterns to power a shrink ray so that he can shrink Earth. When the device overloaded, Indigo-1 was teleported back to Nok. Martian Manhunter, Cyborg, and The Flash later arrive on Nok where they discover that the Indigo Tribe's power battery was damaged and the entire Indigo Tribe was acting violent. When the Indigo Tribe's battery is rebuilt, Indigo-1 and her Tribe return to their heroic and compassionate personality and she agrees to help the Justice League restore Earth to its normal size. Proselyte, the Indigo Tribe's entity of compassion, made an appearance in Injustice 2. The entity appeared during Atrocitus' single player ending. In the online game DC Universe Online, Iroque and the Indigo Tribe's home world can be seen in a few screen shots when the game is loading. The home world is also one of the many background images for the main screen. Merchandise Indigo-1 was featured in the DC Comics Super Hero Collection in 2010. Indigo-1 received a six-inch figure in the "Blackest Night" toyline. A six-inch Munk figure was included in the "Blackest Night" toyline four-pack. A light-up Indigo Ring was released by DC Direct along with rings for all the other Corps. References DC Comics aliens DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes DC Comics superhero teams Green Lantern characters Characters created by Geoff Johns Characters created by Ethan Van Sciver Comics characters introduced in 2007	5,883
doc-en-10233_0	Dame Vanessa Redgrave (born 30 January 1937) is an English actress and activist. Throughout her career spanning over six decades, Redgrave has garnered numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Television Award, two Golden Globe Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and a Tony Award, making her one of the few performers to achieve the Triple Crown of Acting. She has also received various honorary awards, including the BAFTA Fellowship Award, the Golden Lion Honorary Award, and an induction into the American Theatre Hall of Fame. Redgrave made her acting debut on stage with the production of in 1958. She rose to prominence in 1961 playing Rosalind in the Shakespearean comedy As You Like It with the Royal Shakespeare Company and has since starred in more than 35 productions in London's West End and on Broadway, winning the 1984 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Revival for The Aspern Papers, and the 2003 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for the revival of Long Day's Journey into Night. She also received Tony nominations for The Year of Magical Thinking and Driving Miss Daisy. Redgrave made her film debut starring opposite her father in the medical drama Behind the Mask (1958), and rose to prominence with the satire Morgan: A Suitable Case for Treatment (1966), which garnered her first of her six Academy Award nominations, winning Best Supporting Actress for Julia (1977). Her other nominations were for Isadora (1968), Mary, Queen of Scots (1971), The Bostonians (1984), and Howards End (1992). Among her other films are A Man for All Seasons (1966), Blowup (1966), Camelot (1967), The Devils (1971), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), Prick Up Your Ears (1987), Mission: Impossible (1996), Atonement (2007), Letters to Juliet (2010), Coriolanus (2011), and The Butler (2013). A member of the Redgrave family of actors, she is the daughter of Sir Michael Redgrave and Lady Redgrave (Rachel Kempson), the sister of Lynn Redgrave and Corin Redgrave, the wife of Italian actor Franco Nero, the mother of actresses Joely Richardson and Natasha Richardson and of screenwriter and director Carlo Gabriel Nero, the aunt of British actress Jemma Redgrave, the mother-in-law of actor Liam Neeson and film producer Tim Bevan, and the grandmother of Daisy Bevan and Micheál and Daniel Neeson. Early life Redgrave was born on 30 January 1937 in Blackheath, London, the daughter of actors Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson. Laurence Olivier announced her birth to the audience at a performance of Hamlet at the Old Vic, when he said that Laertes (played by Sir Michael) had a daughter. Accounts say Olivier announced, "A great actress has been born this night." In her autobiography, Redgrave recalls the East End and Coventry Blitzes among her earliest memories. Following the East End Blitz, Redgrave relocated with her family to Herefordshire before returning to London in 1943. She was educated at two independent schools for girls: the Alice Ottley School in Worcester, and Queen's Gate School in London, before "coming out" as a debutante. Her siblings Lynn Redgrave and Corin Redgrave were also actors. Career Early stage and film career Vanessa Redgrave entered the Central School of Speech and Drama in 1954. She first appeared in the West End, playing opposite her brother, in 1958. In 1959, she appeared at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre under the direction of Peter Hall as Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream opposite Charles Laughton as Bottom and Coriolanus opposite Laurence Olivier (in the title role), Albert Finney and Edith Evans. In 1960, Redgrave had her first starring role in Robert Bolt's The Tiger and the Horse, in which she co-starred with her father. In 1961, she played Rosalind in As You Like It for the Royal Shakespeare Company. In 1962, she played Imogen in William Gaskill's production of Cymbeline for the RSC. In 1966, Redgrave created the role of Jean Brodie in the Donald Albery production of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, adapted for the stage by Jay Presson Allen from the novel by Muriel Spark. Redgrave had her first credited film role, in which she co-starred with her father, in Brian Desmond Hurst's Behind the Mask (1958). Redgrave's first starring film role was in Morgan – A Suitable Case for Treatment (1966), co-starring David Warner and directed by Karel Reisz, for which she received an Oscar nomination, a Cannes award, a Golden Globe nomination and a BAFTA Film Award nomination. Following this, she portrayed a cool London swinger in Blowup (1966). Co-starring David Hemmings, it was the first English-language film of the Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni. Reunited with Karel Reisz for the biographical film of dancer Isadora Duncan in Isadora (1968), her portrayal of Duncan led her gaining a National Society of Film Critics' Award for Best Actress, a second Prize for the Best Female Performance at the Cannes Film Festival, along with a Golden Globe and an Oscar nomination. In 1970 and 1971, Vanessa was directed by Italian filmmaker Tinto Brass in two films: Dropout and La vacanza. In the same period came other portrayals of historical (or semi-mythical) figures – ranging from Andromache in The Trojan Women (1971) to the lead in Mary, Queen of Scots (1971), the latter earning her a third Oscar nomination. She also played the role of Guinevere in the film Camelot (1967) with Richard Harris and Franco Nero, and briefly as Sylvia Pankhurst in Oh! What a Lovely War (1969). She portrayed the character of Mother Superior Jeanne des Anges (Joan of the Angels) in The Devils (1971), the once controversial film directed by Ken Russell. Julia (1977) In the film Julia (1977), she starred in the title role as a woman murdered by the Nazi German regime in the years prior to World War II for her anti-Fascist activism. Her co-star in the film was Jane Fonda (playing writer Lillian Hellman). In her 2005 autobiography, Fonda wrote that: When Redgrave was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1977 for her role in Julia, members of the Jewish Defense League (JDL), led by Rabbi Meir Kahane, burned effigies of Redgrave and picketed the Academy Awards ceremony to protest against what they saw as her support for the Palestine Liberation Organization. This film opened in 1977, the same year she produced and appeared in the film The Palestinian, which followed the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Lebanon. The film was criticized by many Jewish groups for its perceived anti-Israel slant, and members of the Jewish Defense League (JDL) picketed Redgrave's nomination outside the Academy Awards ceremony while counter-protestors waved PLO flags. Redgrave won the Oscar and in her acceptance speech, she thanked Hollywood for having "refused to be intimidated by the threats of a small bunch of Zionist hoodlums – whose behavior is an insult to the stature of Jews all over the world and to their great and heroic record of struggle against fascism and oppression". Her remarks brought an on-stage response later in the ceremony from Academy Award winning screenwriter and award presenter at that year's ceremony Paddy Chayefsky and sparked controversy. In his biography of Redgrave, Dan Callahan wrote, "The scandal of her awards speech and the negative press it occasioned had a destructive effect on her acting opportunities that would last for years to come". Later career Film and television Later film roles include those of Agatha Christie in Agatha (1979), Helen in Yanks (1979), a Holocaust survivor in Playing for Time (1980), Leenie Cabrezi in My Body, My Child (1982), The Queen in Sing, Sing (1983), suffragist Olive Chancellor in The Bostonians (1984, a fourth Best Actress Academy Award nomination), transsexual tennis player Renée Richards in Second Serve (1986), Blanche Hudson in the television remake of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane (1991), Mrs. Wilcox in Howards End (1992, her sixth Academy Award nomination, this time in a supporting role); crime boss Max in Mission: Impossible (1996, when discussing the role of Max, Brian DePalma and Tom Cruise thought it would be fun to cast an actor like Redgrave; they then decided to go with the real thing); Oscar Wilde's mother in Wilde (1997); Clarissa Dalloway in Mrs. Dalloway (1997); and Dr. Sonia Wick in Girl, Interrupted (1999). Many of these roles and others garnered her widespread accolades. Her performance as a lesbian mourning the loss of her longtime partner in the HBO series If These Walls Could Talk 2 (2000) earned her a Golden Globe for Best TV Series Supporting Actress, as well as earning an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a TV Film or Miniseries. This same performance also led to an Excellence in Media Award from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD). In 2004, Redgrave joined the second-season cast of the FX series Nip/Tuck, portraying Dr. Erica Noughton, the mother of Julia McNamara, who was played by her real-life daughter Joely Richardson. She also made appearances in the third and sixth seasons. In 2006, Redgrave starred opposite Peter O'Toole in the film Venus. A year later, Redgrave starred in Evening and Atonement, in which she received a Broadcast Film Critics Association award nomination for a performance that took up only seven minutes of screen time. In 2008, Redgrave appeared as a narrator in an Arts Alliance production, id – Identity of the Soul. In 2009, Redgrave starred in the BBC remake of The Day of the Triffids, with her daughter Joely. In the midst of losing her daughter, Natasha Richardson, Redgrave signed on to play Eleanor of Aquitaine in Ridley Scott's version of Robin Hood (2010), which began filming shortly after Natasha's death. Redgrave later withdrew from the film for personal reasons. The part was given to her Evening co-star Eileen Atkins. She was next seen in Letters to Juliet opposite her husband Franco Nero. She had small roles in Eva (2009), a Romanian drama film that premiered at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, as well as in Julian Schnabel's Palestinian drama Miral (2010), which was screened at the 67th Venice International Film Festival. She voiced the character of Winnie the Giant Tortoise in the environmental animated film Animals United (also 2010), and played a supporting role in the Bosnia-set political drama, The Whistleblower (2010), which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Redgrave also narrated Patrick Keiller's semi-fictional documentary, Robinson in Ruins (2010). Since 2012, Redgrave has narrated the BBC series Call The Midwife. She also played leading roles in two historical films: Shakespeare's Coriolanus (which marked actor Ralph Fiennes' directorial debut), in which she plays Volumnia; and Roland Emmerich's Anonymous (both 2011), as . Subsequently, she starred with Terence Stamp and Gemma Arterton in the British comedy-drama Song for Marion (US: Unfinished Song, 2012) and with Forest Whitaker in The Butler (2013), directed by Lee Daniels. She also appeared with Steve Carell and Channing Tatum in the drama Foxcatcher (2014). In 2017, at the age of 80, Redgrave made her directorial debut with the feature documentary Sea Sorrow, which covers the plight of child migrants in the Calais refugee camps and the broader European migrant crisis. It premiered at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. Critics praised the documentary's message but criticised the structure for a "scattershot lack of focus" and the "ungainliness of its production values." Theatre Redgrave won four Evening Standard Awards for Best Actress in four decades. She was awarded the Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival in 1984 for The Aspern Papers. In 2000, her theatre work included Prospero in The Tempest at Shakespeare's Globe in London. In 2003, she won a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance in the Broadway revival of Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey Into Night. In January 2006, Redgrave was presented the Ibsen Centennial Award for her "outstanding work in interpreting many of Henrik Ibsen's works over the last decades". Previous recipients of the award include Liv Ullmann, Glenda Jackson and Claire Bloom. In 2007, Redgrave played Joan Didion in her Broadway stage adaptation of her 2005 book, The Year of Magical Thinking, which played 144 regular performances in a 24-week limited engagement at the Booth Theatre. For this, she won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding One-Person Show and was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play. She reprised the role at the Lyttelton Theatre at the Royal National Theatre in London to mixed reviews. She also spent a week performing the work at the Theatre Royal in Bath in September 2008. She once again performed the role of Joan Didion for a special benefit at Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York on 26 October 2009. The performance was originally slated to debut on 27 April, but was pushed due to the death of Redgrave's daughter Natasha. The proceeds for the benefit were donated to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). Both charities work to provide help for the children of Gaza. In October 2010, she starred in the Broadway premiere of Driving Miss Daisy starring in the title role opposite James Earl Jones. The show premiered on 25 October 2010 at the John Golden Theatre in New York City to rave reviews. The production was originally scheduled to run to 29 January 2011 but due to a successful response and high box office sales, was extended to 9 April 2011. In May 2011, she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play for the role of Daisy in Driving Miss Daisy. The play transferred to the Wyndham's Theatre in London from 26 September to 17 December 2011. In 2013, Redgrave starred alongside Jesse Eisenberg in Eisenberg's The Revisionist. The New York production ran from 15 February to 27 April. Redgrave played a Polish holocaust survivor in the play. In September 2013, Redgrave once again starred opposite James Earl Jones in a production of Much Ado About Nothing at The Old Vic, London, directed by Mark Rylance. In 2016, Redgrave played Queen Margaret in Richard III with Ralph Fiennes in the title role, at the Almeida Theatre, London. In February 2022, it was confirmed that she will be playing Mrs Higgins in My Fair Lady at the London Coliseum from May to August 2022. In a poll of "industry experts" and readers conducted by The Stage in 2010, Redgrave was ranked as the ninth greatest stage actor/actress of all time. Personal life Redgrave was married to film and theatre director Tony Richardson from 1962 to 1967; the couple had two daughters: actresses Natasha Richardson (1963–2009), and Joely Richardson (b. 1965). In 1967, the year Redgrave divorced Richardson, who left her for the French actress Jeanne Moreau, she became romantically involved with Italian actor Franco Nero when they met on the set of Camelot. In 1969, they had a son, Carlo Gabriel Redgrave Sparanero (known professionally as Carlo Gabriel Nero), a screenwriter and director. From 1971 to 1986, she had a long-term relationship with actor Timothy Dalton, with whom she had appeared in the film Mary, Queen of Scots (1971). Redgrave later reunited with Franco Nero, and they married on 31 December 2006. Carlo Nero directed Redgrave in The Fever (2004), a film adaptation of the Wallace Shawn play. Redgrave has six grandchildren. Redgrave was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1967. Reportedly, she declined a damehood in 1999. However, she was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2022 New Year Honours for services to drama. Within 14 months in 2009 and 2010, Redgrave lost both a daughter and her two younger siblings. Her daughter Natasha Richardson died on 18 March 2009 from a traumatic brain injury caused by a skiing accident. On 6 April 2010, her brother, Corin Redgrave, died, and on 2 May 2010, her sister, Lynn Redgrave, died. Redgrave had a near-fatal heart attack in April 2015. In September 2015, she revealed that her lungs are only working at 30 per cent capacity due to emphysema caused by years of smoking. Redgrave has described herself as a person of faith and said that she "sometimes" attends a Catholic church. Political activism In 1961, Vanessa Redgrave was an active member of the Committee of 100 and its working group. Redgrave and her brother Corin joined the Workers Revolutionary Party (WRP) in the 1970s. She ran for parliament several times as a party member but never received more than a few hundred votes. The party disbanded in 1985 amid allegations that chairman Gerry Healy was implicated in sexual abuse of female supporters. Redgrave used her wage from Mary, Queen of Scots to build a nursery school, near her home in west London. She donated the school to the state. In 1977, Redgrave produced and starred in an anti-Israel documentary film, The Palestinian about the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). She funded the documentary by selling her house. The Anti-Defamation League's honorary chairman criticized the film, highlighting that some of the responses of the people she interviews weren't translated from Arabic, that the film showed children training with guns and that the phrase, "Kill the enemy!" kept being repeated. The president of Actors Equity in the United States criticized the film's interview with the chairman of the PLO, Yasser Arafat, in which he said that the only solution to the Middle East problem is the liquidation of the State of Israel, and Redgrave responded with, "Certainly". In June 1978, at one theater showing the film, a bomb exploded, causing damage to property, but screening of the film resumed the following day. Two months later, A JDL member was convicted of the bombing and sentenced to a three-month "thorough psychological examination" with the California Youth Authority. In a 2018 interview, Redgrave stood by her acceptance speech (which included the "Zionist hoodlums" remark) during the 1978 Academy Awards ceremony. In 1977, Redgrave offered a resolution asking the British actors union to boycott Israel, allegedly including the selling of any taped material. The resolution was reportedly not brought to a vote. In 1980, Redgrave made her American TV debut as concentration camp survivor Fania Fénelon in the Arthur Miller-scripted TV movie Playing for Time, a part for which she won an Emmy as Outstanding Lead Actress in 1981. The decision to cast Redgrave as Fénelon was, however, a source of controversy. In light of Redgrave's support for the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Fénelon herself and the Jewish groups the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the Anti-Defamation League, and the American Jewish Congress objected to Redgrave's casting. Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center wrote in a telegram that, "Your selection shows utter callous disregard of the tens of thousands of survivors for whom Miss Redgrave's portrayal would desecrate the memory of the martyred millions. Your decision could only be compared to selecting J. Edgar Hoover to portray Martin Luther King Jr." Producer David L. Wolper in a telephone interview compared it to letting the head of the Ku Klux Klan play a sympathetic white man in Roots, a miniseries about the slave trade. Arthur Miller said "She's a Marxist; this is a political matter. Turning her down because of her ideas was unacceptable to me; after all I suffered the blacklist myself". In 1984, Redgrave sued the Boston Symphony Orchestra, claiming that the orchestra had fired her from a performance because of her support of the PLO. Lillian Hellman testified in court on Redgrave's behalf. Redgrave won on a count of breach of contract, but did not win on the claim that the Boston orchestra had violated her civil rights by firing her. In 1995, Redgrave was elected to serve as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In December 2002, Redgrave paid £50,000 bail for Chechen separatist Deputy Premier and special envoy Akhmed Zakayev, who had sought political asylum in the United Kingdom and was accused by the Russian government of aiding and abetting hostage-takings in the Moscow Hostage Crisis of 2002 and guerrilla warfare against Russia. At a press conference, Redgrave said she feared for Zakayev's safety if he were extradited to Russia on terrorism charges. He would "die of a heart attack" or some other mysterious explanation offered by Russia, she said. On 13 November 2003, a London court rejected the Russian government's request for Zakayev's extradition. Instead, the court accepted a plea by lawyers for Zakayev that he would not get a fair trial, and could even face torture, in Russia. "It would be unjust and oppressive to return Mr Zakayev to Russia," Judge Timothy Workman ruled. In 2004, Vanessa Redgrave and her brother Corin Redgrave launched the Peace and Progress Party, which campaigned against the Iraq War and for human rights. Redgrave left the party in 2005. Redgrave has been an outspoken critic of the "war on terrorism". During a June 2005 interview on Larry King Live, Redgrave was challenged on this criticism and on her political views. In response she questioned whether there can be true democracy if the political leadership of the United States and Britain does not "uphold the values for which my father's generation fought the Nazis, [and] millions of people gave their lives against the Soviet Union's regime. [Such sacrifice was made] because of democracy and what democracy meant: no torture, no camps, no detention forever or without trial.... [Such] techniques are not just alleged [against the governments of the U.S. and Britain], they have actually been written about by the FBI. I don't think it's being 'far left'...to uphold the rule of law." In March 2006, Redgrave remarked in an interview with US broadcast journalist Amy Goodman: "I don't know of a single government that actually abides by international human rights law, not one, including my own. In fact, [they] violate these laws in the most despicable and obscene way, I would say." Goodman's interview with Redgrave took place in the actress's West London home on the evening of 7 March, and covered a range of subjects, particularly the cancellation by the New York Theatre Workshop of the Alan Rickman production My Name is Rachel Corrie. Such a development, said Redgrave, was an "act of catastrophic cowardice" as "the essence of life and the essence of theatre is to communicate about lives, either lives that have ended or lives that are still alive, [and about] beliefs, and what is in those beliefs." In June 2006, she was awarded a lifetime achievement award from the Transilvania International Film Festival, one of whose sponsors is a mining company named Gabriel Resources. She dedicated the award to a community organisation from Roşia Montană, Romania, which is campaigning against a gold mine that Gabriel Resources was seeking to build near the village. Gabriel Resources placed an "open letter" in The Guardian on 23 June 2006, attacking Redgrave, arguing the case for the mine. The open letter was signed by 77 villagers. In December 2007, Redgrave was named as one of the possible suretors who paid the £50,000 bail for Jamil al-Banna, one of three British residents arrested after landing back in the UK following four years' captivity at Guantanamo Bay. Redgrave has declined to be specific about her financial involvement but said she was "very happy" to be of "some small assistance for Jamil and his wife", adding, "It is a profound honour and I am glad to be alive to be able to do this. Guantanamo Bay is a concentration camp." In 2009, Redgrave together with artist Julian Schnabel and playwright Martin Sherman opposed the cultural boycott of Israel due to it being based on accusations that the three asserted were false. In March 2014, Redgrave took part in a protest outside Pentonville Prison in North London after new prison regulations were introduced which forbade sending books to prisoners. She and fellow actor Samuel West, playwright David Hare and Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy took turns reading poetry and making speeches. Redgrave stated that the ban was "vicious and deplorable...Literature is something that stirs us beyond our immediate problems, it can help us to learn better our own problems, our own faults or to have a goal to live for, an aspiration." The ban was overturned by the Ministry of Justice the following December. In 2017, Redgrave made her directorial debut with the movie Sea Sorrow, a documentary about the European migrant crisis and the plight of migrants encamped outside Calais, France, trying to reach Britain. She has heavily criticised the exclusionary policy of the British government towards refugees, stating that the British Government "... has violated these principles (of the Declaration of Human Rights), and it continues to do so, which I find deeply shameful. The UN signed the Declaration of Human Rights, and now we have to employ lawyers to take the government to court to force them to obey the law. Just thinking about that makes my mind go berserk." Filmography Awards and nominations References Sources External links Vanessa Redgrave: Actress and Campaigner "She's Got Issues" – The Observer, 19 March 2006 Lee Israel research files on Vanessa Redgrave, 1982–1987 Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library. 1937 births Living people 20th-century English actresses 21st-century English actresses Actresses from London Actresses awarded British damehoods Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama Audiobook narrators Best Actress BAFTA Award (television) winners BAFTA fellows Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (television) winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire Drama Desk Award winners English film actresses English socialists English stage actresses English Shakespearean actresses English television actresses English voice actresses Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners People educated at Queen's Gate School People from Greenwich Tony Award winners Workers Revolutionary Party (UK) members Volpi Cup for Best Actress winners People educated at The Alice Ottley School People from Blackheath, London Laurence Olivier Award winners WFTV Award winners Redgrave family Royal Shakespeare Company members English expatriates in Italy British political party founders Daughters of knights	6,066
doc-en-10251_0	Carrie is a 1976 American supernatural horror film directed by Brian De Palma from a screenplay written by Lawrence D. Cohen, adapted from Stephen King's 1974 epistolary novel of the same name. The film stars Sissy Spacek as Carrie White, a shy 16-year-old who is consistently mocked and bullied at school. The film also features Piper Laurie, Amy Irving, Nancy Allen, William Katt, P. J. Soles, Betty Buckley, and John Travolta in supporting roles. It is the first film in the Carrie franchise. The film was based on King's first novel by the same name. De Palma was intrigued by the story and pushed for the studio to direct it while Spacek was encouraged by her husband to audition. It is the first of more than 100 film and television productions adapted from, or based on, the published works of King. Theatrically released on November 3, 1976, by United Artists, Carrie became critically and commercially successful, grossing over $33.8 million against its $1.8 million budget. It received two nominations at the 49th Academy Awards: Best Actress (for Spacek) and Best Supporting Actress (for Laurie). Critics and audience members alike widely cite it as the best adaptation of the novel amongst the numerous films and television shows based on the character, as well as one of the best films based on King's publications. The film has significantly influenced popular culture, with several publications regarding it as one of the greatest horror films ever made. In 2008, Carrie was ranked 86th on Empire's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. It was ranked 15th on Entertainment Weekly'''s list of the 50 Best High School Movies, and 46th on the American Film Institute list AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills. The film's prom scene has had a major influence on popular culture and was ranked eighth on Bravos 2004 program The 100 Scariest Movie Moments. Plot Shy 16-year-old Carrie White, who lives with her fanatically religious mother Margaret, is unpopular at school and often bullied by her peers. When Carrie experiences her first period in the school shower, she panics, having never been told about this process. Carrie's classmates humiliate her by throwing tampons at her while chanting "Plug it up!" until the gym teacher, Miss Collins, intervenes. Following conversations with Miss Collins and the principal, Carrie is dismissed from school for the day. After arriving home, Margaret tells Carrie that her menstruation was caused by sin, and she locks Carrie in an altar-like "prayer closet" to pray for forgiveness. At school, Collins reprimands Carrie's tormentors, punishing them with a week-long detention during gym class. She threatens that those who skip the punitive measure will be suspended for three days and barred from the upcoming prom. However, Carrie's longtime bully, the wealthy and popular Christine "Chris" Hargensen, walks out. Plotting vengeance against Carrie, Chris and her boyfriend Billy Nolan break into a local farm and kill pigs to drain their blood into a bucket, which they place above the school's main stage in the gymnasium. Norma, Chris' best friend and a prominent figure in the school's student council regime, plans to rig the Prom Queen election in Carrie's favor to get her on the stage. Meanwhile, Sue Snell, a deeply remorseful classmate, asks her handsome and popular boyfriend, Tommy Ross, to invite Carrie to the prom. Carrie initially thinks the proposition is a prank, but he insists that it is genuine and she reluctantly accepts after Miss Collins consoles her. Back at home, she begins to discover that she has telekinesis as she shakes off her shyness. Despite Margaret's protests, Carrie puts on a flattering dress and hairstyle for the prom. Margaret sees Carrie's telekinetic powers and denounces her as a witch before Carrie leaves with Tommy. During the prom, Chris and Billy hide under the stage while the other conspirators switch the ballots to ensure that Carrie wins the Prom Queen title. As Carrie stands onstage with Tommy, finally beginning to feel accepted by her peers, Sue arrives just in time, realizes Chris and Billy's plan, and begins to intervene. Miss Collins spots Sue and, thinking that she is up to no good, throws her out of the prom. Chris and Billy pull the rope attached to the bucket of pig blood, dousing Carrie; they then promptly sneak out of the school. The empty bucket hits the outraged Tommy in the head, and he collapses. The crowd is left shocked and speechless at the prank. Carrie hallucinates that everyone is mocking her and, in a sudden outburst, she telekinetically seals the exits from the gymnasium and controls a fire hose, which injures several party-goers attempting to escape and sprays the overhead lights, setting the gym on fire. Miss Collins is crushed by a falling basketball backboard and Carrie's principal and teacher are electrocuted. As Carrie walks home, Chris and Billy attempt to run her over with Billy's car but Carrie senses their presence and causes their car to swerve, overturn and explode, killing them. After Carrie bathes herself at home, Margaret reveals that Carrie was conceived when her husband was drunk, an act that Margaret shamefully admits she enjoyed. Margaret comforts Carrie, and then stabs her in the back with a kitchen knife and begins to chase her through the house. Carrie levitates several sharp implements and sends them flying toward Margaret, crucifying her. Carrie then destroys the house and consequently perishes. Some time later, Sue, the only survivor of the prom, struggling to deal with the trauma she has experienced, has a nightmare in which she lays flowers on the charred remains of Carrie's home, upon which stands a "For Sale" sign vandalized in black paint with the phrase "Carrie White burns in Hell!" Suddenly, Carrie's bloody arm reaches from beneath the rubble and grabs Sue's forearm. Sue wakes up screaming and her mother comforts her. Cast Sissy Spacek as Carrie White Piper Laurie as Margaret White Amy Irving as Sue Snell William Katt as Tommy Ross John Travolta as Billy Nolan Nancy Allen as Chris Hargensen Betty Buckley as Miss Collins P. J. Soles as Norma Watson Priscilla Pointer as Eleanor Snell Sydney Lassick as Mr. Fromm Stefan Gierasch as Principal Morton Michael Talbott as Freddy Doug Cox as The Beak Harry Gold as George Noelle North as Frieda Cindy Daly as Cora Deirdre Berthrong as Rhonda Anson Downes as Ernest Rory Stevens as Kenny Edie McClurg as Helen Shyres Cameron De Palma as Boy on Bicycle Production DevelopmentCarrie was the first Stephen King novel to be published and the first to be adapted into a feature film. During an interview in 2010, King said he was 26 years old at the time and was paid just $2,500 for the film rights, but added, "I was fortunate to have that happen to my first book." De Palma told Cinefantastique magazine in an interview in 1977: Lawrence D. Cohen was hired as the screenwriter, and produced the first draft, which had closely followed the novel's intentions. United Artists accepted the second draft but only allocated De Palma a budget of $1.6 million, a small amount considering the popularity of horror films at the time. The budget eventually rose to $1.8 million. Certain scripted scenes were omitted from the final version, mainly due to financial limitations. Casting Many young actresses auditioned for the lead role, including Melanie Griffith. Sissy Spacek was persuaded by husband Jack Fisk to audition for the title role. Fisk then convinced De Palma to let her audition, and she read for all of the parts. De Palma's first choice for the role of Carrie was Betsy Slade, who received good notices for her role in the film Our Time (1974). Determined to land the leading role, Spacek backed out of a television commercial she was scheduled to film, rubbed vaseline into her hair, left her face unwashed, and arrived for her screen test clad in a sailor dress which her mother had made her in the seventh grade, with the hem cut off, and was given the part. Nancy Allen was the last to audition, and her audition came just as she was on the verge of leaving Hollywood. She and De Palma later married. Filming De Palma began with director of photography Isidore Mankofsky, who was eventually replaced by Mario Tosi after conflict between Mankofsky and De Palma ensued. Gregory M. Auer, assisted by Ken Pepiot, served as the special effects supervisor for Carrie, with Jack Fisk, Spacek's husband, as art director. The White house was filmed in Santa Paula, California. To give the house a Gothic theme, the director and producers visited religious souvenir shops to find artifacts to decorate the set location. A wraparound segment at the beginning and end of the film was scripted and filmed, which featured the Whites' home being pummeled by stones that hailed from the sky. The opening scene was filmed as planned, though on celluloid, the tiny pebbles looked like rain water. A mechanical malfunction botched filming the night when the model of the Whites' home was set to be destroyed by stones, so the filmmakers burned it down instead and deleted the scenes with the stones altogether. The original opening scene is presumed lost. The final scene, in which Sue reaches toward Carrie's grave, was shot backwards to give it a dreamlike quality. This scene was inspired by the final scene in Deliverance (1972). Rather than let a stunt double perform the scene underground, Spacek insisted on using her own hand in the scene, so she was positioned under the rocks and gravel. De Palma explains that crew members "had to bury her. Bury her! We had to put her in a box and stick her underneath the ground. Well, I had her husband [Fisk] bury her because I certainly didn't want to bury her." Music The score for Carrie was composed by Pino Donaggio. In addition, Donaggio scored two pop songs ("Born to Have It All" and "I Never Dreamed Someone Like You Could Love Someone Like Me") with lyrics by Merrit Malloy for the early portion of the prom sequence. These songs were performed by Katie Irving (sister of Amy Irving and daughter of Priscilla Pointer). Donaggio would work again with De Palma on Home Movies, Dressed to Kill, Blow Out, Body Double, Raising Cain, Passion, and Domino. The soundtrack album was originally released on vinyl in 1976 from United Artists Records. A deluxe CD edition containing a few tracks of dialogue from the film was released by Rykodisc in 1997, and a 2005 CD re-release of the original soundtrack (minus dialogue) was available from Varèse Sarabande. In 2010, Kritzerland Records released all 35 cues of Donaggio's score for the film on a two-disc CD set which was presented as the complete score. Also included in this edition were the versions of "Born to Have It All" and "I Never Dreamed..."which were heard in the film, as well as instrumentals of both songs, and hidden at the end of the final track, a version of the "Calisthenics" cue with Betty Buckley's studio-recorded voice-over from the detention scene. The second disc was a remastered copy of the original 13-track album. The Kritzerland release was a limited edition of 1,200 copies. Kritzerland rereleased the first disc as "The Encore Edition" in February 2013; this release was limited to 1,000 copies. Release The film opened November 3, 1976 in 17 theaters in the Washington D.C.-Baltimore area. Two days later it opened in 9 theaters in Chicago, before opening in 53 theaters in New York City on November 16 and in Los Angeles on November 17. Reception and legacyCarrie received widespread critical acclaim and was cited as one of the best films of the year. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 93% based on 67 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Carrie is a horrifying look at supernatural powers, high school cruelty, and teen angst—and it brings us one of the most memorable and disturbing prom scenes in history." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating based on reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 14 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated the film was an "absolutely spellbinding horror movie", as well as an "observant human portrait", giving three and a half stars out of four. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker stated that Carrie was "the best scary-funny movie since Jaws—a teasing, terrifying, lyrical shocker." Take One Magazine critic Susan Schenker said she was "angry at the way Carrie manipulated me to the point where my heart was thudding, and embarrassed because the film really works." A 1998 edition of The Movie Guide stated Carrie was a "landmark horror film", while Stephen Farber prophetically stated in a 1978 issue of New West Magazine, "it's a horror classic, and years from now it will still be written and argued about, and it will still be scaring the daylights out of new generations of moviegoers." Quentin Tarantino placed Carrie at number eight in a list of his favorite films ever. In a 2010 interview, King replied that he thought, although dated now, Carrie was a "good movie." Nevertheless, the film was not without its detractors. Andrew Sarris of The Village Voice commented, "There are so few incidents that two extended sequences are rendered in slow-motion as if to pad out the running time..." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and called it "a crude shocker with a little style," praising the "strong performances" but opining that the movie "falls apart" during the climax which he described as "crude and sloppy." Box officeCarrie was a box office success earning $14.5 million in theatrical rentals in the United States and Canada by January 1978Richard Nowell, Blood Money: A History of the First Teen Slasher Film Cycle Continuum, 2011 p 256 from a gross of $33.8 million. In its first 19 days from 60 markets, the film had grossed $3,882,827. Overseas, the film earned rentals of $7 million for a worldwide total of $22 million. AccoladesCarrie is one of the few horror films to be nominated for multiple Academy Awards. Spacek and Laurie received nominations for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress awards, respectively. The film also won the grand prize at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival, while Spacek was given the Best Actress award by the National Society of Film Critics. In 2008, Carrie was ranked number 86 on Empire Magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. The movie also ranked number 15 on the Entertainment Weekly list of the 50 Best High School Movies, and No. 46 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Greatest Cinema Thrills, and was also ranked eighth for its ending sequence on Bravo's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments (2004). AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – #46 AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains – Carrie White – Nominated Villain Related productionsCarrie, along with the novel, has been reproduced and adapted several times. SequelThe Rage: Carrie 2 was released in 1999. It featured another teenager with telekinetic powers who is revealed to have shared a father with Carrie White. The film received universally negative reviews and was a box office failure. Amy Irving reprises her role of Sue Snell from the previous film. 2002 television film In 2002, a television film based on King's novel and starring Angela Bettis in the titular role was released. The film updated the events of the story to modern-day settings and technology while simultaneously attempting to be more faithful to the book's original structure, storyline, and specific events. However, the ending was drastically changed: instead of killing her mother and then herself, the film has Carrie killing her mother, being revived via CPR by Sue Snell and being driven to Florida to hide. This new ending marked a complete divergence from the novel and was a signal that the film served as a pilot for a Carrie television series, which never materialized. In the new ending, the rescued Carrie vows to help others with similar gifts to her own. Although Bettis' portrayal of Carrie was highly praised, the film was cited by most critics as inferior to the original. 2013 remake In May 2011, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Screen Gems announced that Carrie would be adapted to film once more. Playwright Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa wrote the script as "a more faithful adaptation" of King's novel but shared a screenplay credit with the 1976 film's writer Lawrence D. Cohen. Aguirre-Sacasa had previously adapted King's epic novel The Stand into comic-book form in 2008. The role of Carrie was played by 16-year-old actress Chloë Grace Moretz. Julianne Moore starred as Carrie's mother Margaret White, and Gabriella Wilde as Sue Snell. Alex Russell and Broadway actor Ansel Elgort played Billy Nolan and Tommy Ross respectively. Portia Doubleday was given the role of Chris Hargensen and Judy Greer was cast as Miss Desjardin. Kimberly Peirce, known for her work on Boys Don't Cry, directed the new adaptation. It was released on October 18, 2013, and received mixed reviews. Stage productions A 1988 Broadway musical of the same name, based on King's novel and starring Betty Buckley, Linzi Hateley, and Darlene Love, closed after only 16 previews and 5 performances. An English pop opera filtered through Greek tragedy, the show was so notorious that it provided the title to Ken Mandelbaum's survey of theatrical disasters, Not Since Carrie: Forty Years of Broadway Musical Flops. Early in the 21st century, playwright Erik Jackson attempted to secure the rights to stage another production of Carrie the musical, but his request was rejected. Jackson eventually earned the consent of King to mount a new, officially sanctioned, non-musical production of Carrie, which debuted Off-Broadway in 2006 with drag queen Sherry Vine in the lead role. Similarly, many other unofficial spoofs have been staged over the years, usually with a gym teacher named "Miss Collins" (as opposed to the novel's "Miss Desjardin" and the musical's "Miss Gardner"), most notably the "parodage" Scarrie the Musical, which hit the Illinois stage in 1998 and was revived in 2005; Dad's Garage Theatre's 2002 production of Carrie White the Musical; and the 2007 New Orleans production of Carrie's Facts of Life, which was a hybrid of Carrie and the classic American sitcom The Facts of Life. A high school production of the musical is the focus of "Chapter Thirty-One: A Night to Remember" episode of Riverdale. Home mediaCarrie was originally released on VHS and LaserDisc formats, for which it received numerous editions throughout the world. In the United States and Canada, Carrie has been made available several times on DVD format from MGM Home Entertainment, debuting on September 29, 1998, while a "Special Edition" set was released on August 28, 2001. On December 4, 2007, the film was released a part of MGM's "Decades Collection," which included a soundtrack CD. The film was additionally released within multiple sets via MGM; first, as part of the United Artists 90th Anniversary Prestige Collection on December 11, 2007. A set featuring Carrie, The Rage: Carrie 2, and Carrie (the 2002 television film) was released on September 14, 2010, and, as part of MGM's 90th anniversary, the film was included with Misery and The Silence of the Lambs on June 3, 2014. The film was released for the first time on Blu-ray in the U.S. and Canada from MGM on October 7, 2008, which contained an MPEG-2 codec, with new DTS-HD 5.1 Master Lossless Audio, while retaining the original English Mono, and included Spanish Audio and French 5.1 Dolby Surround. The only special feature on the set is a theatrical trailer. The film was again released on Blu-ray on July 18, 2013, when it was available exclusively through Comic-Con in San Diego from MGM and FoxConnect, containing a slipcover with exclusive artwork. Two further editions were made available from MGM in 2014; a "Carrie 2-Pack" set containing the original film and the 2013 adaptation, released September 9, 2014, and finally, a re-issue Blu-ray with a collectible Halloween faceplate, on October 21, 2014. Home distribution rights are currently held by Shout Factory, and the film was released via their subsidiary label, Scream Factory on October 11, 2016, in a two-disc "Collector's Edition," now available with MPEG-4 coding, and a new 4K scan. Special features on the set include the theatrical trailer, Carrie franchise trailer gallery, new interviews with writer Lawrence D. Cohen, editor Paul Hirsch, actors Piper Laurie, P.J. Soles, Nancy Allen, Betty Buckley, William Katt, and Edie McClurg, casting director Harriet B. Helberg, director of photography Mario Tosi, and composer Pino Donaggio, "Horror's Hallowed Grounds" – Revisiting the Film's Original Locations, "Acting Carrie" featurette, "Visualizing Carrie" featurette, a look at "Carrie the Musical," TV spots, radio spots, still gallery, "Stephen King and the Evolution of Carrie" text gallery. The set also includes reversible sleeve containing original artwork and newly commissioned artwork from Shout Factory, and a slipcover containing the new artwork. On October 11, 2016, Shout Factory additionally released a "Deluxe Limited Edition" of 2000 copies, which includes the slipcover contained in the "Collector's Edition," with an additional poster matching the slipcover, and an alternative slipcover and poster consisting of different artwork. In the United Kingdom, the film received its initial DVD release on February 1, 2000, via MGM. A reissue "Special Edition" DVD was made available from MGM on October 22, 2001, while a two-disc standard set was released on September 7, 2006. A DVD set, "The Carrie Collection," consisting of both the original film, and The Rage: Carrie 2, was released from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on October 7, 2013, while on the same day, a reissue DVD containing newly commissioned artwork, as well as the first-ever Blu-ray release in the UK was made available from 20th Century Fox. A second Blu-ray edition became available in the form of a steelbook, released on September 29, 2014; a set which reverted to the previous-style artwork. On September 22, 2017, it was announced that Carrie would receive a "Limited Collector's Edition" Blu-ray of 5,000 copies from Arrow Films, providing the definitive release of the film. The set contained a new 4K restoration, with special features, including commentary by authors Lee Gambin and Alexandra Heller-Nicholas, recorded exclusively for the release; brand-new visual essay comparing the various versions and adaptations of Carrie; "Acting Carrie" featurette, "More Acting Carrie" featurette; "Writing Carrie," an interview with writer Lawrence D. Cohen/"Shooting Carrie," an interview with cinematographer Mario Tosi; "Cutting Carrie," an interview with editor Paul Hirsch/"Casting Carrie," an interview with casting director Harriet B. Helberg; "Bucket of Blood," an interview with composer Pino Donaggio; "Horror's Hallowed Grounds," a look back at the film's locations, gallery, trailer, TV spots, radio spots; Carrie trailer reel; and 60-page limited-edition booklet featuring new writing on the film by author Neil Mitchell, alongside reversible artwork, poster and art cards. The set was released on December 11, 2017.Squires, John On most of the later VHS releases and DVD sets, John Travolta's name was included on the artwork alongside Sissy Spacek. Although Travolta only appeared in a minor supporting role in the film, his name was featured to capitalize on his high-profile career in his many films following Carrie, therefore possibly increasing sales. References Further reading Ehlers, Leigh A. "Carrie: Book and film." Literature/Film Quarterly 9.1 (1981): 32–39. Shih, Paris Shun-Hsiang. "Fearing the Witch, Hating the Bitch: The Double Structure of Misogyny in Stephen King's Carrie." in Perceiving Evil: Evil Women and the Feminine (Brill, 2015) pp. 49–58. Tibbetts, John C., and James M. Welsh, eds. The Encyclopedia of Novels Into Film'' (2nd ed. 2005) pp 49–50. External links Carrie (franchise) 1976 films 1976 horror films 1970s English-language films 1970s high school films 1970s horror thriller films 1970s supernatural horror films 1970s teen horror films American coming-of-age films American films American films about revenge American high school films American horror thriller films American supernatural horror films American supernatural thriller films American teen horror films Films about bullying Films about child abuse Films about mass murder Films about proms Films about sexual repression Films about telekinesis Films based on American horror novels Films based on works by Stephen King Films directed by Brian De Palma Films scored by Pino Donaggio Films set in 1976 Films set in Maine Films shot in Los Angeles Matricide in fiction Mother and daughter films Religious horror films Self-harm in films United Artists films	5,712
doc-en-10261_0	American Airlines Flight 320 was a scheduled flight between Chicago Midway International Airport and New York City's LaGuardia Airport. On February 3, 1959, the Lockheed L-188 Electra performing the flight crashed into the East River during its descent, killing 65 of the 73 people on board. Poor weather conditions at the destination meant that the crew had to descend through dense clouds and fog, but the aircraft flew lower than the pilots intended and it crashed into the icy river short of the runway at a speed of . American Airlines had been flying the type of aircraft in commercial service for only about two weeks before the accident. Eyewitnesses to the accident reported that the aircraft was flying significantly lower than was normal for planes approaching the airport, while surviving flight crew members claimed that the aircraft's instruments had told them that the flight was operating at safe altitudes right up to the moment of impact. An investigation by the Civil Aeronautics Board concluded that mistakes by the flight crew, the flight crew's inexperience flying the type of aircraft, and poor weather conditions were the causes of the crash. The conclusion was challenged by the Air Line Pilots Association, who felt that the crash was caused by faulty instruments and poor weather conditions, not by any mistakes made by the highly experienced flight crew. Accident American Airlines Flight 320 was a regularly-scheduled flight between Chicago and New York City using one of the company's newly obtained Lockheed L-188 Electra turbine propeller aircraft. The airline had first started flying the new aircraft on January 23, 1959, and it offered six daily round-trip flights on its routes between New York and Chicago, with plans to expand to other routes once more of the new aircraft were delivered. On the evening of February 3, 1959, the flight was scheduled to leave Chicago's Midway airport, but wind-driven snow had delayed the departure. The flight was eventually airborne at 9:54p.m. Eastern time, fifty four minutes late, and was one of the last flights to depart Chicago that evening before the airport was closed due to the storm. 68 passengers and 5 crew members were aboard, and the trip was expected to take one hour and forty-two minutes. The climb out of Chicago and the flight to the New York City area was uneventful, operating on automatic pilot at a cruising altitude of 21,000 feet. At 11:34p.m., the flight approached the New York City area. Air traffic controllers at LaGuardia airport informed the pilots that the current weather conditions at the airport included overcast skies with a ceiling with a visibility. The tower controller instructed the flight to proceed to the north of the airport, and to prepare to perform a direct approach over the East River to land on runway 22. At 11:55p.m., while the aircraft was from the airport, controllers gave the flight its final landing clearance for runway 22. The flight crew acknowledged the clearance with a simple acknowledgement of "320", and there was no further radio communication. Moments later, the aircraft struck the surface of the East River about short of the runway, at a speed of . A witness aboard a nearby tugboat reported seeing the aircraft flying very low over the river before it hit the water with a tremendous noise. Another crew member on the same tugboat stated that he saw the aircraft hit the water, and that he thought the aircraft hit at nose-down angle. A witness in a car approaching the Whitestone Bridge described seeing the aircraft pass overhead at an altitude of about . He did not notice if the landing gear was down but he said he could see the whole belly and the lights on the aircraft. Surviving passengers and crew members in the main cabin said that the descent prior to the crash seemed to be uneventful and routine. Interviews with a number of residents in the area revealed that many reported hearing the Electra fly overhead and that it sounded like it was flying lower than usual. The accident was the first crash involving the Lockheed L-188 Electra aircraft, which had begun commercial service at American Airlines in the previous weeks. It was the first significant accident involving an American Airlines aircraft since the crash of American Airlines Flight 327 on January 6, 1957. Aftermath A privately-owned tugboat from New England was on the river near the site of the crash when boat's crew heard the impact. It cut loose the barges that it had been towing and was the first to arrive at the scene, lighting up the area with the boat's searchlight. All eight of the survivors of the crash were saved by the crew, including one man who was pulled from below the surface of the water. At least a dozen boats from the Coast Guard and the police, and two police helicopters arrived minutes later. In the dark fog, rescuers could hear screams from survivors, but poor visibility and swift river currents made recovery of victims and survivors extremely difficult. Responders and nearby residents in the area reported hearing cries for help from locations considerably distant from the crash site. Public safety agencies set up four rescue stations along the river to evacuate survivors, but ambulances that were taking injured survivors to hospitals had difficulty navigating the icy roads. Survivors were taken to Flushing Hospital and Queens General Hospital, where some of the initial survivors died of their injuries. Two temporary morgues were also set up on opposite sides of the river to receive victims. By 5:00a.m. the next morning, at least 9 survivors had been recovered, 22 bodies had been located, and 39 other victims were still missing. High winds and driving rain led the searchers to suspend the rescue operation. The New York Red Cross furnished supplies of rare blood types to aid the victims of the crash. Bodies that had been recovered were taken to Queens General Hospital for identification with assistance by agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and 25 city detectives. The agents used fingerprint records from its immigration, personal identification, and war service files to identify the victims. After the impact, the body of the aircraft had broken into several pieces, with a twenty-foot section of the fuselage the largest intact section. After two hours, only of the tail of the aircraft was visible above the surface of the water. Searchers on boats and on the shore picked up plane debris, personal belongings, and mail that had been aboard the aircraft. In Washington DC, the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) immediately dispatched two investigators as soon as authorities became aware of the crash, and ordered the airline's records to be impounded. An additional team of 25 investigators was assembled and dispatched later the next day. The team was given the task of investigating all aspects of the flight, including the weather, flight operations, engines and propellers, flight instruments, and aircraft structures. Queens County District Attorney Frank O'Connor also started an inquiry about how the rescue efforts could have been improved, with the aim of setting up a system of rescue boats to serve the city's two airports. The House Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee called the head of the Federal Aviation Agency to report on the accident in a closed session in the days after the accident. After the two-and-a-half-hour meeting, a special House subcommittee was named to investigate the crash and the overall safety issues raised by the transition to jet and turboprop aircraft. Days after the crash, news sources started reporting that there were safety systems that had not been in place at the airport that could have helped prevent the crash. A representative of the Air Line Pilots Association said that a system of flashing lights known as the Electronic Flash Approach System could have helped the pilot judge his altitude, if it had been installed. The association also called for the installation of a more comprehensive instrument landing system that would have provided altitude guidance to flight crews landing on runway 22 in addition to the existing system that provided horizontal guidance. Such a system was already installed at the opposite end of the runway that the flight had been approaching. At the time, there were only two airports in the United States that had such a system installed on both ends of a runway. At a meeting on February 5, commissioners of the Port of New York Authority explained that the installation of such a system on runway 22 was considered to be very difficult because the approach lighting system would block the waterway used by ships to reach docks in Queens. Aircraft The aircraft was a Lockheed L-188 Electra turbine propeller aircraft, serial number 1015, registered as tail number N6101A. This was the first Electra delivered to American Airlines. Construction had been completed by the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation on November 27, 1958. At the time of the crash, the aircraft had flown for a total of 302 hours. It was powered by four Allison 501-D13 engines. Promoted as an efficient, fast, and profitable aircraft, the Electra was the first turbine propeller aircraft to be produced in the United States. The first plane was delivered to Eastern Air Lines in October 1958, who began operating commercial flights with the aircraft on January 1, 1959. American Airlines took delivery of its first Electra in December 1958 and its first commercial flight was twelve days before the crash. After the crash of American Airlines flight 320, two more Electras crashed in the following months after suffering catastrophic structural failures; Braniff Flight 542 crashed in September 1959 and Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 710 crashed in March 1960. Both incidents resulted in the loss of everybody aboard. After extensive research, Lockheed identified and corrected a flaw in the engine mounts which had been the cause of the structural failures of the other two crashes, but the negative publicity surrounding all of the accidents involving the plane within a short period of time led to the loss of public confidence in the safety of the aircraft, and only 174 were ever produced. Passengers and crew The flight carried 68 passengers and 5 crew members, all residents of the United States. Of the 68 passengers, 5 survived; the bodies of two of the victims were never recovered. One of the two flight attendants and the captain of the flight died in the crash. Included in the passengers who died in the crash was Beulah Zachary, the executive producer of the television series Kukla, Fran and Ollie that was broadcast from 1947 to 1957. Also aboard the plane was Robert Emerson, a research professor at the University of Illinois who was internationally known for his research into plant photosynthesis, and Herbert Greenwald, a Chicago real estate developer. The pilot of the flight, Captain Albert Hunt DeWitt, was 59 years old. He started his career at American Airlines in 1929 by flying for Thompson Aeronautical Corporation of Cleveland, which was later acquired by American. A resident of Decatur, Michigan, he was qualified to fly all of the aircraft that had been operated by American Airlines and was considered one of the most experienced commercial pilots in the world, with seven million miles flown. He had a total of 28,135 hours of flight experience, including 48 hours in the Lockheed Electra and 2,500 hours of instrument time, and had at one time acted as one of American's chief pilots in the New York area. He learned to fly airplanes when he was 24 years old. In 1930, he had been involved in an accident while he was flying a mail plane over Mishawaka, Indiana on his way to Chicago. Caught in a severe snowstorm, his aircraft stalled and entered a spin, but he was able to jump out of his plane before it crashed and he landed in a 75-foot-high tree. Before joining American Airlines, he had been a barnstormer in Indiana and Michigan and had been an instructor for various flying schools and clubs in the 1920s. He served in both World Wars; in World War I, he was a motorcycle courier, and during World War II, he served as an instructor at flight schools in New York and Chicago. He had planned to retire that May, but did not survive the crash of Flight 320. His cause of death was listed as drowning, but the medical examiner stated that he had also suffered severe internal injuries that would probably have been fatal had he not drowned. The first officer, 33-year-old Frank Hlavacek, was a resident of Wilmette, Illinois and had been employed with the company for eight years. He had a total of 10,192 logged hours, of which 36 hours were in the Electra. He had been flying since he was 14 years old and had served with the United States Army Air Forces in World War II. Before joining American Airlines, he had owned his own air service based in La Jolla, California. After the crash, he helped two of the survivors reach the remnants of the plane's wing, where they were rescued. He suffered a broken jaw and pelvis, and two broken legs in the crash as well as internal injuries, but eventually recovered and returned to work at American Airlines. The flight engineer, Warren Cook, was 36 years old and had been working for American Airlines for eleven years. He had a total of 8,700 flying hours, of which 81 were in the Electra. He served in the United States Army Air Corps from 1940 to 1945. In the accident, he suffered a badly wrenched back, cuts, and bruises. After recovering from his injuries, he returned to work at American Airlines. Crash investigation Within two hours of the accident, investigators conducted an interview with flight engineer Warren Cook, in which he stated that the flight's descent was completely routine right up to the point where the aircraft unexpectedly hit the water. They were unable to immediately interview first officer Frank Hlavacek because of his medical condition, but when interviewed several days later, he told investigators that he had been calling out indicated altitudes to Captain DeWitt during the descent in one-hundred-foot increments as they approached the runway. He said that he had barely gotten the words out for five hundred feet when the plane struck the river. Cook's statement to investigators, taken independently at a separate hospital, confirmed that they struck the river just as Hlavacek was saying "five hundred feet". Recovery of the wreckage of the aircraft began as soon as the weather conditions permitted, with 25 percent of the plane recovered by February 5, and fifty percent by the following day. The day after the crash, salvage cranes attempted to raise the fuselage of the aircraft to the surface of the water, but they were only briefly successful before it broke apart and most of it fell back into the water. The tail section was raised by crews on the evening of February 5, and newspaper articles reported that the damage to that section suggested that the aircraft may have crashed in a "nose up" position, as though the pilot had noticed at the last minute that he was well short of the runway. Divers were brought in to locate missing sections of the aircraft beneath the surface of the water, but recovery efforts were hindered by high winds, strong river currents, and murky waters. Some pieces of the plane had been swept away by currents and had been found as far away as Northport, Long Island, more than thirty miles away. Each piece was identified, tagged, and cleaned off, and relocated to Hangar 9 of the Marine Terminal of LaGuardia Airport. The nose section and cockpit was recovered late on February 7. The cockpit was salvaged in good condition, with the spring-wound clock on the instrument panel still working when the section was recovered from the river. Investigators predicted that it would take at least two weeks to check all of the instruments to determine if they were functioning correctly at the time of the accident. Early reports from the investigation revealed that the condition of the flight control surfaces revealed that at the time of impact, the aircraft had not been in a violent turn or dive when it hit the water. On February 9, the Federal Aviation Agency announced that flying restrictions would be put in place on bad-weather landings by Lockheed Electra aircraft. The restrictions increased the minimum visibility conditions required for landing in poor conditions. In communications with flight crews, both American Airlines and Eastern Airlines described the restrictions as temporary only, likely lasting only a few days. Lockheed Aircraft Corporation expressed disappointment in the new restrictions, but agreed to cooperate with the investigation to the fullest extent. The following day, the Agency reversed course, and said that the Electra airliners could resume normal operation if they replaced the new altimeters with old-style altimeters. Both airlines agreed to immediately replace the altimeters as a precautionary step. The Agency also extended the order to include the requirement that new-style altimeters that had been installed in Boeing 707 aircraft needed to be replaced. The altimeters used in the aircraft had been an early focus of the investigation. The units that Lockheed had used in its Electra turboprops were a different style than what had been used in older piston-type aircraft. The older type used three hands of different lengths to indicate the aircraft's altitude, but the new design combined a needle that displayed hundreds of feet and a rectangular display with numbers printed on rotating drums that indicated the thousands of feet. The Kollsman Instrument Corporation, which built both types, described the new style as a "precision drum altimeter" and said that it had been "developed as a result of a human engineering study made by the Aero Medical Laboratory, by an unnamed Government body, and at the instigation of the Air Force, primarily to meet the needs of faster flying." The Air Force had experienced numerous problems with the older-style altimeters where its pilots had made 10,000-foot mistakes. Pilots training on the new aircraft reported several instances where they had misread the altitude on the new altimeters, causing them to misread the aircraft's altitude by up to 1,000 feet. Because of the confusion, early reports said that the airline had made plans to install an additional third altimeter of the old type in the center of the pilot's panel while continuing to use the newer style altimeters. Pilots for Eastern Airlines who had been flying the Electra aircraft also complained about the new style of altimeter, stating that not only were they easy to misinterpret, but they tended to lag behind the older style. That airline had installed a third, old-style, altimeter in their cockpits. American Airlines defended the new style altimeter as "a new and far superior altimeter with finer gradations" and denied that it had received complaints with the instruments. It acknowledged that it had planned to install a third altimeter in the cockpits, but said that the third unit was planned to be a new-style model. At the time of the accident, the aircraft in Flight 320 still only had the two original altimeters. An investigative hearing of the CAB began in New York City on March 18, 1959. In testimony before the board, first officer Hlavacek confirmed the information that he had given in his earlier interviews and stated that he and the other crew members had checked their altimeters several times during the flight including when they passed by Newark, New Jersey, saying that his and the pilot's altimeter were very close. He said that at the time of the crash, the pilot had been using the automatic pilot with partial manual control during the approach, and also said that some ice had formed at the top of the windshield, but it had not been considered serious. He said that he had not seen any sign of the runway through the windshield ahead, but that he had caught sight of a few reddish lights flashing past his side windows just before impact. The investigative board confronted Flight engineer Cook with transcripts of an interview that he had given immediately after the accident, in which he stated that the aircraft's altimeter had shown under one hundred feet at the time of impact, but he had later testified that it showed five hundred feet. Cook stated that at the time, he was in a state of shock and that in his mind he had mistaken the one on the drum to mean one hundred feet instead of one thousand feet. He confirmed that he had turned on de-icing equipment before the plane had started its descent, and confirmed that the pilot had been using the automatic pilot to fly the plane during the descent. He said that he had been flying with Captain Dewitt since 1951, that he knew him well, and that it was the pilot's custom to use the automatic pilot to descend until about 400 feet above the runway, when he would switch to manual control. He also testified that he had seen nothing but blackness through the windshield up to the time of the crash. Accident investigators took the altimeters that were recovered from the crash to the instrument shop at La Guardia Airport for detailed examination. On February 26, an article in the Chicago Tribune reported that after the altimeters had been cleaned of corrosion, water, and dirt, they had been tested in a pressure chamber. According to the article, both of the devices functioned normally down to 1000 feet above ground pressure level, but below 1,000 feet they stuck or lagged considerably. However, in official testimony before the board, the manufacturer of the altimeters submitted a report to the board that said that their investigation concluded that the instruments did not have any mechanical failure or malfunction before the crash. When they had been salvaged from the water, the pilot's and co-pilot's instruments had indicated minus 1,500 feet and minus 1,640 feet respectively, reflecting damage to parts of the instruments caused by immersion pressure. When questioned, the investigator acknowledged that there was no means to determine what the altimeters showed at the time of impact. In testimony before the CAB, the American Airlines's director of flying said that the identical malfunction of two altimeters at the same time was "almost mathematically impossible". The CAB heard from experts from the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation who had attempted to reproduce a 500-foot error in the reported altitude caused by ice buildup in the air pressure lines. They flew an Electra plane behind an Air Force tanker that was spraying ice-producing water to see if they could cause the pressure line to clog. In other tests, they artificially plugged the line, affected the opening various equipment and even had a mechanic spray a stream of water directly into the pressure port. None of the tests produced the 500-foot error that was reported by the pilots, and produced an error only of forty or fifty feet. In trying to determine why the crew of the Electra had not seen the runway ahead of them, the CAB heard from two pilots of a Northeast Airlines DC-3 that had landed at La Guardia Airport a minute or two in front of the Electra. They testified that they had had no problem coming in under the 400-foot cloud ceiling and that they could see the whole mile-long runway ahead of them. However, interviews with crash survivors and crew members of the rescue tug suggested that an isolated patch of low clouds and fog was hanging over the river at the time of the crash. The CAB released a final report on the accident on January 10, 1960. The investigators concluded that the crew had been preoccupied with aspects of flight and had neglected to monitor essential flight instruments during the descent, leading to a premature descent below landing minimums. Contributing to the accident were factors including the crew's limited experience with the aircraft type, a faulty approach technique in which the autopilot was used to or almost to the surface, an erroneous setting of the pilot's altimeter, marginal weather in the approach area, possible misinterpretation of the altimeter and the rate of descent indicators on the aircraft, and the crew's sensory illusion with respect to height and altitude resulting from a lack of visual references. The board was critical of the airline's lack of adequate simulator training on the aircraft before placing it into passenger service, and made recommendations to the FAA that all large turbine-engine aircraft used in air transportation be equipped with a flight recorder. Over 90 percent of the primary structural components of the aircraft and most of the system's components were recovered by investigators. They found that at the moment of impact, the flaps were approximately in the approach position, the landing gear was extended, and propeller blade angles were relatively uniform and consistent with the power readings obtained from the recovered aircraft instruments and consistent with the testimony of the crew regarding the power being used during the approach. Neither of the two vertical speed indicator mechanisms were recovered. Both altimeters were recovered, but since the diaphragms of both had been overstressed due to submersion, it was impossible to establish the calibration or accuracy of either altimeter before the crash. Investigators obtained all of the maintenance records including pilot complaints of all operators, civil and military, of the type of altimeter used in the flight. None of the reported incidents involved more than one of the altimeters installed at a time, and after reviewing the possibility of a simultaneous failure of both altimeters, the CAB concluded that it would involve such an extreme mathematical improbability that it chose to reject that theory as well as reject portions of the testimony of the surviving crew members. It also concluded that after consideration of all possible scenarios, that a failure of just one of the altimeters was also unlikely to have occurred. Based upon eyewitness testimony and analysis of the point of impact, the CAB concluded that it was likely that one or more of the pilots had misread the altimeter due to their unfamiliarity with the new style. It also concluded that there was a possibility that the crew had misread the vertical speed indicators, which also used a different scale than what had been used in older aircraft or in the training received by the captain. The CAB concluded that all of the required airport, boundary, and runway lights were on and functioning at the time of the accident. However, because the lights were slanted upward at between three and five degrees, and because of a dike located between the end of runway 22 and the water, the CAB concluded that they would not have been visible to the crew because of the aircraft's premature descent below the cloud level. The CAB's conclusions were soundly criticized by the president of the Air Line Pilots Association, who called the report "grossly inaccurate in a number of respects", and that the report failed to satisfactorily explain the reason for the accident and assumed factors that had not been established by fact. He said that pilots at American Airlines were united in protest against the report, saying it "slandered and wrongfully accused" crew members of the plane, and was aimed at "conveniently writing the accident off the books" rather than accurately determining a cause. He said that in the association's judgement, the crash was the result of marginal weather conditions and inadequate approach and lighting aids at the airport. First officer Frank Hlavacek said he was "furious" over the CAB report, saying the board tried to take the easy way out by blaming a dead captain. He said he hoped that American Airlines would protest the report. Additional investigations On February 6, 1959 a special House subcommittee was named to investigate the crash and overall safety issues that the aviation industry was experiencing while transitioning from piston aircraft to jet and turboprop aircraft. The subcommittee was headed by Representative John Bell Williams of Mississippi, a former World War II bomber pilot. Representative Oren Harris of Arkansas said the subcommittee would look into the equipment that was being used on the new aircraft as well as the training of their crews. The five members of the subcommittee visited LaGuardia Field on February 12, and inspected the runway where Flight 320 had been trying to reach, but refused to publicly discuss the results of their investigation. In March, the committee announced that it was investigating the Federal Aviation Agency for suppressing information that the committee had requested about the difficulties that had been encountered with the new type of altimeters used in the Lockheed Electra and Boeing 707 aircraft. During hearings of the aviation subcommittee of the Senate Commerce Committee in January 1960, the safety director for the CAB testified that if the LaGuardia runway had been equipped with high density lights, "the accident probably would not have happened". He also advocated for more training of copilots of aircraft and the installation of electronic flight recorders in aircraft to assist with accident investigations. As a result of the testimony, three of the senators on the subcommittee called for the installation of modern lighting systems at Chicago's Midway airport and other landing fields, and the implementation of requirements that copilots be certified on the aircraft they fly. Elwood Richard Quesada, administrator of the Federal Aviation Agency, testified that the government had pledged to pay 75 percent of the cost to install high intensity lighting and radar approaches at La Guardia prior to the accident, but that officials at the airport had declined to pay the 25 percent required for local cooperation. References Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1959 Aviation accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain February 1959 events in the United States 1959 in New York (state) 320 Accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed L-188 Electra Airliner accidents and incidents in New York City LaGuardia Airport	6,043
doc-en-10292_0	In mathematics, and especially differential geometry and gauge theory, a connection on a fiber bundle is a device that defines a notion of parallel transport on the bundle; that is, a way to "connect" or identify fibers over nearby points. The most common case is that of a linear connection on a vector bundle, for which the notion of parallel transport must be linear. A linear connection is equivalently specified by a covariant derivative, an operator that differentiates sections of the bundle along tangent directions in the base manifold, in such a way that parallel sections have derivative zero. Linear connections generalize, to arbitrary vector bundles, the Levi-Civita connection on the tangent bundle of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, which gives a standard way to differentiate vector fields. Nonlinear connections generalize this concept to bundles whose fibers are not necessarily linear. Linear connections are also called Koszul connections after Jean-Louis Koszul, who gave an algebraic framework for describing them . This article defines the connection on a vector bundle using a common mathematical notation which de-emphasizes coordinates. However, other notations are also regularly used: in general relativity, vector bundle computations are usually written using indexed tensors; in gauge theory, the endomorphisms of the vector space fibers are emphasized. The different notations are equivalent, as discussed in the article on metric connections (the comments made there apply to all vector bundles). Motivation Let be a differentiable manifold, such as Euclidean space. A vector-valued function can be viewed as a section of the trivial vector bundle One may consider a section of a general differentiable vector bundle, and it is therefore natural to ask if it is possible to differentiate a section, as a generalization of how one differentiates a function on . The model case is to differentiate a function on Euclidean space . In this setting the derivative at a point in the direction may be defined by the standard formula For every , this defines a new vector When passing to a section of a vector bundle over a manifold , one encounters two key issues with this definition. Firstly, since the manifold has no linear structure, the term makes no sense on . Instead one takes a path such that and computes However this still does not make sense, because and are elements of the distinct vector spaces and This means that subtraction of these two terms is not naturally defined. The problem is resolved by introducing the extra structure of a connection to the vector bundle. There are at least three perspectives from which connections can be understood. When formulated precisely, all three perspectives are equivalent. (Parallel transport) A connection can be viewed as assigning to every differentiable path a linear isomorphism for all Using this isomorphism one can transport to the fibre and then take the difference; explicitly, In order for this to depend only on and not on the path extending it is necessary to place restrictions (in the definition) on the dependence of on This is not straightforward to formulate, and so this notion of "parallel transport" is usually derived as a by-product of other ways of defining connections. In fact, the following notion of "Ehresmann connection" is nothing but an infinitesimal formulation of parallel transport. (Ehresmann connection) The section may be viewed as a smooth map from the smooth manifold to the smooth manifold As such, one may consider the pushforward which is an element of the tangent space In Ehresmann's formulation of a connection, one chooses a way of assigning, to each and every a direct sum decomposition of into two linear subspaces, one of which is the natural embedding of With this additional data, one defines by projecting to be valued in In order to respect the linear structure of a vector bundle, one imposes additional restrictions on how the direct sum decomposition of moves as is varied over a fiber. (Covariant derivative) The standard derivative in Euclidean contexts satisfies certain dependencies on and the most fundamental being linearity. A covariant derivative is defined to be any operation which mimics these properties, together with a form of the product rule. Unless the base is zero-dimensional, there are always infinitely many connections which exist on a given differentiable vector bundle, and so there is always a corresponding choice of how to differentiate sections. Depending on context, there may be distinguished choices, for instance those which are determined by solving certain partial differential equations. In the case of the tangent bundle, any pseudo-Riemannian metric (and in particular any Riemannian metric) determines a canonical connection, called the Levi-Civita connection. Formal definition Let be a smooth real vector bundle over a smooth manifold . Denote the space of smooth sections of by . A covariant derivative on is: an -linear map such that the product rule holds for all smooth functions on and all smooth sections of an assignment, to any smooth section and every , of a -linear map which depends smoothly on and such that for any two smooth sections and any real numbers and such that for every smooth function , is related to by for any and Beyond using the canonical identification between the vector space and the vector space of linear maps these two definitions are identical and differ only in the language used. It is typical to denote by with being implicit in With this notation, the product rule in the second version of the definition given above is written Remark. In the case of a complex vector bundle, the above definition is still meaningful, but is usually taken to be modified by changing "real" and "ℝ" everywhere they appear to "complex" and "" This places extra restrictions, as not every real-linear map between complex vector spaces is complex-linear. There is some ambiguity in this distinction, as a complex vector bundle can also be regarded as a real vector bundle. Induced connections Given a vector bundle , there are many associated bundles to which may be constructed, for example the dual vector bundle , tensor powers , symmetric and antisymmetric tensor powers , and the direct sums . A connection on induces a connection on any one of these associated bundles. The ease of passing between connections on associated bundles is more elegantly captured by the theory of principal bundle connections, but here we present some of the basic induced connections. Dual connection Given a connection on , the induced dual connection on is defined implicitly by Here is a smooth vector field, is a section of , and a section of the dual bundle, and the natural pairing between a vector space and its dual (occurring on each fibre between and ). Notice that this definition is essentially enforcing that be the connection on so that a natural product rule is satisfied for pairing . Tensor product connection Given connections on two vector bundles , define the tensor product connection by the formula Here we have . Notice again this is the natural way of combining to enforce the product rule for the tensor product connection. By repeated application of the above construction applied to the tensor product , one also obtains the tensor power connection on for any and vector bundle . Direct sum connection The direct sum connection is defined by where . Symmetric and exterior power connections Since the symmetric power and exterior power of a vector bundle may be viewed naturally as subspaces of the tensor power, , the definition of the tensor product connection applies in a straightforward manner to this setting. Indeed, since the symmetric and exterior algebras sit inside the tensor algebra as direct summands, and the connection respects this natural splitting, one can simply restrict to these summands. Explicitly, define the symmetric product connection by and the exterior product connection by for all . Repeated applications of these products gives induced symmetric power and exterior power connections on and respectively. Endomorphism connection Finally, one may define the induced connection on the vector bundle of endomorphisms , the endomorphism connection. This is simply the tensor product connection of the dual connection on and on . If and , so that the composition also, then the following product rule holds for the endomorphism connection: By reversing this equation, it is possible to define the endomorphism connection as the unique connection satisfying for any , thus avoiding the need to first define the dual connection and tensor product connection. Any associated bundle Given a vector bundle of rank , and any representation into a linear group , there is an induced connection on the associated vector bundle . This theory is most succinctly captured by passing to the principal bundle connection on the frame bundle of and using the theory of principal bundles. Each of the above examples can be seen as special cases of this construction: the dual bundle corresponds to the inverse transpose (or inverse adjoint) representation, the tensor product to the tensor product representation, the direct sum to the direct sum representation, and so on. Exterior covariant derivative and vector-valued forms Let be a vector bundle. An -valued differential form of degree is a section of the tensor product bundle: The space of such forms is denoted by where the last tensor product denotes the tensor product of modules over the ring of smooth functions on . An -valued 0-form is just a section of the bundle . That is, In this notation a connection on is a linear map A connection may then be viewed as a generalization of the exterior derivative to vector bundle valued forms. In fact, given a connection on there is a unique way to extend to an exterior covariant derivative This exterior covariant derivative is defined by the following Leibniz rule, which is specified on simple tensors of the form and extended linearly: where so that , is a section, and denotes the -form with values in defined by wedging with the one-form part of . Notice that for -valued 0-forms, this recovers the normal Leibniz rule for the connection . Unlike the ordinary exterior derivative, one generally has . In fact, is directly related to the curvature of the connection (see below). Affine properties of the set of connections Every vector bundle over a manifold admits a connection, which can be proved using partitions of unity. However, connections are not unique. If and are two connections on then their difference is a -linear operator. That is, for all smooth functions on and all smooth sections of . It follows that the difference can be uniquely identified with a one-form on with values in the endomorphism bundle : Conversely, if is a connection on and is a one-form on with values in , then is a connection on . In other words, the space of connections on is an affine space for . This affine space is commonly denoted . Relation to principal and Ehresmann connections Let be a vector bundle of rank and let be the principal frame bundle of . Then a (principal) connection on induces a connection on . First note that sections of are in one-to-one correspondence with right-equivariant maps . (This can be seen by considering the pullback of over , which is isomorphic to the trivial bundle .) Given a section of let the corresponding equivariant map be . The covariant derivative on is then given by where is the horizontal lift of from to . (Recall that the horizontal lift is determined by the connection on .) Conversely, a connection on determines a connection on , and these two constructions are mutually inverse. A connection on is also determined equivalently by a linear Ehresmann connection on . This provides one method to construct the associated principal connection. The induced connections discussed in #Induced connections can be constructed as connections on other associated bundles to the frame bundle of , using representations other than the standard representation used above. For example if denotes the standard representation of on , then the associated bundle to the representation of on is the direct sum bundle , and the induced connection is precisely that which was described above. Local expression Let be a vector bundle of rank , and let be an open subset of over which trivialises. Therefore over the set , admits a local smooth frame of sections Since the frame defines a basis of the fibre for any , one can expand any local section in the frame as for a collection of smooth functions . Given a connection on , it is possible to express over in terms of the local frame of sections, by using the characteristic product rule for the connection. For any basis section , the quantity may be expanded in the local frame as where are a collection of local one-forms. These forms can be put into a matrix of one-forms defined by called the local connection form of over . The action of on any section can be computed in terms of using the product rule as If the local section is also written in matrix notation as a column vector using the local frame as a basis, then using regular matrix multiplication one can write where is shorthand for applying the exterior derivative to each component of as a column vector. In this notation, one often writes locally that . In this sense a connection is locally completely specified by its connection one-form in some trivialisation. As explained in #Affine properties of the set of connections, any connection differs from another by an endomorphism-valued one-form. From this perspective, the connection one-form is precisely the endomorphism-valued one-form such that the connection on differs from the trivial connection on , which exists because is a trivialising set for . Relationship to Christoffel symbols In pseudo-Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection is often written in terms of the Christoffel symbols instead of the connection one-form . It is possible to define Christoffel symbols for a connection on any vector bundle, and not just the tangent bundle of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. To do this, suppose that in addition to being a trivialising open subset for the vector bundle , that is also a local chart for the manifold , admitting local coordinates . In such a local chart, there is a distinguished local frame for the differential one-forms given by , and the local connection one-forms can be expanded in this basis as for a collection of local smooth functions , called the Christoffel symbols of over . In the case where and is the Levi-Civita connection, these symbols agree precisely with the Christoffel symbols from pseudo-Riemannian geometry. The expression for how acts in local coordinates can be further expanded in terms of the local chart and the Christoffel symbols, to be given by Contracting this expression with the local coordinate tangent vector leads to This defines a collection of locally defined operators with the property that Change of local trivialisation Suppose is another choice of local frame over the same trivialising set , so that there is a matrix of smooth functions relating and , defined by Tracing through the construction of the local connection form for the frame , one finds that the connection one-form for is given by where denotes the inverse matrix to . In matrix notation this may be written where is the matrix of one-forms given by taking the exterior derivative of the matrix component-by-component. In the case where is the tangent bundle and is the Jacobian of a coordinate transformation of , the lengthy formulae for the transformation of the Christoffel symbols of the Levi-Civita connection can be recovered from the more succinct transformation laws of the connection form above. Parallel transport and holonomy A connection on a vector bundle defines a notion of parallel transport on along a curve in . Let be a smooth path in . A section of along is said to be parallel if for all . Equivalently, one can consider the pullback bundle of by . This is a vector bundle over with fiber over . The connection on pulls back to a connection on . A section of is parallel if and only if . Suppose is a path from to in . The above equation defining parallel sections is a first-order ordinary differential equation (cf. local expression above) and so has a unique solution for each possible initial condition. That is, for each vector in there exists a unique parallel section of with . Define a parallel transport map by . It can be shown that is a linear isomorphism, with inverse given by following the same procedure with the reversed path from to . Parallel transport can be used to define the holonomy group of the connection based at a point in . This is the subgroup of consisting of all parallel transport maps coming from loops based at : The holonomy group of a connection is intimately related to the curvature of the connection . The connection can be recovered from its parallel transport operators as follows. If is a vector field and a section, at a point pick an integral curve for at . For each we will write for the parallel transport map traveling along from to . In particular for every , we have . Then defines a curve in the vector space , which may be differentiated. The covariant derivative is recovered as This demonstrates that an equivalent definition of a connection is given by specifying all the parallel transport isomorphisms between fibres of and taking the above expression as the definition of . Curvature The curvature of a connection on is a 2-form on with values in the endomorphism bundle . That is, It is defined by the expression where and are tangent vector fields on and is a section of . One must check that is -linear in both and and that it does in fact define a bundle endomorphism of . As mentioned above, the covariant exterior derivative need not square to zero when acting on -valued forms. The operator is, however, strictly tensorial (i.e. -linear). This implies that it is induced from a 2-form with values in . This 2-form is precisely the curvature form given above. For an -valued form we have A flat connection is one whose curvature form vanishes identically. Local form and Cartan's structure equation The curvature form has a local description called Cartan's structure equation. If has local form on some trivialising open subset for , then on . To clarify this notation, notice that is a endomorphism-valued one-form, and so in local coordinates takes the form of a matrix of one-forms. The operation applies the exterior derivative component-wise to this matrix, and denotes matrix multiplication, where the components are wedged rather than multiplied. In local coordinates on over , if the connection form is written for a collection of local endomorphisms , then one has Further expanding this in terms of the Christoffel symbols produces the familiar expression from Riemannian geometry. Namely if is a section of over , then Here is the full curvature tensor of , and in Riemannian geometry would be identified with the Riemannian curvature tensor. It can be checked that if we define to be wedge product of forms but commutator of endomorphisms as opposed to composition, then , and with this alternate notation the Cartan structure equation takes the form This alternate notation is commonly used in the theory of principal bundle connections, where instead we use a connection form , a Lie algebra-valued one-form, for which there is no notion of composition (unlike in the case of endomorphisms), but there is a notion of a Lie bracket. In some references (see for example ) the Cartan structure equation may be written with a minus sign: This different convention uses an order of matrix multiplication that is different from the standard Einstein notation in the wedge product of matrix-valued one-forms. Bianchi identity A version of the second (differential) Bianchi identity from Riemannian geometry holds for a connection on any vector bundle. Recall that a connection on a vector bundle induces an endomorphism connection on . This endomorphism connection has itself an exterior covariant derivative, which we ambiguously call . Since the curvature is a globally defined -valued two-form, we may apply the exterior covariant derivative to it. The Bianchi identity says that . This succinctly captures the complicated tensor formulae of the Bianchi identity in the case of Riemannian manifolds, and one may translate from this equation to the standard Bianchi identities by expanding the connection and curvature in local coordinates. There is no analogue in general of the first (algebraic) Bianchi identity for a general connection, as this exploits the special symmetries of the Levi-Civita connection. Namely, one exploits that the vector bundle indices of in the curvature tensor may be swapped with the cotangent bundle indices coming from after using the metric to lower or raise indices. For example this allows the torsion-freeness condition to be defined for the Levi-Civita connection, but for a general vector bundle the -index refers to the local coordinate basis of , and the -indices to the local coordinate frame of and coming from the splitting . However in special circumstance, for example when the rank of equals the dimension of and a solder form has been chosen, one can use the soldering to interchange the indices and define a notion of torsion for affine connections which are not the Levi-Civita connection. Gauge transformations Given two connections on a vector bundle , it is natural to ask when they might be considered equivalent. There is a well-defined notion of an automorphism of a vector bundle . A section is an automorphism if is invertible at every point . Such an automorphism is called a gauge transformation of , and the group of all automorphisms is called the gauge group, often denoted or . The group of gauge transformations may be neatly characterised as the space of sections of the capital A adjoint bundle of the frame bundle of the vector bundle . This is not to be confused with the lowercase a adjoint bundle , which is naturally identified with itself. The bundle is the associated bundle to the principal frame bundle by the conjugation representation of on itself, , and has fibre the same general linear group where . Notice that despite having the same fibre as the frame bundle and being associated to it, is not equal to the frame bundle, nor even a principal bundle itself. The gauge group may be equivalently characterised as A gauge transformation of acts on sections , and therefore acts on connections by conjugation. Explicitly, if is a connection on , then one defines by for . To check that is a connection, one verifies the product rule It may be checked that this defines a left group action of on the affine space of all connections . Since is an affine space modelled on , there should exist some endomorphism-valued one-form such that . Using the definition of the endomorphism connection induced by , it can be seen that which is to say that . Two connections are said to be gauge equivalent if they differ by the action of the gauge group, and the quotient space is the moduli space of all connections on . In general this topological space is neither a smooth manifold or even a Hausdorff space, but contains inside it the moduli space of Yang–Mills connections on , which is of significant interest in gauge theory and physics. Examples A classical covariant derivative or affine connection defines a connection on the tangent bundle of M, or more generally on any tensor bundle formed by taking tensor products of the tangent bundle with itself and its dual. A connection on can be described explicitly as the operator where is the exterior derivative evaluated on vector-valued smooth functions and are smooth. A section may be identified with a map and then If the bundle is endowed with a bundle metric, an inner product on its vector space fibers, a metric connection is defined as a connection that is compatible with the bundle metric. A Yang-Mills connection is a special metric connection which satisfies the Yang-Mills equations of motion. A Riemannian connection is a metric connection on the tangent bundle of a Riemannian manifold. A Levi-Civita connection is a special Riemannian connection: the metric-compatible connection on the tangent bundle that is also torsion-free. It is unique, in the sense that given any Riemannian connection, one can always find one and only one equivalent connection that is torsion-free. "Equivalent" means it is compatible with the same metric, although the curvature tensors may be different; see teleparallelism. The difference between a Riemannian connection and the corresponding Levi-Civita connection is given by the contorsion tensor. The exterior derivative is a flat connection on (the trivial line bundle over M). More generally, there is a canonical flat connection on any flat vector bundle (i.e. a vector bundle whose transition functions are all constant) which is given by the exterior derivative in any trivialization. See also D-module Connection (mathematics) References Donaldson, S.K. and Kronheimer, P.B., 1997. The geometry of four-manifolds. Oxford University Press. Tu, L.W., 2017. Differential geometry: connections, curvature, and characteristic classes (Vol. 275). Springer. Taubes, C.H., 2011. Differential geometry: Bundles, connections, metrics and curvature (Vol. 23). OUP Oxford. Lee, J.M., 2018. Introduction to Riemannian manifolds. Springer International Publishing. Connection (mathematics) Vector bundles	5,537
doc-en-8216_0	In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many intermediate states are known to exist, such as liquid crystal, and some states only exist under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark–gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme density, and extremely high energy. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter. Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, and contains neutral atoms as well as a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely. The term "phase" is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but it is possible for a single compound to form different phases that are in the same state of matter. For example, ice is the solid state of water, but there are multiple phases of ice with different crystal structures, which are formed at different pressures and temperatures. Four fundamental states Solid In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by an outside force, as when broken or cut. In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures, and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred cubic structure at temperatures below , and a face-centred cubic structure between 912 and . Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures. Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter. Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition. Liquid A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water, HO. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature. Gas A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container. In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature. At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid). A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture of decaffeinated coffee. Plasma Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity. A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma. The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. The Sun's corona, some types of flame, and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state. Phase transitions A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states. The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology. The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms. Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples. In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used it is symbolized as (p). Non-classical states Glass Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid material that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero. Crystals with some degree of disorder A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state. Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen. Liquid crystal states Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid, but exhibiting long-range order. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range . In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light. Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays. Magnetically ordered Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet. In a ferromagnet—for instance, solid iron—the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point, which for iron is . An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction. In a ferrimagnet, the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is magnetite (FeO), which contains Fe and Fe ions with different magnetic moments. A quantum spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet, where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet, where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order. Microphase-separated Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometre-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter. Ionic liquids also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid. Low-temperature states Superconductor Superconductors are materials which have zero electrical resistivity, and therefore perfect conductivity. This is a distinct physical state which exists at low temperature, and the resistivity increases discontinuously to a finite value at a sharply-defined transition temperature for each superconductor. A superconductor also excludes all magnetic fields from its interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect or perfect diamagnetism. Superconducting magnets are used as electromagnets in magnetic resonance imaging machines. The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered in 1911, and for 75 years was only known in some metals and metallic alloys at temperatures below 30 K. In 1986 so-called high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in certain ceramic oxides, and has now been observed in temperatures as high as 164 K. Superfluid Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state described as superfluid because it has zero viscosity (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for helium, which forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of . In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of its container. It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will result in quantized vortices. These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope helium-4 forms a Bose–Einstein condensate (see next section) in the superfluid state. More recently, Fermionic condensate superfluids have been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope helium-3 and by lithium-6. Bose–Einstein condensate In 1924, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the "Bose–Einstein condensate" (BEC), sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state that can be described with a single, uniform wavefunction. In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, of JILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder, produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose–Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. It may occur when atoms have very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute zero, . Fermionic condensate A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction. Rydberg molecule One of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma are condensates of excited atoms, called Rydberg matter. These atoms can also turn into ions and electrons if they reach a certain temperature. In April 2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom, confirming that such a state of matter could exist. The experiment was performed using ultracold rubidium atoms. Quantum Hall state A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter. Photonic matter Photonic matter is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no rest mass, and cannot interact. Dropleton A "quantum fog" of electrons and holes that flow around each other and even ripple like a liquid, rather than existing as discrete pairs. High-energy states Degenerate matter Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter, which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents two fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally. Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found in neutron stars. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of approximately 10 minutes, but in a neutron star, the decay is overtaken by inverse decay. Cold degenerate matter is also present in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brown dwarfs, which are expected to have a core with metallic hydrogen. Because of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons can be modeled as a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions. Quark matter In regular cold matter, quarks, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the strong force into hadrons that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactive decay. Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as strange quarks, a heavier analogue of the common down quark. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known. Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of gluons, subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks, and not just theorize. Quark–gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000. Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions within QGP are strong and it flows like a liquid. At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct color-flavor locked (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is superconductive for color charge. These phases may occur in neutron stars but they are presently theoretical. Color-glass condensate Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a "gluonic wall" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider as well. Very high energy states Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, but little is known about it. In string theory, a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at about 1030 K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (1032 K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these states and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these states are important in cosmology because the universe may have passed through these states in the Big Bang. The gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center of a black hole is not a phase of matter; it is not a material object at all (although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of spacetime. Because spacetime breaks down there, the singularity should not be thought of as a localized structure, but as a global, topological feature of spacetime. It has been argued that elementary particles are fundamentally not material, either, but are localized properties of spacetime. In quantum gravity, singularities may in fact mark transitions to a new phase of matter. Other proposed states Supersolid A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter. String-net liquid In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself. Superglass A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure. Arbitrary definition Although multiple attempts have been made to create a unified account, ultimately the definitions of what states of matter exist and the point at which states change are arbitrary. Some authors have suggested that states of matter are better thought of as a spectrum between a solid and plasma instead of being rigidly defined. See also Hidden states of matter Classical element Condensed matter physics Cooling curve Phase (matter) Supercooling Superheating Notes and references External links 2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new form of matter Citat: "... They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity." 2003-10-10, Science Daily: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter 2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..." 2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex Condensed matter physics Engineering thermodynamics	5,251
doc-en-10335_0	This is a list of books by Lemony Snicket, the pen name of American author Daniel Handler. Works published under the name Daniel Handler are not included. Handler, as Snicket, has published 26 fiction novels, thirteen in the main A Series of Unfortunate Events franchise. His works have been translated into more than 40 languages, and have sold more than 65 million copies. A Series of Unfortunate Events A Series of Unfortunate Events is a series of children's novels which follows the turbulent lives of Violet, Klaus, and Sunny Baudelaire after their parents' death in an arsonous house fire. The children are placed in the custody of their distant cousin Count Olaf, who begins to abuse them and openly plots to embezzle their inheritance. After the Baudelaires are removed from his care by their parents' estate executor, Arthur Poe, Olaf begins to doggedly hunt the children down, bringing about the murder of a multitude of characters. The entire series is actively narrated by Snicket, who makes numerous references to his mysterious, deceased love interest, Beatrice. Both Snicket and Beatrice play roles in the story along with Snicket's family members, all of whom are part of an overarching conspiracy known to the children only as "V.F.D." Since the release of the first novel, The Bad Beginning, the books have gained significant popularity, critical acclaim, and commercial success worldwide, spawning a film, video game, assorted merchandise and a television series on Netflix. The thirteen books in the series have collectively sold more than 65 million copies and have been translated into 41 languages. The Bad Beginning The Bad Beginning is the first novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. After the Baudelaire children learn their parents have died in a mansion fire, their banker Arthur Poe puts the Baudelaires in the custody of their distant cousin Count Olaf. Olaf neglects, abuses, and openly plots to embezzle the orphans with the help of his theater troupe. He orders the children to take part in his troupe's performance of The Marvelous Marriage, with Violet as the bride. Klaus learns from a legal book lent by their kindly neighbor, Justice Strauss, that if Olaf marries Violet, he will have access to their inheritance. When he confronts Olaf, the count traps Sunny in a birdcage and threatens her life if the children do not cooperate. On the night of the performance, Strauss plays the part of the judge, unwittingly officiating over a real marriage. When the performance is over, Olaf releases Sunny, but the orphans reveal his plot to Strauss, who annuls the marriage on a technicality, and to Poe, who arrests Olaf. The count and his troupe escape and promise to steal the Baudelaires' fortune and kill them. Strauss offers to take custody of the children, but Poe explains that their parents' will specifies only relatives as guardians. The Reptile Room The Reptile Room is the second novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are sent to live with their distant in-law, the herpetologist Dr. Monty Montgomery. Monty's profession involves traveling to exotic locations and cataloguing new species of reptiles. His most recent find is the Incredibly Deadly Viper, a large and intelligent but harmless snake. Monty's assistant, Gustav Sebald, has disappeared, and in time for an expedition to Peru, the herpetologist's new assistant Stephano (who is Count Olaf in disguise) arrives. The Baudelaires try to warn Monty, but when the herpetologist finally begins to suspect Stephano, he is murdered with the venom of one of his own snakes. Olaf plans to take the children to Peru, but the children's banker, Arthur Poe, arrives and learns of Monty's death. Olaf, still disguised as Stephano, convinces Poe that one of the snakes must have killed the herpetologist. Unable to convince Poe that Stephano is Olaf, Violet searches through the count's belongings for evidence while Sunny and Klaus pretend to be attacked by the Incredibly Deadly Viper. When Violet finds a syringe of snake venom, Olaf escapes before Poe can arrest him. The Wide Window The Wide Window is the third novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are sent to live with their distant relative Josephine Anwhistle, a widow who lives on a cliff over Lake Lachrymose. Josephine, whose husband Ike was eaten by the leeches of Lake Lachrymose, has numerous phobias which include seemingly everything but the lake, which can be seen through a large window in her library. When word of a hurricane reaches the town, Josephine goes to buy provisions in town, where she meets Captain Julio Sham, who is actually Count Olaf is disguise. When Josephine returns, the Baudelaires hear the library window shatter and discover a suicide note from Josephine leaving them in Sham's custody. Arthur Poe arrives and begins work with Olaf (still in disguise) on the custody papers. While waiting in the house, the children discover the message "Curdled Cave" hidden in the suicide note. The orphans find the cave on a map of the lake but are forced to flee when the hurricane destroys Josephine's house. Stealing one of Sham's rental boats, the Baudelaires head through the hurricane to the cave, where Josephine is hiding. The widow explains that Olaf threatened her life if she did not give him the children, but the Baudelaires force her return with them as evidence for Poe. On the way they are intercepted by Olaf, who takes them aboard his boat and pushes Josephine into the lake, where she is eaten by the leeches. Nonetheless, the Baudelaires convince Poe that Sham is Olaf. The count escapes once again. The Miserable Mill The Miserable Mill is the fourth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are sent to live with Sir, the co-owner of a lumber company. Unbeknownst to Mr. Poe, they are forced to work unpaid in the mill, where they befriend the optimistic worker Phil and the company's other co-owner, Charles. The lumbermill's unscrupulous foreman, Flacutono, breaks Klaus's glasses. When Klaus returns from the optometrist, he behaves strangely for some time. When Klaus's glasses are broken again, the children together visit the optometrist, a Dr. Georgina Orwell, only to find that she is a hypnotist working with Count Olaf, who is disguised as her receptionist Shirley Sinoit-Pécer. Olaf plans to coerce the hypnotic Klaus into murdering Charles, after which he (as Shirley) will offer to become the children's guardian and relieve Sir of the burden. The plan is foiled by Violet, who discovers how to unhypnotize her brother, and in the process Orwell is killed, but Sir still wishes to relinquish custody to Shirley. Poe arrives, and learning that the children have been forced to work, he removes Sir's custody. The children convince Poe that Shirley is Olaf, but the count escapes with Flacutono, who was one of his associates in disguise. Poe explains that he cannot keep finding new guardians for the children, and that they will have to attend boarding school. The Austere Academy The Austere Academy is the fifth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are sent to Prufrock Preparatory School, an academy overseen by the tyrannic Vice Principal Nero. While treated poorly and confined to a shack outside the dormitories, the children befriend fellow students and triplets Duncan and Isadora Quagmire, who lost their brother and parents in a fire similar to the Baudelaires'. All five children are persistently taunted by their obnoxious classmate Carmelita Spats. When the Quagmires learn of the Baudelaires' troubles and note the similarity of their plights, the triplets begin to research Count Olaf in the school library's records. Olaf soon arrives disguised as Genghis, the school's new gym teacher. He begins the aptly names "Special Orphan Running Exercises" (S.O.R.E.) for the Baudelaires, forcing them to spend every night running laps out on the field. Unable to stay awake during the day, the children begin failing their classes. Finally Nero announces that if they do not each pass a special exam, they will be expelled and placed in private tutoring with Genghis. On the night before the exams, the Quagmires disguise themselves as the Baudelaires (using a bag of flour for Sunny) and take their places for S.O.R.E., leaving Violet, Klaus, and Sunny to study for their exams. The next morning Poe arrives and the children pass their exams. When they convince Poe that Genghis is Olaf, the count escapes to black car driven by two of his associates, and the Baudelaires see that he has kidnapped the Quagmires. Duncan tries to tell the Baudelaires a secret he and his sister have discovered about Count Olaf, but all the children can hear is "V.F.D." The Ersatz Elevator The Ersatz Elevator is the sixth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are sent to live with Jerome and Esmé Squalor, a wealthy couple who live in the penthouse of a 66 story apartment complex in the city. While Jerome is kindly toward the orphans, Esmé is obsessed with fashion and constantly occupied in her collaboration with a man named Gunther on a fashion auction known as the In Auction. When the children finally meet Gunther, they realize he is Count Olaf in disguise. When Olaf leaves the apartment complex without passing the doorman, the orphans search for a secret exit, and discover that there is an extra elevator door on the 66th floor which leads to an empty elevator shaft. The children make a rope and lower themselves down until they reach a room in which they find Duncan and Isadora Quagmire trapped in a cage. The Baudelaires climb back up the shaft to find a means of rescue for Quagmires, but when they return the triplets are gone. The children return and find Esmé, who tells them she is working with Olaf, then pushes them into the shaft, where they are caught in a net. Sunny climbs the shaft using her teeth and retrieves the rope, then the children climb down to the bottom, where they discover a tunnel which leads to a secret door in the ruins of their former home. The children head to the In Auction to find Olaf and Esmé; at the auction they find Mr. Poe and Jerome. The children expose Olaf and Esmé, and to Jerome's dismay, the count announces Esmé is his girlfriend, then the two villains escape. Jerome announces he will take the orphans far away from their troubles, but the Baudelaires are unwilling to desert the Quagmires. Jerome relinquishes his custody back to Poe and leaves the children. The Vile Village The Vile Village is the seventh novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. The Baudelaires are sent to a village called V.F.D. They believe it has something to do with the secret the Quagmire triplets mentioned before they were kidnapped. The Baudelaires are treated cruelly by the villagers, but their guardian Hector is nice, if a bit skittish. The children find couplets once a day, and think the Quagmires are trying to communicate with them. The people in the village find someone with a unibrow and an eye tattoo on his ankle like Count Olaf has but the children know it is not Count Olaf. The townsfolk decide to execute him but the day before his execution, the suspect has been murdered and Count Olaf blames the children. The children are arrested; they manage to escape the jail and find the Quagmires, having found the hidden message in Isadora's couplets. The Quagmires escape with Hector in a hot air balloon built by Hector, but the children are forced to flee the town. The Hostile Hospital The Hostile Hospital is the eighth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. Now seen as murderers, the Baudelaires try to contact Mr. Poe via telegram. Whilst waiting for Mr. Poe to reply, they are recognised as murderers, and escape to Heimlich Hospital with a group of volunteers. When at the hospital, they work for a man named Hal in the Library of Records, where they try to obtain the "Snicket file" which contains information about them. Count Olaf becomes head of the hospital and captures Violet. Klaus and Sunny later realise Count Olaf plans to cut off her head, so they rescue Violet by disguising themselves as nurses. Once Olaf and his associates realise their plan is foiled, one of them sets the hospital on fire and the children are forced to escape in the trunk of Count Olaf's car. The Carnivorous Carnival The Carnivorous Carnival is the ninth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. The children travel to the Hinterlands after escaping Heimlich Hospital by riding of the trunk of Count Olaf's car. This book takes place in the Caligari Carnival run by Madame Lulu, a mysterious fortune teller. Violet, Klaus and Sunny disguise themselves as carnival freaks to be hired by Madame Lulu and figure out a few of their mysterious questions. The Slippery Slope The Slippery Slope is the tenth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. The children travel to the Mortmain Mountains after escaping yet another fire at the Caligari Carnival. Sunny gets separated from Violet and Klaus. Violet and Klaus meet up with another volunteer soon discovered as Quigley Quagmire, the long lost triplet of the Quagmire Family. He helps Violet and Klaus make their way to the destroyed VFD headquarters. With Violet and Klaus working on the burned headquarters and Sunny eavesdropping Count Olaf, the Baudelaires learn much more about the secret organization of V.F.D. The Grim Grotto The Grim Grotto is the eleventh novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. The story takes place in a submarine, the Queequeg. The Queequeg only has 3 members: Captain Widdershins, a member of V.F.D.; Phil, the chef (who previously appeared in "The Miserable Mill"); and Fiona, Captain Widdershins' stepdaughter. The Baudelaires join this crew on the submarine and search for the sugar bowl, but run into Count Olaf along the way. The Penultimate Peril The Baudelaire orphans go to Hotel Denouement where they meet Kit Snicket, Lemony's sister, and disguise themselves as concierges and flaneur, a term Handler uses as a person who observes things, the orphans have to find out who is a volunteer and who is a villain. While the orphans encounter people from their past the sugar bowl is being delivered. They must detect if a manager is a volunteer named Frank, or a villain, named Ernest. The children encounter a harpoon gun, a rooftop sunbathing salon, two mysterious initials, J.S, three unidentified triplets, and an unsavory curry. The End The End is the thirteenth novel in A Series of Unfortunate Events. In this book, the Baudelaires are stranded on a boat with Olaf. They are shipwrecked on an island and discover its inhabitants are planning to mutiny. Everyone on the island is poisoned by Medusoid Mycellium when the leader of the island, Ishmael, shoots Olaf with a harpoon gun and hits the fungus which Olaf was hiding. The islanders flee the island; Olaf dies and the Baudelaires manage to survive by eating an apple containing horseradish. There is an epilogue at the end of the book, titled "Chapter Fourteen", set a year later. Other Unfortunate Events canon The Unauthorized Autobiography Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (2002) is a fictional autobiography of Lemony Snicket released in conjunction with A Series of Unfortunate Events. The Autobiography tells the story of Snicket's childhood and abduction by V.F.D. using letters, newspaper clippings, and other memorabilia. The Dismal Dinner "Mysterious Messages Concerning the Dismal Dinner" (2004), commonly called "The Dismal Dinner", is a short miniseries by Lemony Snicket which ties in with A Series of Unfortunate Events, set before The Bad Beginning. The four-part series was released in 2004 with Lunchables in promotion of the film. The series describes a scene at the fourth-to-last dinner party held by Bertrand and Beatrice Baudelaire before their deaths. Each part includes a clue which together spell out: Olaf was there. Snicket describes a dinner party in which "at least two guests were disguised as desserts". As Bertrand Baudelaire is about to cut into these desserts and several guests are passing around "the sugar bowl", Sunny Baudelaire sees a man with an "exceptionally large and sharp" nose looking through the window and shrieks, "Funcoot!", which Snicket glosses as, "I believe I may have seen someone lurking outside" ("Al Funcoot" is an anagrammatic pseudonym of Count Olaf). Klaus, having just read Taking the Teeth Out of Teething, believes that Sunny is teething, prompting Violet to create a device using "a silver pie server and the ear of the snowman ice sculpture" (likely one and the same as "the guest disguised as the ice sculpture [who] wore a bowtie") to soothe Sunny's teeth. The figure in the window disappears, and Sunny calms down. Snicket concludes that the occasion was a "fateful event". The Beatrice Letters The Beatrice Letters (2006) is a collection of fictional letters between Lemony Snicket, Beatrice Baudelaire(mom), and a second Beatrice, released as part of A Series of Unfortunate Events. Letters between Snicket and the elder Beatrice tells the story of their childhood, romance, and eventual separation. Letters from the younger Beatrice tells of the lives of the Baudelaire orphans after the events of The End. 13 Shocking Secrets you'll wish you never knew about Lemony Snicket 13 Shocking Secrets you'll wish you never knew about Lemony Snicket (2006) is a promotional pamphlet containing thirteen "secrets" about Lemony Snicket; the final secret is found by decoding a puzzle. It was distributed through the HarperCollins AuthorTracker mailing list and on the Lemony Snicket website in promotion of The End. The day after the pamphlet was published, HarperCollins issued a press release revealing that Lemony Snicket had finished writing The End, the final book in the series. The final secret is also echoed near the bottom of the "Dear Reader" letter for volume 13, The End. Unfortunate Events companion books The Blank Book The Blank Book (Harper Collins, March 2004, ) is the first of two commonplace books in the Unfortunate Events franchise. It is a 176-page hardcover journal. Commonplace books are used in the series by many protagonists, including the Quagmire family, Jacques Snicket and Klaus Baudelaire, to write notes on their experiences and discoveries. The bottom of each page is printed with quotations from A Series of Unfortunate Events and illustrations by Brett Helquist. There is also a sheet of Unfortunate Events stickers. The cover illustration shows Count Olaf surrounded by fire, smiling and holding a dip pen. The Notorious Notations The Notorious Notations (February 2006, ) is the second of two commonplace books in the Unfortunate Events franchise. It is also 176 pages long, hardcover and contains quotations from the books and illustrations by Brett Helquist. The cover illustration features a silhouette of Count Olaf in profile. The Puzzling Puzzles The Puzzling Puzzles: Bothersome Games Which Will Bother Some People is a spin-off first published in 2004 as a promotion for the movie Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. The original paperback book is 96 pages long. The Puzzling Puzzles contains puzzles related to both the books and the film. Many of the puzzles are unsolvable or trick questions; for example, one refers to a black and white picture of a restaurant and asks about the color of the maître d''s socks. The last page reveals that the book is a training manual for V.F.D. The second U.S. edition (2006) has a new cover (see image, from artwork in The Bad Beginning: Special Edition), sixteen new puzzles, and an additional introduction by R. In the United Kingdom, another edition was released February 2007 with the new cover but does not contain the new U.S. contents. All the Wrong Questions All the Wrong Questions is a four-part book series written by Lemony Snicket. It is a prequel to his previous series, A Series of Unfortunate Events. The series features Snicket's apprenticeship as he investigates crimes with S. Theodora Markson, his chaperone, in the town called Stain'd-by-the-Sea. Who Could That Be at This Hour? Who Could That Be at This Hour? is the first book in All the Wrong Questions. Lemony Snicket, who is a member of a secret organization, narrates his experience while he is taking apprenticeship to his chaperone. In this book, Snicket and his chaperone are assigned to find a lost statue known as The Bombinating Beast. When Did You See Her Last? When Did You See Her Last? is the second book in All the Wrong Questions. Snicket, who is still under apprenticeship to his chaperone, is once again assigned to investigate and search for the Knight's only daughter, Ms. Cleo Knight. Shouldn't You Be in School? Shouldn't You Be in School? is the third book in All the Wrong Questions. Snicket, who continues his apprenticeship to a secret organization, is assigned to investigate a case involving arson, although is suspicious of those who hired him. Two further events of arson occur in the book, along with a plan to burn down the library that Snicket thwarts. Why Is This Night Different from All Other Nights? Why Is This Night Different from All Other Nights? is the fourth book in All the Wrong Questions. File Under: 13 Suspicious Incidents Released on April 1, 2014, File Under: 13 Suspicious Incidents is a companion book in All the Wrong Questions. The book is a collection of short stories in which Snicket recounts thirteen investigations he undertook while staying in Stain'd-by-the-Sea; the reader is encouraged to try and work out the solutions to each one before reading the answer in the back of the book. Other works 13 Words 13 Words is a picture book. It is illustrated by Maira Kalman. It tells a story through 13 words: bird, despondent, cake, dog, busy, convertible, goat, hat, haberdashery, scarlet, baby, panache, and mezzo-soprano. It erroneously defines a haberdashery as a hat shop. The Baby in the Manger The Baby in the Manger is a secular Nativity story. The Composer Is Dead The Composer Is Dead is a murder mystery about the killing of a composer, with text by Snicket and music by Nathaniel Stookey. It takes place in an orchestra, and is designed to help introduce children to the parts of an orchestra. It was conceived of as a more modern version of the well-known Prokofiev piece Peter and the Wolf. Horseradish Horseradish: Bitter Truths You Can't Avoid''' is a "wit and wisdom" quotation book partly drawn from A Series of Unfortunate Events. The Latke Who Couldn't Stop ScreamingThe Latke Who Couldn't Stop Screaming is about an irate latke at Hanukkah who escapes from being boiled in a hot frying pan. He runs into various Christmas symbols (such as fairy lights, a candy cane and pine tree) who are all ignorant and uneducated about the customs of Hanukkah. The latke attempts to educate these people about the history and culture surrounding the Jewish holiday, but his attempts are always in vain and he runs away from each encounter in a fit of frustration. The Lump of CoalThe Lump of Coal is a Christmas story. A living lump of coal falls off a barbecue grill. He wishes for a miracle to happen. The lump of coal is artistic and wants to be an artist. He goes in search of something. First, he finds an art gallery that, he believes, shows art by lumps of coal. But when he comes in, he sadly discovers the art is by humans who use lumps of coal. He then finds a Korean restaurant called Wongs Korean Restaurant and Secretarial School. But he goes in and discovers that all things used must be 100% Korean (although the owner does not use a Korean name or proper Korean spices). The lump of coal continues down the street and runs into a man dressed like Santa. The lump of coal tells the man about his problem, and the man gets an idea. He suggests he put the lump of coal in his bratty son's stocking. The son finds it and is ecstatic. He has wanted to make art with coal. So he makes portraits and he and the lump of coal become rich. They move to Korea and open an actual genuine Korean restaurant and have a gallery of their art. New American Haggadah The New American Haggadah (edited by Jonathan Safran Foer, translation by Nathan Englander) is a contemporary translation of the Haggadah. Lemony Snicket is one of the commentators. The Dark Released in 2013, The Dark was illustrated by Jon Klassen. It's about a boy, Laszlo, overcoming his fear of the dark by confronting the object of his fear. 29 Myths on the Swinster Pharmacy29 Myths on the Swinster Pharmacy, illustrated by Lisa Brown, the wife of Daniel Handler, was released in February 2014. It focuses on a mysterious pharmacy. Goldfish GhostGoldfish Ghost, also illustrated by Lisa Brown, was released in May 2017. The picture book details what happens after a pet goldfish dies. The Bad Mood and the StickThe Bad Mood and the Stick, illustrated by Montreal-based Matthew Forsythe, was released in October 2017. The picture book details the way that moods (both bad and good) are spread through simple actions. Poison for BreakfastPoison for Breakfast'', released in August 2021, follows Lemony Snicket himself as he finds a note under his door informing him that he had poison for breakfast. See also Lemony Snicket References External links List of Daniel Handler's books on his official website Snicket, Lemony Bibliographies of American writers Children's literature bibliographies es:El libro en blanco es:13 secretos impactantes que desearías nunca saber sobre Lemony Snicket id:The Notorious Notations id:The Puzzling Puzzles id:The Blank Book ms:The Notorious Notations ms:The Puzzling Puzzles ms:13 Shocking Secrets You'll Wish You Never Knew About Lemony Snicket ms:The Blank Book	6,165
doc-en-10396_0	Aerial advertising is a form of advertising that incorporates the use of flogos, manned aircraft, or drones to create, transport, or display, advertising media. The media can be static, such as a banner, logo, lighted sign or sponsorship branding. It can also be dynamic, such as animated lighted signage, skywriting, or audio. Prior to World War II, aviation pioneer Arnold Sidney Butler, the owner and operator of Daniel Webster Airport (New Hampshire) utilizing his fleet of J3 Cubs, created banner towing and was credited with a number of inventions and aircraft modifications used to pick up and release banners. At the start of World War II, the government took over the airstrip for military training. Afterward, Butler moved his aircraft to Florida and formed Circle-A Aviation where he continued his banner towing business. Still today, many of his aircraft remain in service and can be seen in the skies over Miami and Hollywood, Florida. Aerial advertising is effective if a large target audience is gathered near the source of advertising. Balloons, skywriting, and banner towing are usually strategically located. Long-range vehicles such as blimps and flogos can reach a broader audience along their flight route. Secondary distribution such as news media coverage, word of mouth and photos of aerial advertising can reach an extended audience. Due to safety, privacy, and aesthetic reasons, the ability to perform aerial advertising is regulated by local and federal entities throughout the world. Employment methods Mobile billboard Advertising can be carried on the envelope or livery of the aircraft, or in the case of balloons, the envelope can be constructed into a specific shape to advertise a product. Sky Sign Inc. created, patented and holds various STC's for their aerial LED-based signs. These signs attach to rotorcraft and fixed wing aircraft. Banner towing Banner towing is a form of skywriting where a banner is towed or dragged behind an aircraft. Since a banner produces a large amount of aerodynamic drag, the airspeed of the towing aircraft is kept low in order to minimize the amount of power required. The banner itself can be of three types: Standard letters Banners using standard letters consist of a series of either 5-foot-high or 7-foot-high letters connected together by joints designed for interchangeability. Standard letters have been the predominant form of banner towing for the past decades. 7-foot letters have the advantage of greater readability over a long distance, but incur a large drag penalty on the towing aircraft. 5-foot letters, on the other hand, trade off some readability for the ability of the towing aircraft to tow longer messages. A typical light aircraft is able to tow 25 7-foot letters or 35 5-foot letters. Advantages of standard letters are readability over a large distance and flexibility. The letters being prefabricated means they can be made into messages with very short notice and can be changed easily after each flight. Aerial billboards Aerial billboards are a relatively new form of banner towing. They usually consist of a large area of nylon cloth and are similar in weight to a spinnaker on a sailing boat. This blank canvas allows vivid pictures to be digitally printed and towed either behind an aircraft or below a helicopter. Helicopter billboards tend to be square in shape to prevent the top corner sagging and becoming unreadable. Aircraft-towed billboards tend to be rectangular; usually 1 high to 3 long but sizes of 1 high to 4 long are becoming the norm. The main advantage of aerial billboards is their visual impact. When banner towing using helicopters, they are much better suited for that use than standard letters are. The disadvantages of aerial billboards are that once painted or printed they cannot be changed as quickly or easily as standard letters. Additionally, they take considerably longer to produce than standard letters. Logo banners This form of banner-towing combines aerial billboards with standard letters to produce a banner that incorporates both types, bringing the "blank canvas" of aerial billboards together with the flexibility of standard letters. Commonly, an intermediate-sized area of nylon cloth is placed at the front of a banner which is then followed by standard letters. This technique is most often used to advertise a brand, but can also be used as a marriage proposal or party invitation. Flogos Flogos (portmanteau of "floating“ and "logos“) are customizable motifs made out of a stable mass of lighter-than-air soap-based bubbles formed into a specific shape. They are a type of "foam balloon" suitable for both outdoor and indoor use, and float in the air once released. They are produced by specialized mobile machines which first combine a patented foam fluid with water and helium to make the foam. The generated foam then gets pressed through a stencil which will determine its individual shape. The machines which produce Flogos are produced and sold by Global Special Effects, who also own the Flogos name and specific concept. Flogos are often customized to suit needs and can be any number of shapes, logos, symbols, letters, and words, which is the reason why they are often linked to aerial advertising, or "Skyvertising". Sky-writing Sky-writing by fixed-wing aircraft, combined with the use of a vapor projector, remains popular with major advertisers. It is most effective in brand awareness with short, dramatic messages and occasionally for "spectaculars" such as marriage proposals. The practice of sky-writing is known to be one of the safest forms of flying, as it is only done in clear skies with smooth air (winds can be strong but smooth) and usually in controlled airspace, where radar separation is provided between planes. Type of aircraft used Aerostats Aerostats are effective carriers of mobile billboards due to their slow speed, long loiter time and inexpensive fuel costs. The first British airship, built by Stanley Spencer in 1902, was funded by an advertisement for baby food carried on its envelope. Research from the United States suggests that the direct cost of balloon advertising "per thousand opportunities to see" is lower than for newspapers, posters, radio or television. Fixed-wing aircraft The most common type of fixed-wing aircraft used for mobile billboards and aerial advertising are single reciprocating engine aircraft, such as converted crop dusters. While on the ground, operators attach a grapple hook and a towline to the rear of the aircraft. Once in flight, the operator comes back and links the grapple hook to the banner, billboard, or streamer while in flight. The wind resistance created during the natural course of flight causes the banner to stream out behind the aircraft, allowing it to be easily seen by those nearby. Because of the relatively low speed and altitude ceiling of propeller aircraft, this type is generally favored for the deployment of mobile billboards when fixed-wing aircraft are used. All metropolitan areas in the U.S. can be serviced except New York City and Washington, D.C. which have restricted airspace. In the 1950s banner-towing started to become widely used as a cost-effective way of bringing a message to the attention of targeted groups of people. There were very few restrictions, the airspace was not nearly as tightly regulated as today. VFR traffic, meaning aircraft navigating solely by visual reference, could even fly into some major airports without using two-way radio, using special air corridors and getting landing, take-off, and taxi instructions by coloured light signals using an "Aldis" lamp from the control tower. The Dutch charter airline Martinair, now part of the air-cargo arm of KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, was founded in the 1950s by Martin Schroeder, a former Dutch Air force pilot, as a company using tethered balloons and banners. The towing aircraft used were DH 82a Tiger Moth, written off as primary trainers, and the occasional Auster. The company later set up an air charter operation at Amsterdam-Schiphol Airport. The first aircraft were a Cessna 172 (PH-MAF) and a De Havilland Dove. Later expansion followed and the company split into the charter company, called "Martin's Air Charter", later Martinair and the light aircraft division, called "Luchtreclame Nederland" based at Hilversum Aerodrome. It was later renamed "Reclamair", moved to Lelystad in the 1970s and expanded into a flying school and restaurant. The previous is to illustrate that aerial advertising was big business then, and could grow into a much bigger operation. A parallel can be found in Germany, where a banner-towing company grew into a much larger operation. At Essen-Muelheim a company called "Westdeutsche Luftwerbung Theodor Wuellenkemper KG" became "WDL Flugdienst" with main operations based at Cologne-Bonn. The aircraft: Although there are various types of aircraft suitable for banner-towing they have to have stable flying characteristics, sufficient power to overcome the substantial drag created by a banner streaming behind the aircraft and they must be equipped with a quick-release hook at the tail. Needless to say, they must be approved for towing operations by the civil aviation authorities. In the 1950s Tiger Moths were cheap and dominated the scene in the Netherlands, but the occasional surviving Fieseler Storch was also very suitable. These aircraft now are priceless classics. Current types are Piper PA18 Super Cub, Vilga, Cessna 172 and others like Morane-Saulnier Rallye, Aeronca Champion, etc. Often these aircraft, when not in use for banner-towing, are used for towing gliders. Some crop dusters are equipped with a hook for towing operations. Nowadays we find that many are turboprop, or diesel powered. Even a twin-engine Dornier D28 has been seen towing a banner. For towing, a grapple hook is attached. Mostly it is in the pilot's lap for take-off. It will be thrown out and door or canopy closed. The Super Cub door has a top and bottom half and the pilot could close it after take-off. The C172 door hinges forward. The pilot has to throw the grapnel out of the window, but the 172 often has a second quick-release under the belly. The hook is attached and released after getting airborne. If the pilot makes a mistake, (s)he will only have a line trailing from the aircraft with the grapple hanging under the belly. The only solution is to land, rectify it and take off again, hoping not too many spectators will have noticed. The grapple (or grapnel) resembles a three-pronged anchor. But the prongs are rounded and bent back towards the stock. A subtle but very important detail: It will prevent the grapple digging into the ground in the event that the aircraft makes its run-in a bit low. And it will also reduce the risk of the loop, about which later, slipping off. For the pick-up, the banner will be spread on the ground. There are two main types: One, a large poster. Not seldom 3 or 4 metres square. Often sewn by professional sail makers using pieces of parachute- or spinnaker nylon in different colours. They may represent a tube of toothpaste, a bottle, a company logo. Expensive to manufacture, they are mainly used for long-term contracts. The other type, more often used, is a text, a streamer as a rule made up of interchangeable letters, mainly black and sometimes red if emphasis is required. The various components are: a line with grapple hook as mentioned, a loop attached to a long line, a parachute, a front boom, the actual streamer with the text or visual message and a stabilizing piece of webbing at the end. The stabilizer is necessary for two reasons: the end of the banner tends to flap or wave, making the last bit of the message difficult to read. It also wears more quickly so that the stabilizer also has a sacrificial function, as a piece of webbing is cheaper to replace. The standard text consists of individual, detachable letters. A ground crew will assemble it beforehand. The standard height usually is in the order of 5 feet. This is a compromise because too large means a smaller text – limited by the aircraft manufacturers and copper-fasted by the CAA – and too small means that it will become difficult to read from the ground. Since they are used and re-used they normally are open-type making them stand out against the sky. A white background can get dirty over time. The letters are sown on parallel lines of thin, strong nylon rope. At the front of each letter is a rod of thin, strong and supple steel. The nylon lines at the front are fitted with wooden pegs, at the end the open lines have loops. When assembling a text, the letters are checked for integrity as they come out of storage and laid out on the ground to form the message. When everything is found to be in order, no pegs missing, no wires broken, no tears and the actual text correct without spelling mistakes the letters will be assembled and the webbing at the end attached, as well as a front boom. This is a strong metal rod with loops at the end. There usually are three lines to the actual towing line. The top one is shortest so that the center of gravity will be below the center of the boom. This to ensure that the message will hang vertical. In addition, often the bottom will be fitted with a weight. If, for whatever reason, the aircraft loses the banner or has to jettison it in an emergency, the front boom will tend to fall straight down. For this reason, a parachute is added. Care must be taken of course that it will stream closed in normal flight; if attached the wrong way around it will cause a very high drag. The banner will now be rolled up, brought to the pick-up point, usually in the grass along the runway and unrolled. Again, it will have to be checked. If one of the lines catches and loops itself around one of the rods, the tension not only may result in damage, but also will cause the banner not to hang straight, even twist and roll in the airstream during flight and the message will be unreadable. To the parachute will be attached a tow line and a loop. This loop is draped over two poles, upright in the ground, Sometimes over forks at the top, other operators use a bit of tubing, split to hold the loop just enough so that it will stay up without slipping off at the critical moment. The lines, typically, are in the order of 30–50 feet in length. If there are two aircraft flying in formation, the second one will be fitted with two lines. The second banner will trail further behind the towing aircraft and the texts will not overlap. The position of the poles at the pick-up point can be marked to make them as visible as possible to the pilot. Traffic cones or other markers like a brightly colored cloth held down with a few stones, or pegs, can be useful. An operator will be positioned who can view the approaching aircraft and give instructions, either using bats or via a portable VHF radio. The banner will be laid out away from the poles against the wind direction. Seen from the cockpit, the pilot will see the banner lying behind the poles; having said that, the large square posters are often laid beside the poles. Their construction will cause less risk of friction over the surface than the open and much longer standard banner. The pilot, having released the grapple, approaches the pick-up point parallel to the runway in a long, very shallow descent. The speed will differ according to the type of aircraft. For the Super Cub, it will typically be 60 mph with one notch of flap extended. In a strong wind, the speed can be 10 mph higher. Over the poles, at a signal from the batsman, (s)he will initiate a steep climb, full power, until a jolt confirms that the grapnel has engaged and the banner is lifted off the ground. At this point, the banner will quite literally "peel" off the surface without dragging. The sudden increase in drag will cause the aircraft to decelerate to below stall speed. The curved flight path will allow this to happen. The pilot will slam the controls forward. Once the banner has lifted off, the aircraft will regain flying speed instantly. It will not be more than about 200 feet off the ground at this time. Cruising speed with a banner usually is at 45–50 mph. The banner will stabilize the aircraft. In flight, the PA18 will need about 2000–2100 rpm. More power will cause a very high increase in drag (for you, pilots: remember 1/2 rho vee square?), a corresponding increase in fuel burn and a gain of perhaps no more than 1 or two mph extra airspeed. The aircraft will cruise, maintaining the flap setting. Again: two reasons. It reduces the stall speed, but it also allows a slightly less nose-up attitude. Meaning: a cooler engine. When the mission is completed, the pilot will return to drop the banner before landing. The drop will be more accurate at as low an altitude as possible. If there is little or no wind, the pilot will fly over the drop-off position – usually the area where the pick-up took place – and pull the release. The banner will fall to the ground, the parachute will open to control the fall of the pole and the aircraft will join the traffic pattern for landing. If there is a strong wind, the pilot may decide to drop at low altitude from a shallow dive. The dive will ensure that the banner, in cruise a few feet lower than the aircraft, will not prematurely touch down. If that happens, a weak link should disconnect the banner from the towing line. If that fails: the Super Cub may end up with the wheels touching the wings as the result of a (very) hard landing. Banner towing has the reputation of being dangerous. In fact, if the pilot takes precautions it is not. The most important precaution is never, ever, to assume that the banner has failed to engage and start a turn to come back for another run – at very low level – too early. With the airspeed suddenly dropping off the clock in a (tight) turn, the banner will not stabilize it and the aircraft will enter a spin from which recovery is not possible. This is the phase of flight that has led to some banner towing pilots losing their lives. On 6 May 2010 British politician Nigel Farage was a passenger in a single-engine light aircraft that crashed whilst towing an election banner. The pilot of the aircraft, a PZL-104 Wilga 35A, had made several attempts to hook the banner from the ground poles and when he finally did there was evidence that the banner towline had wrapped itself around the tailplane elevator. The towline wrap caused the pilot to be unable to control the aircraft and when he attempted to execute an emergency landing the plane, still towing the banner, it crashed landed, the engine broke away and the nose dug in causing the plane to flip over. Both pilot and Farage were seriously injured but recovered in hospital. When coming in too low for the pick-up run, there is a risk that the banner is picked up with the wheels. Especially a tail dragger can be pulled upside-down when landing with the banner. One German operator carried a knife with an extra long handle in every Super Cub, so that the pilot could cut it loose. If not, the best technique is to come in to land approaching slightly high, making certain that the aircraft, at the lowest possible speed, will touch before the banner. With experience, many pilots found that the best way to pick up is not to make the run-in at the height where the ground crew would see the grapple just above the ground. Any turbulence would cause a swing and also could cause the hook to touch the ground. If that happened just before the poles, the grapple would bounce off and over the loop. The best way was to make the approach in a steady, very gentle dive. The pull-up could be initiated about 30 yards or so before the poles. Even if the grapple would be above the actual loop, the pull-up still would result in a decrease in airspeed which, in turn, would allow the momentum of the grapnel to swing a bit lower and engage. By that time, the aircraft would be in a much more gentle climb, already well above the poles and the stall at the top would also be much more under control. Banner towing is no longer practiced as intensively as in the seventies, probably its European heyday. Stricter rules and regulations, especially when flying over urban centers and large assemblies, higher minimum altitudes, in some areas raised from 1000 feet to 2000, which reduces the legibility and impact. Low-flying aircraft are also perceived as a nuisance factor, perceived or real, but all have led to a decline in banner towing activities. In some countries, of course, the climate is not always reliable and the factual occurrence of banner-towing aircraft being caught out in IMC (weather conditions that make flight on instruments necessary if not outright mandatory), all have resulted in banner-towing becoming, if not a thing of the past, certainly becoming a much rarer form of advertising. Drones The growing popularity of consumer-grade and industry-grade unmanned aerial vehicles (particularly, quadcopter drones) led several companies to consider the opportunities of commercial application of such devices. For instance, Google and Amazon have plans of using drones as means of delivery, while the Coca-Cola Company, Lakemaid Beer, Paramount Pictures, and Wokker have already used them in a number of advertising campaigns. The cases of advertising-related application include the distribution of branded products, as well as drones carrying banners. Rotorcraft aircraft Helicopters are capable of towing very large flags, typically made by joining many rows of printed fabric to create one image. Typical sizes of these banners are 20,000 sq ft, making them visible for greater distances due to their scale compared to plane banners. Sean Herbert from Australia invented the helicopter banner system in 1993 and got it approved in 1999. It incorporated a weight bag release system that is sewn into the leading edge of the banner, allowing them to fly over populated areas. The system was later improved by Ryan Osbourne (also of Australia) and incorporated video projection technology to display video upon the banners. notably achieving a world record for MTV over the skies of New York. Kite systems For centuries kite systems have been employed to fly advertisements. Messages have been on wing covers as well as hung on the tether set of the kite systems. Logos, greetings, purchased advertising messages, political messages, religions celebration symbols, event-marking art, promotional phrases, and flags are frequently flown by kites. Advertising by kites is one of the many kite applications. William A. Eddy was an early pioneer in using kites for advertising. Parasailing Parasailing companies make custom banners suitable for towing by the same parachute that would otherwise tow a person. This form of aerial advertising is effective along beaches. Effectiveness Modern proponents of aerial advertising hold the position that it is a cost-effective method to reach otherwise isolated pockets of consumers (such as people stuck in rush-hour traffic, or at the beach, where advertising tends to be limited). Aerial advertisements, according to the service providers, give a company the opportunity to target specific customers based on their geographical location and related demographics. The benefits of aerial advertising, banner towing in particular, include a high recall rate and increased engagement with a brand through social media. Detractors of aerial advertising maintain it has a highly limited and ineffective scope in the age of the Internet. In particular, they state that the use of aircraft near two major metropolitan regions (NYC and D.C.) tends to be tightly regulated and restricted, and that, at least in the U.S., the use of aerial advertisement over sporting events with 30,000 or more in attendance is prohibited. Aerial advertising planes do fly before the events over the masses of tailgaters. A 2003 article by the Associated Press reports that aerial advertisement companies had lost a preliminary injunction against new federal security regulations, and all data indicate that the use of civilian fixed-wing aircraft over sporting events in the U.S. is forbidden. Studies by advertisers have shown that mobile billboards carried by aircraft have a limited local exposure but a high consumer recall and retention rate – in other words, customers who see the ad tend to recall the message or product being displayed at a higher rate than with most other forms of advertising, but the region where the advertisement is displayed is limited to the flight path of the aircraft. The reason for this higher retention rate is unclear, but it can be postulated that it is due to the relatively unusual method in which the advertisement is displayed; the novelty of seeing a message in an unfamiliar way helps consumers to remember the message. Viral marketing and stealth marketing are excellent examples of this idea put to work in the modern day. Examples of use Pioneer balloonist and parachutist Stanley Spencer built the first British airship in 1902 with funds from Mellin and Company, the manufacturer of a leading brand of infant formula "for babies and invalids". The sum of £1,500 was payable in return for twenty five return flights carrying an advertisement for "Mellin's Food". The first use of skywriting for advertising was on 30 May 1922, when Cyril Turner, a former Royal Air Force officer, spelt out "London Daily Mail" in black smoke from an S.E.5a biplane at The Derby. During the 1994 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, Tom Ridge used aerial advertising along the Jersey Shore, a vacation spot popular with Pennsylvanians. Risks There are some inherent dangers involved in the operation of low-altitude manned aircraft. Most of the fixed-wing aerial advertisement accidents that have occurred in the U.S. have been determined by the United States Federal Aviation Administration to be the result of just a few basic causes: Problems during the pickup/deployment of the banner Banner tow lines that become tangled or snarled Some of the specific areas of danger include grapple hook deployment errors, and banner pickup errors. If the grapple hook is not released in a satisfactory manner, it can snarl on the tailwheel or in the landing gear itself, fouling the landing and causing an improper landing or a crash event. Once the grapple hook is deployed, the aircraft must approach the banner pickup in a descent using the energy of the shallow dive, and then rotate with application of full power to pick up the banner. However, safety reasons may lead local authorities to consider banning some forms of aerial advertising in populated areas. Risk mitigation Modern companies have employed a new, patented, methodology of banner towing that greatly reduces the risks associated with the older, grappling hook method. With the new take-off technique, the pilot no longer has to pick up the banner in the tow hook - a time-consuming and technically demanding manoeuvre. Instead, the pilot can take the banner, already set up for towing, directly from the hangar across the taxiway to the airstrip, and then carry out a normal take-off. A technical innovation makes the ground start possible. Wheels are mounted on both sides of the banner tube system, so the front part of the banner runs on rollers. This counteracts the effect which would otherwise be created between the banner and the ground over which it is towed, sucking the banner downwards. See also Out-of-home advertising Skyscaping Skywriting References Advertising by medium Aviation mass media Promotion and marketing communications Aviation by mission	6,016
doc-en-10415_0	The Rio is a hotel and casino near the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States. It is owned by Dreamscape Companies LLC and operated by Caesars Entertainment. It includes a casino and 2,520 suites. It features a Brazilian theme based on Rio Carnival. The Rio opened on January 15, 1990, with a casino and 424 suites. It was the first all-suite hotel in the Las Vegas Valley. It was owned by Anthony Marnell and built by Marnell Corrao Associates. The property struggled during its first two years because of its off-Strip location, but it would eventually thrive. The Rio's success prompted a number of hotel expansions in the 1990s. The hotel includes the three-wing Ipanema Tower, which stands at 20 stories. A 1997 renovation added Masquerade Village, a two-story retail and restaurant complex which also featured the Masquerade Show in the Sky. The 41-story Masquerade Tower was added as well. In 1999, Marnell sold the Rio to Harrah's Entertainment for $766 million. The property suffered financially after the sale, in part because of new competition. It would lose its popularity in the years to follow, as Harrah's would eventually turn its focus to other Las Vegas properties that it owned. Since 2005, the Rio has been the host site for the World Series of Poker. Portions of the hotel were closed in 2007 for county inspections, after it was discovered that renovations had been done a few years earlier without permitting. Numerous repairs had to be made after the inspections revealed flaws and fire safety hazards. Harrah's was renamed as Caesars Entertainment in 2010. The Rio was sold to Dreamscape owner and New York investor Eric Birnbaum in 2019, at a cost of $516 million. Caesars continues to operate the casino through a lease agreement extending into 2023. Birnbaum plans to begin a significant renovation in 2022, which includes rebranding the hotel portion under the Hyatt name. Marnell was hired as architect for the renovation project, due to his prior experience with the resort. The Rio has hosted numerous entertainers, including Danny Gans and Prince. Magicians Penn & Teller have entertained at the resort since 2001. History Marnell ownership (1990–99) The Rio was originally owned by Anthony Marnell, the chairman of MarCor. The company purchased the vacant property in 1988, at a cost of $11 million. At the end of the year, it announced plans to build the Rio, which would be Las Vegas' first all-suite hotel-casino. MarCor broke ground on the $80 million project on February 9, 1989. The groundbreaking ceremony included a 15-foot by 30-foot sand sculpture replica of the 21-story hotel. The resort was designed and built by Marnell Corrao Associates. The Rio opened on January 15, 1990. It featured a Brazilian theme based on Rio Carnival, and Brazilian musician Sérgio Mendes performed at the resort a few weeks later. The property included a casino, with 900 slot machines and 42 table games. It also had 424 suites, five restaurants, five bars, and a pool with a waterfall. It employed 1,500 workers. The resort's target demographic would consist primarily of local residents and motorists from southern California. Resort officials believed that the property's location, just west of Interstate 15 and the Las Vegas Strip, would be appealing to tourists. The Rio was the first casino opened by MarCor, which had largely focused on business parks and shopping centers. Marnell took over operations at the Rio 10 months after its opening, as he had found the early results dissatisfying. The resort struggled during its first two years, due to its location away from the Strip. By 1992, MarCor had sold all of its other properties to focus solely on the Rio. Expansions The hotel was soon successful, prompting a 437-unit addition, which broke ground on January 4, 1993. A $25 million expansion was announced later that year which would include more casino space. The new hotel tower opened during Labor Day weekend, bringing the room count to 861. The casino expansion opened at the end of 1993. A few months later, the resort announced a $75 million addition which would further expand the casino, and would increase the hotel with 549 rooms, for a total of 1,410. A dance and supper club, known as Club Rio, was opened in 1994, and was subsequently turned into a showroom. The Rio had a $250,000 laser system for nighttime displays. The system had to be adjusted in 1994, to avoid temporarily blinding commercial pilots. In 1995, Zagat named the Rio number one in the categories of Best Overall, Best Dining, Best Rooms and Best Service. A $20 million expansion began that year, adding 144 suites, more meeting room space, and a new health club and salon facility. The original hotel structure and its extensions make up the Ipanema Tower, which consists of three wings, built out in a "Y" shape. A $187 million expansion was underway in 1996, including six new restaurants and the addition of a 41-story tower with 1,000 rooms. The new tower brought the room count to 2,563, ranking the Rio among the world's largest hotels. The tower rises 383 feet. In February 1997, the Rio unveiled its indoor Masquerade Village, a Mardi Gras-themed attraction at the base of the new tower that included retail, restaurants, and a wine cellar. The retail space consisted of 21 stores, spread across two floors and occupying a total of . At the time, Marnell held a 25-percent interest in the resort and was its largest shareholder. Another expansion began at the end of 1997, adding more convention and retail space, and increasing the size of the resort's spa, among other areas. The project, expected for completion in 1999, would also add a valet parking garage, and the Palazzo Suites for high rollers. The nine suites are located in a separate building located on the Rio property. The Rio was one of the fastest-growing resort properties in Las Vegas. Its clientele was split between locals and tourists, and the property began offering beach parties and targeting a younger clientele and international high rollers. In 1998, readers of Travel + Leisure named the Rio as the world's number one hotel value. Harrah's/Caesars ownership (1999–2019) In August 1998, Harrah's Entertainment (later Caesars Entertainment Corporation) agreed to purchase the Rio from Marnell. The sale was finalized five months later, at a cost of $766 million. Harrah's considered the Rio to be among its top resorts. Later in 1999, Harrah's and Rio began operating the short-lived National Airlines service. New villas were built for high rollers, and the casino's private baccarat area was redesigned. In 2000, the National Labor Relations Board filed a complaint against the Rio, suspecting it of firing or harassing employees who sought unionization with the Culinary Workers Union. Later that year, the union filed a lawsuit against the Rio, seeking to represent its 3,000 employees. The Rio was unionized in January 2001, after a majority of employees voiced their support. Undeveloped acreage near the Rio was a significant reason for Harrah's purchase, and the company considered using the site for additional hotel rooms. However, profits were hurt in 2000 due to table game losses. The departure of entertainer Danny Gans was another factor for the property's poor performance, along with competition from new resorts, including the Bellagio, Mandalay Bay, the Venetian, Paris, and the Aladdin. The Rio laid off nearly 200 employees as a cost-saving measure. The property saw financial improvement in 2001, and Harrah's announced that it was in the early stages of planning for a new hotel tower at the Rio. However, the property's revenue declined again later in the year, which Harrah's blamed on table game losses. The Rio's younger clientele had since moved on to newer resorts, and the property partnered with the men's magazine Maxim in an effort to recapture the demographic. Through the partnership, the Rio would be advertised in the magazine, and parties – known as Maxim Lounge – would be held at the Rio. Cash flow subsequently improved, and Harrah's submitted plans to the county in 2002, for a new hotel and casino on the undeveloped acreage. Marnell had previously planned to build another resort on the same property. In December 2003, Harrah's announced a partnership with Voyager Entertainment to build the world's tallest observation wheel, rising 600 feet. It would be part of an $86 million complex that would include three floors of retail, restaurants, and a nightclub. The project would be built on the Rio parking lot's southeast side. Construction was scheduled to begin within three months, with the opening in July 2005. Another hotel tower was also a possibility, although there were no immediate plans to build one. Despite a lack of financing, Voyager stated that it would have no issues in raising the necessary funds. Negotiations between Voyager and Harrah's eventually derailed, and the project was canceled in April 2004. In May 2004, the Rio began preliminary operations of a power plant which would ultimately provide 40 percent of the property's power. A month later, construction began on a $39 million expansion of the Rio Pavilion Convention Center. It was built north of the resort's existing facilities, and was opened in 2005. The Rio became the host casino for the World Series of Poker in 2005, boosting the resort's popularity. The Rio's importance to Harrah's was diminished after the company purchased Caesars Entertainment in 2005, thereby acquiring several resorts on the Las Vegas Strip. In 2005, the Rio's cocktail servers were fitted with RFID tracking tags in their uniforms, allowing management to determine how long customers were waiting to be served. Renovation project Various hotel renovations took place from 2004 to 2006, in the Ipanema Tower. In October 2007, a number of hotel rooms in the tower were closed for county inspections, after a two-month investigation by the Las Vegas Review-Journal found that the remodeling had taken place without permits and inspections. The county had briefly looked into the renovation work, but quickly dismissed concerns about the lack of permits, until the news investigation prompted a reopening of the case. At one point prior to the case's reopening, a building inspection supervisor claimed to have examined 37 rooms throughout the tower, finding no major issues. It was later discovered that the supervisor had only been at the Rio for 38 minutes. The renovations had occurred on floors 3 through 19, and there were concerns about whether the renovated floors were up to fire safety standards. The entire 19th floor was gutted, except for the walls of the central hallway. Harrah's initially dismissed concerns about the renovations, stating that they were cosmetic and did not require permits. Of the tower's 1,448 rooms, 12 were closed for inspections. Within a few days, the closure extended to 140 rooms across the 18th and 19th floors. Concrete slabs in between the two floors were lacking fire sealant following the renovations, and such repairs were eventually undertaken on 360 rooms in an entire wing of the Ipanema Tower that dated to the property's opening in 1990. Various other problems were discovered as well, including the unauthorized installation of ceiling lights and electrical outlets. Post-tension cables were also damaged in some rooms during the remodeling. The county inspection expanded to other floors in December 2007, after additional fire safety hazards were found. These included unsealed holes which would allow the infiltration of smoke in the event of a fire. More than 1,000 rooms were inspected, and 50 were closed for a lengthy period of time. Harrah's received four criminal misdemeanor citations for the unauthorized renovations. Later years Following the 2008 financial crisis, most of Harrah's cash flow went to its Strip properties, leaving the Rio to become neglected. At the end of 2008, the Rio launched an opt-in mobile marketing campaign, providing promotions to customers via text messages. Two years later, it began offering resident discounts in an effort to attract more locals. As of 2010, Harrah's had considered several purchase offers for the Rio, including a $450 million proposal by Penn National Gaming. Out of Harrah's 10 local properties, 9 of them were on the Las Vegas Strip, with the Rio as the outlier. The Rio's off-Strip location made it difficult for Harrah's to market the resort to customers of its other properties. Furthermore, the Rio had lost the popularity it had under Marnell's ownership in the 1990s. The property had received numerous complaints relating to maintenance and service, which employees blamed on cost-cutting measures by Harrah's. However, an imminent sale did not occur, and the Rio remained under the same ownership for the next decade. Harrah's was renamed as Caesars Entertainment Corporation later in 2010. At the time, the Rio was valued at approximately $500 million. It included a casino with 1,100 slot machines and 90 table games, as well as of convention space. The Rio stayed competitive in the 2010s thanks to the World Series of Poker, as well as Caesars' database of 55 million rewards club members. Superkarts USA (SKUSA) also held its SuperNationals kart racing event at the Rio each year, taking place on a temporary circuit set up in the resort's parking lot. The Rio has also hosted a Star Trek convention every year since 2011. In addition, it hosted the DEF CON hacker convention from 2011 to 2014. A robbery occurred in 2011, with $33,200 in casino chips stolen. Two men were arrested in connection with the robbery, and a third was apprehended nine years later. In 2013, a norovirus outbreak occurred among 100 people staying at the Rio for a youth football tournament taking place in Las Vegas. On the evening of December 28, 2016, water from a clogged sink overflowed into an electrical conduit, in a service area of the Masquerade Tower. It caused a fuse to blow, cutting out power for 400 rooms located on the 22nd floor and onward. The blown fuse had also sparked a small fire in a service elevator, which was put out by sprinklers. However, the next morning, leftover sprinkler water trickled down and shorted out a fuse in the backup generator, which cut out power for another 500 rooms. Guests had to be evacuated to other hotels. Six guests received minor injuries during the evacuation. Power to the lower portion of the tower was restored within a day, and full power was gradually restored over the course of a week. In 2017, two guests contracted Legionnaires' disease during separate stays at the Rio hotel. The property's water systems were disinfected upon the discovery of Legionella bacteria. Additional cases of Legionnaires' disease were diagnosed among Rio guests later that year, in addition to 56 suspected cases of Pontiac fever, also caused by Legionella. One of the infected guests sued Caesars Entertainment over the outbreak. As of 2019, Caesars had spent $600 million on renovations for various properties over the past five years, with the exception of the Rio, which now competed with older, low-budget resorts such as Circus Circus. Marnell, who was disappointed by the property's deterioration, speculated that it would need $300 million in renovations to be highly competitive once again. Dreamscape ownership (2019–present) In December 2019, Caesars sold the Rio for $516 million to New York-based real estate developer Eric Birnbaum. Under the deal, Caesars would continue to operate the Rio under lease for at least two years, paying $45 million a year in rent. The Rio is owned through Birnbaum's company, Dreamscape Companies LLC. His plans for a significant renovation were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which resulted in the state-ordered closure of casinos in March 2020. The Rio partially reopened on December 22, 2020, but with hotel operations limited mostly to weekends. Full operations resumed four months later. It was the last Caesars property nationwide to reopen. Because of the pandemic, Caesars and Dreamscape extended their lease arrangement, allowing Caesars to potentially operate the property into late 2023. Dreamscape plans to take over casino operations eventually. In March 2021, Dreamscape announced a partnership with Hyatt, which would rebrand one of the hotel towers as a Hyatt Regency. The hotel is scheduled to open in 2023, with 1,501 rooms. The remaining rooms are also expected to be affiliated with Hyatt. The resort has 2,520 rooms, including the Palazzo Suites. Aside from the hotel portion, the property will maintain the Rio name and its theme. Because of his prior experience with the property, Marnell was hired as architect for the renovations, which are expected to begin in 2022. Features Restaurants The Rio was particularly well known for its restaurants, five of which were listed in a top-40 list by Zagat in the 1990s. Six new restaurants were added in 1997. Among them was Napa, which was overseen by chef Jean-Louis Palladin. The top of the Masquerade Tower featured a restaurant and lounge known as VooDoo. An Italian restaurant, Mama Marie's Cucina, was named after Rio founder Tony Marnell's mother. The resort also featured the new Seafood Village Buffet, a separate eatery from the Carnival World Buffet. As of 1999, the Rio's 15 restaurants served an average of 20,000 people each day. Its busiest eatery was the Carnival World Buffet, averaging 7,000 diners daily. The Rio hosted the annual James Beard Foundation benefit dinner for several years during the 1990s. The resort also hosted an annual Italian food festival. The property added four new restaurants beginning in 2002. Among them was Rosemary's, which replaced Napa after Palladin's death in 2001. Another addition was the Gaylord Indian restaurant, part of a worldwide chain. In 2006, musician Prince opened an Asian restaurant known as 3121 Jazz Cuisine, named after his recent album 3121 In 2011, the Rio added a Burger King Whopper Bar. It seated 58 people, and was one of five Whopper Bars in the U.S. Unlike typical Burger King locations, it offered beer and included a hamburger bar with 30 toppings and sauces. A dim sum restaurant was added in 2012, with seating for 350 people. The Carnival World Buffet is frequently considered among the best in Las Vegas, and was the city's largest buffet as of 2011, with seating for 733 people. The Seafood Village Buffet was merged into the Carnival World Buffet in 2015. Guy Fieri opened a Mexican restaurant, El Burro Borracho, at the Rio in 2016, replacing a seafood restaurant known as Buzio's. Sapphire Pool On May 30, 2008, the Rio opened the Sapphire Pool in conjunction with Sapphire Gentlemen's Club. The daylight-hour, adults-only club surrounded one of the property's outdoor pools and featured dancers. It opened with a $30-per-male-customer admission price. The venture was a high-profile joint venture between a casino company and a topless business, and was notable because the possibility of bringing in criminal activity at the club had caused the Nevada Gaming Control Board to balk at previous collaborations; some in the media questioned whether the risk was worth the potential payoff for the hotel. In late July 2009, the Rio hotel asked the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department (LVMPD) to do a routine undercover investigation of the Sapphire Pool, as casino-resorts in Nevada are held responsible for the activities held on their premises. The request was a part of the resort's effort to show good faith to the Gaming Control Board. The July 25 visit resulted in 11 arrests. Upon finding out the results of the investigation, the Rio immediately shut down the pool. Other attractions From 1998 to 1999, the Rio hosted Treasures of Russia, an extensive collection of historic Russian memorabilia totaling 1,150 items, most of them loaned from the Peterhof Palace. The resort subsequently hosted Titanic: The Exhibition, in partnership with RMS Titanic Inc. VooDoo Skyline is a 70-second zip line ride which opened in 2014. Riders start at the VooDoo Lounge atop the Masquerade Tower, and travel a distance of 845 feet, stopping on the roof of the Ipanema Tower. Riders are then pulled back to the Masquerade Tower with the use of a pulley system. KISS by Monster Mini Golf is a franchise of the Monster Mini Golf chain. It is based on the rock band Kiss and includes an 18-hole miniature golf course, a rock and roll themed wedding chapel, the world's largest Kiss gift shop, and a museum featuring memorabilia from the band's career. It also hosts regular appearances by band members, both past and present. It opened in May 2016, in a space formerly occupied by the Seafood Village Buffet. In 2018, the Rio opened the first phase of an esports venue known as Wall Gaming Lounge. Shows and entertainers From 1991 to 1992, the Rio hosted Tropical Heat, about a plane-crashed pilot who encounters Amazonian women. It briefly starred Dana Plato prior to ending. In 1992, entertainment producers Eunice and Blair Farrington opened the Brazilia revue in a small lounge. It received a positive reception. Farrington Productions subsequently produced a Latin-themed dinner show, Conga!, which opened in the Club Rio in 1994. Conga! was renamed Copacabana in 1995, and the Club Rio space was subsequently used solely as a showroom, undergoing a number of name changes through the years. Impressionist Danny Gans began entertaining at the Rio in January 1997, in the 730-seat Copacabana Showroom. During his three-year run, the Rio raised ticket prices several times against his wishes, prompting him to sue the resort. He ultimately lost the legal battle. Other notable performers during the Rio's early years included The Beach Boys, Donna Summer, Tony Bennett, and Earl Turner. The 1,470-seat Pavilion Theater was built at a cost of $35 million, and was opened in April 2000. The three-floor theater was designed to accommodate a rotation of Broadway-style musicals, each on a short-term basis. The venue was renamed as the Samba Theatre shortly after opening. It opened with a tap-dancing show titled Tap Dogs, by Dein Perry. A musical, based on the 1984 film Footloose, also ran for 13 weeks in the new venue, closing in August 2000. Another showroom was built near the hotel's pool area and opened later in 2000, hosting the show De La Guarda, which included aerial performers and flashing lights. At the Copa, starring David Cassidy and Sheena Easton as nightclub singers, ran in the Copacabana Showroom from 2000 to 2001. Magicians Penn & Teller began performing at the Rio in January 2001, and have continued to entertain there ever since. In the mid-2010s, they broke the record for longest-running Las Vegas headliner at a single venue. The Scintas also started performing at the Rio in 2001, as did ventriloquist Ronn Lucas. The following year, the theater launched Showgirls, which chronicled the history of such performers. The Rio also debuted Tony n' Tina's Wedding, replacing the unsuccessful De La Guarda. Tony n' Tina's Wedding continued its run there for seven years. In 2003, the Rio introduced their "Bevertainers," who worked as cocktail servers and as entertainers. When not serving customers, Bevertainers would dance in 90-second performances on one of five stages located across the casino floor. The Rio had more than 80 Bevertainers. Although the idea initially received skepticism, it would turn out to be successful. Chippendales shared the Scintas Showroom with the Scintas and Lucas for three years, before getting their own venue at the Rio in 2004. The Chippendales theater had seating for 400 people and included an ultralounge, as well as a women's boutique retailer. As of 2021, the group continues to perform at the Rio. In February 2005, Erocktica opened in the Scintas Showroom. It was initially a topless dance show accompanied by a live band which performed cover versions of rock songs. The show was closed six months later for revisions, which changed the choreography and removed the band in favor of recorded tracks. It reopened later in 2005. The Scintas departed the Rio in 2006. Prince subsequently turned the former Club Rio spot into the 3121 showroom, performing there from November 2006 to April 2007. The venue had capacity for 900 people, and was located next to his 3121 restaurant. After Prince vacated the venue, it sat unused for several years, eventually becoming ND's Fuego nightclub in 2009, through a lease agreement. It was also known as ND's The Club during its brief lifespan. It closed four months later, after its owner filed for bankruptcy. Darin Feinstein, an owner of The Viper Room nightclub in California, leased the space and reopened it as Crown Theater in 2010. It also operated as a nightclub. Until 2014, the Rio hosted tribute shows for the Rat Pack and Michael Jackson. In 2015, the Crown Theater opened Duck Commander Musical, based on the Robertson family and their television series Duck Dynasty. Millions of dollars were spent to renovate the theater for the show, which included 11 actors and a live band. The show performed poorly in box-office revenue, and ran for seven weeks, closing in May 2015. Rock of Ages ran in the renamed Rock of Ages Theater during 2016. It was replaced a year later by a new water-themed variety show titled Wow, featuring numerous performers. The show was well received, and had given more than 1,200 performances as of 2021. The Comedy Cellar, a comedy club in New York, opened a Las Vegas location at the Rio in 2018. Raiding the Rock Vault opened at the resort in 2020. Masquerade Show Masquerade Show in the Sky opened in February 1997, and ran in the resort's Masquerade Village. The $25 million show featured costumed performers and took place on floats which traveled along a 950-foot track, located 13 feet above the casino floor. The floats represented showboats and gondolas. Each float weighed between 13,000 and 17,000 pounds. They traveled at a speed of three feet per second. Masquerade Show in the Sky consisted of three distinct shows, and a fourth was added in 1998. The show was free to spectators, and visitors could also pay to ride in the floats. The show was originally produced by Farrington Productions. The company's contract expired in 2001, and Dick Foster Productions was brought on to redo Masquerade Show in the Sky. The company sought to make the show more adult-oriented, adding sexier costumes and dances. The show was scaled back in 2008, and remained largely the same during its final five years. It closed in March 2013. In media Regis Philbin filmed several episodes of his talk show, Live with Regis, at the Rio's Samba Theatre in 2001. A year later, The Price Is Right filmed a special episode in the theater, marking the first time in the show's 30-year history that it was shot outside of Los Angeles. An episode for the second season of Raising Hope was filmed throughout the Rio in 2011. During the resort's closure in 2020, it was used as a secondary filming location for the second season of the American reality television series Love Island. References External links 1990 establishments in Nevada Caesars Entertainment (2020) Casino hotels Casinos completed in 1990 Casinos in the Las Vegas Valley Hotel buildings completed in 1990 Hotels established in 1990 Landmarks in Nevada Skyscraper hotels in Paradise, Nevada World Series of Poker	6,054
doc-en-8474_0	Ma Jir Bo or Ma Jiabao (; 26 August 1927 – 8 December 1985) was a Chinese realism artist and oil painter. Ma is praised for his great portraitures, highly realistic texture-feeling still lifes and memory-rekindling landscapes of Hong Kong all that made him a leading oil painter of his era. Ma is regarded as 'the legacy of Classic Western Masters in the East'. During his career, he created roughly 300 oil paintings, some 50 watercolours, as well as some traditional Chinese ink paintings and Chinese calligraphies. Life Ma was born in Haifeng, Guangdong Province. His father Ma Rixin () was a charcoal painter. His grandfather was a Scholar ("Wu Xiu-cai") in the Military Division in the Qing dynasty and was decapitated for resisting the National Revolutionary Army. Ma Jir bo's mother was Zhu Yu-zhen. Not long after Ma's birth the family moved to Hong Kong where Ma learned Chinese ink painting with the famous painter Gao Jianfu (1879–1951) at the age of seven. At the age of thirteen he was first introduced to Li Tie-u (1870–1952) and Ma had his important apprenticeship on Western painting with him from 1949 to 1950. During the apprenticeship, both Ma and Li Tiefu lived together in a squatter in Diamond Hill, Kowloon, Hong Kong. As a patriotic artist who sold his paintings to raise fund to support the Nationalist Revolution led by Dr Sun Yat-sen, Li Tiefu parted his patriotic ideology to Ma. By his influence, Ma was a loyal supporter of the Communist Revolution and he adopted Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830 to paint Just to Survive, 1955 to describe his approval of the Communist regime. Some of his earlier paintings are highly patriotic and political, such as Xia Jia Bang, 1961 and The Sea of Blood, 1961 ; as well as having a strong sense of social justice. A Christian Nun, 1966 and A Medical Doctor, 1971 are paintings of a social justice theme. After Li Tiefu returned to the Mainland in the summer of 1950, Ma moved to Cheung Chau to study the way to paint in different light settings. He lived there for a few years before returning to the Hong Kong Island in 1966. Ma acquired his first student Wong Chung-Man. In 1964, Ma's hidden life in Cheung Chau was discovered by the editor of the South China Morning Post and the article he wrote attracted the attention of the then Diplomat and Banker of Thailand Chali Yongsunthon, who later became a close supporter of Ma and acquired some of this works and later brought them back to Thailand. Probably disappointed by the happening of the Cultural Revolution and his abhorrence of violence which occurred both in the Mainland and in Hong Kong, politics and social justice themes were not found in his post 1971 paintings. Continuously through his life, Ma was dedicated to realism. By hanging An Artist Painting his Father, circa 1968 at the center of his art studio, he intended to remind all his students to refrain from abstractism. Probably influenced by Jean-François Millet, many of his portraits are of peasant farmers (cf. Peasant's Harvest, 1978), workers (cf. Old but Strong, 1963) and of ordinary people in lower social class (A Hooker Smooker's Resting Moment, 1976). "Painting to reflect society" – had been attributed to his style of painting and that he would not paint what the public do not understand. In 1970, Ma married to Madam Tam Wai-Mun, Alice (born 1939) who was one of his art students and had learned paintings from him for over two years before their marriage. They had a son, Lawrence Yan-kwok (born 1970), who has not chosen art as his career but rather to become a barrister in Australia and later in Hong Kong. Ma acquired a number of students in the late 1960s and early 1970s, among them Wong Wen-san (Wang Yun-shan), Yeung Yick (Yang Yi), Chan Yan-fu (Chen Ren-fu) and Chung Yiu (Zhong Yau). At the same time as Ma's own style matured in the 1970s, his health started to deteriorate. Suffering from a lung disease, he was always short of breath and was difficult to manoeuvre. Hiking up the Peak and so as to paint the entire Victoria Harbour in 1974 was most notable as it is now part of the lost scenery of the rapidly developing Hong Kong to rekindle the public's collective memory. In 1977, Ma was selected as the represent the Hong Kong art community representative to attend the prestigious National Day celebration in Beijing on 1 October. Before that, Ma was commissioned to paint two large portraits: one of Chairman Mao Zedong and another of Chairman Hua Guofeng by the then Director of Xinhua News Agency in Hong Kong. At the National Day celebration, he was welcomed and greeted by Ye Jianying and Liao Chengzhi. The two portraits were hand-delivered by Ma to the Director in September 1977 and were displayed next to the national flag at the National Day celebration. They were never seen after 1977 and the whereabouts of the two portraits is a mystery now. In the 1980s, his health further deteriorated and aggravated by the presence of kidney stones. Ma did not paint much and there were only two oil paintings produced in 1985. He died in the Queen Mary Hospital on December 8, 1985, aged 58, from the combination of his long ailing lung illness together with complication from a laser kidney stone surgery. He was survived by this mother, his wife and son. Ma's attitude to life: Death is most frightening but even more frightening than death itself is the lack of great contribution to the human race. 死是最可怕的事但於人類不能作出偉大的貢獻那比死還更可怕 (Spring, 1975) On 7 December 1985, a day before his death, he wrote in his diary: Painting is my lifelong devotion. I am not afraid of death as [death] is a natural course of things ... [You students] have to paint more frequently, don't be sad, I feel absolutely comfortable, because I have made myself a patriotic artist, translated from 畫是我的生命. 我不怕死，這是自然的規律 ...已後多寫畫，不要悲傷,我覺得完全舒服,因為我做了一個愛國畫家. Works Slive once categorised Ma as a classic western artist - [E]arly in his career he acquired skill painting the subjects and working in the traditional style employed by a number of western artists, and from the beginning he had a fine sense of colour. It also appears that once he found his style and subjects that interested him he remained dedicated to them. He seems to have had no interest in experimenting or adopting any of the different approaches to painting used by innovative artists of his time. Certainly not 'innovative' enough to paint incomprehensible works that no public could understand, in his writing to remind himself, Ma offered the only surviving explanation on why he had such a strong hold on realism and abhorred the rise of abstractism because: An artist should deploy his paint brushes to benefit his country and his race and the whole world; and should not hold himself out as an artist if he paints "strange" [abstract and incomprehensible] paintings, translated from 畫家應該把畫筆去造福國家民族及全世界人類切不可做寫怪畫的空頭藝術家. Art Critic Ian Finlay reckons that Ma Jir Bo's Western influences and inspirations are clearly evident - from Rembrandt and Constable to John Singer Sargent and Li Tie-fu, as well as realism, expressionism and socialist realism. Regardless of these influences, Ma retained his unique mark and lyrical colours. Portraits Portraits are natural reflection of real people. The ability to achieve a true likeness was greatly valued until the mid-nineteenth century. However, once photographs became common, artists could use their skills to show something about the subject that no camera could match. In addition to showing the person, a great portrait suggests a history, personality, mood and feeling. Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, 1507 captures the essence of the portrait in that it is compelling, and the view feels a connection to the person who is portrayed, yet it is also mysterious. Self-Portraits For the viewer, self-portraits provide insight into the personality and possibly information about the situation which the artist was then in, that is, the inner life of the artist. Unlike Rembrandt, Ma did not have his students copied his own self-portraits as part of their training; so there are a certain number of self-portraits – eight of them. His earliest one was in 1964 and the last one in 1983, two years before his death. His first self-portrait as a young but mature man was painted before he was interviewed by the press and seized this opportunity he wished to make known to the world that he was a Western artist who loved a peaceful world. The Self Portrait (in Celebration), 1966 draws substantial resemblance with Rembrandt's Self-portrait with Saskia (or The Prodigal Son with A Whore), 1635. By 1636, Rembrandt had a successful venture in the Amsterdam's portraiture market and he had received commissions from the court in The Hague, set up an active studio, married burgomaster's daughter and moved into a prestigious home. By that time, Rembrandt had arisen up the social hierarchy and had various success in life. In 1636, he successfully sued Saskia's relatives for denying her part of her father's estate. In this Self-portrait with Saskia, both the artist and his wife appear to flaunt a proto-bohemian lifestyle, displaying their conspicuous and lavish consumption. His swaggering attitude and fanciful costume were seen as Rembrandt showing off his wealth and youthful bride. The blackboard on the wall, used to chalk up drinks, and the peacock pie alluding to costly pride were traditional elements in pictures of the Prodigal Son squandering his inheritance. Similar degree of extravagance is found in Ma's Self Portrait (in Celebration), 1966. Giant tiger prawns, in those days, are up-market expensive seafood more commonly found in banquets and were not even served in middle-class family meals. The wearing of a pair of leader glove also shows off Ma's wealth where in the 60s leader products are luxuries. As compared with his other portraits, where clothes were worn plain, Ma's wearing of a proper white collar shirt, a green silk tie inside a red cardigan with a posh brass zips, together with a matching green overcoat and a freshly knitted stylish cashmere scarf would probably be the most expensive apparels that the artist could have mustered in those days. The orange wine was an imported one which was sold at exorbitant prices. The hand holding the wine glass is similar to that of Rembrandt but in reserve. The smile on Ma's face, together with a pair of healthy red lips, a shining forehead, indicative of a robust and strong state of health. His pair of eyes was full of hope and contemplation for a prosperous future. Rembrandt's drunken eyes and with a whore sitting on his lap, subtly, the picture has been interpreted as Rembrandt's admission that he shares the original sin of all human beings – greed and lust. Ma did not see living comfortably and to enjoy good food was a sin. At that time, Ma had met a well off admirer who was then the general manager of the Bangkok Bank in Hong Kong who supported him and later required some of his paintings. By then, Ma was confident on his chosen career path as a professional artist as it had now provided him with a good source of income. The two paintings have striking similarities:- Gesture and expression. The triumphant holding up of a wine glass by Rembrandt compared with a humble and reserved holding out of the same wine glass by Ma; both convey a different degree of joy and lavishness. Ma just had his taste of success (measured by financial reward) in his career whereas Rembrandt had always been well paid for his portraiture work since he was young, and that Rembrandt disgust himself as the squandering Prodigal Son; the sense of extravagance and lavishness in Self Portrait with Saskia is stronger than that of Self Portrait (in Celebration). The swaggering attitude of Rembrandt holding his wife Saskia who sat on his lap as if she was a whore (a woman on a drunken man's lap was identified as a whore in the seventeenth-century) contrasted sharply with the righteous Ma who sat straight up directly facing the viewer. This aptly reflects their different attitude towards financial success. Ma was holding back from any ‘over-joy’ that might led into misfortune if he did not cautiously manage his affairs. Thus, the Ma had a satisfying smile whereas Rembrandt an unreserved laugh. Message conveyed. The eyes provide the primary focus in any portrait, helping to define the relationship between the model and the viewer. Ma looked straight at the viewer and Rembrandt was looking downwards to the left of the painting and could only see the viewer from his peripheral vision. Ma was enjoying his wine but he was not drunk unlike Rembrandt. Costume and Decoration. Both figures were dressed lavishly. Rembrandt displayed a peacock pie which alluded to his costly pride and that was items of wealth and extravagance. Ma's entree a plate of giant tiger prawns in front was equally extravagant and certainly putting forward an affluent lifestyle. Many who have seen Ma's portraits and that of Rembrandt's could draw numerous stylistic resemblance and not surprisingly they nicknamed him 'Oriental' Rembrandt. Domestic Life Hitherto the painting of everyday subjects became commonplace in the 17th century, many artists included the interiors of houses as a setting, rather than a subject, for their work. A room could provide an insight into the status, as well as the interests and personality, of the owner. Ma's impecuniosities in the heavily populated Hong Kong meant he had to live in a tiny squatter and to paint in this home-studio. The most notable Diego Velázquez's Las Meninas, 1656 has influenced Gustave Courbet’s The Artist's Studio (L'Atelier du peintre): A Real Allegory of a Seven Year Phase in my Artistic and Moral Life, 1855; which influenced Ma’s Artist's Studio, 1964. Civil Allegory work Allegory is used to highlight the role of civic institutions and commemorate national events. Civic allegories were frequently commissioned by the state to underline the moral significance of major events. Eugène Delacroix's picture was an important state commission to commemorate the July Revolution of 1830 when Emperor Clarles X was ousted from power. A woman personifying Liberty leads the people forward over the bodies of the fallen, holding the tricolore flag of the French Revolution in one hand and brandishing a bayonetted musket with the other. The mound of corpses acts as a kind of pedestal from which Liberty strides, barefoot and bare-breasted, out of the canvas and into the space of the viewer. Delacroix painted his work in the autumn of 1830. In the rhetoric and in reality, the 1830 Revolution mirrored the 1789 French Revolution: the poor rebelled against the monarchy, the aristocracy and the priests. In that era, there was largely an urban uprising against dreadful labour conditions and that fostered a voice and organization for the working class to air their complaints and effect change thereafter. Delacroix was influenced and had his focus on the poor. In a letter to his brother dated 12 October, he wrote: "My bad mood is vanishing thanks to hard work. I’ve embarked on a modern subject—a barricade. And if I haven’t fought for my country at least I’ll paint for her." Critics found the personification of Liberty far too realistic. Liberty, personified by Marianne, symbol of the nation, as both an allegorical goddess-figure and a robust woman of the people, an approach that contemporary critics denounced as "ignoble". Politicians regarded the dramatic painting as highly politically provocative. For this reason the French government quietly removed it from public view. It inspired the Statue of Liberty in New York City, which was given to the United States as a gift from the French only 50 years after "Liberty Leading the People" had been painted. The statue, which holds a torch in its hand, takes a stance similar to that of the woman in the painting. Ma captioned at the back of the original painting to say "[I]n 1944, there was a strong and established pleasant revolutionary infantry in the Haifeng County. [This painting depicts] the infantry ambushed a proletarian landlord led forces which was set out to extract rent from pleasant. (this painting was completed in 1955).’ The two paintings have striking similarities:- Social class of constituents. In Liberty Leading the People, the fighters are from a mixture of social classes, ranging from the upper classes represented by the young man in a top hat, to the revolutionary middle class or (bourgeoisie), as exemplified by the boy holding pistols. They were geared up to revolt against the repressive sovereign so people from all walks of life were gathered. Whereas in Just to Survive, the fighters are from a similar or identical social class, that is proletarians or pleasant farmers, as identified by the same kind of costume they wear. The single objective which was to overthrown the oppressive bourgeoisies landlords who had been exploiting them. Communism is a ‘class struggle’ movement. The exploited lower class is up against the upper privileged class and to eliminate them so as to reach a total proletarian rule. Message conveyed. The eyes provide the primary focus in any portrait, helping to define the relationship between the model and the viewer. In both Liberty Leading the People and Just to Survive, what they have in common is the fierceness and determination in their eyes. If fierceness of the eyes is a determining feature that gives spirit to characters, probably, Ma's depiction of eyes conveys a stronger message than that of Delacroix. Deliberate use of Red. Within an almost monochrome work, the boy's blood red satchel stands out echoing with the red flag, send a strong message to the viewers that communism is to triumph. The tumultuous events of July 1830 in France are not identified by colour, whereas the communism is denoted by red. The skillful deployment of two places of startled red by the artist in an almost monochrome work successfully conveys a political message. The Marching Direction. Liberty is marching forward from the background towards the viewer leading the boy on her right and the top hat man from her left; whereas the naked pleasant soldier is marching to the right of the painting. The positioning of the boy on the left instead of on the right of the peasant soldier carries a deeper meaning – the gradual penetration and taking over by the ‘leftist’ communism against the ‘rightist’ fascism. Social Protest Works By the 19th century, social protest became a strong element in the work of many artists in Europe. Increasingly independent from wealthy patrons, state commissions and the church, artists were able to choose their own subjects. Ma's Hong Kong was in an era of great social upheaval - political revolution, the influx of Mainland immigrants and the beginning of industrialization. Ma used his work to express his outrage at the oppression of the poor, be they farm workers, miners, or factory labourers. Politics Politicians and rules have traditionally been aware of the way art could serve them. Throughout history, great statesmen and women, kings and queens, powerful family dynasties, and manipulative courtiers have used art to promote themselves and their cause, to celebrate their achievements, and to try to ensure public esteem. One of the examples in China is the Portrait of Chairman Mao Ze-dong hanged on the Tiananmen Gate. Commissioned by the then Director of Xinhua News Agency, Liang Wei-lin, Ma painted two portraits of Chairman Mao Zedong and Chairman Hua Guofeng in August and in September 1977. Measuring at approximately 2m by 1.5m, these portraits are probably the largest portraits that Ma had ever painted. After Ma hand-delivered the two portraits to Liang on 23 September 1977 to his office, the two portraits were believed to have been shown at National Day Celebration in Hong Kong and were never seen thereafter. War Since ancient times, the portrayal of war became an occasion for the triumphant celebration of courageous conquests, showing the achievements in victory of a nation, ruler or commander. Instead of commemorating victories, war also brings about the brutality of conflict and violence. For example, Francisco de Goya's painting of The Third of May, 1808 in Madrid: The Executions on the Principe Pio Hill, 1814 and Ma's The Sea of Blood, 1961 are works that artists use their work to express their personal concerns and moral outrage. In these paintings, war is no longer about heroism and glory, but about murder and torture. Japan invaded China from 1937 to 1945 which is historically known as the Second Sino-Japanese war. The estimated civilian casualties: due to military activity, killed 1,073,496 and 237,319 wounded; 335,934 killed and 426,249 wounded in Japanese air attacks. Goya focused on the individual in white to make the suffering seem more personal, in contrast to the faceless and anonymous row of executioners. The man holds out his arms, in a pose that is deliberately reminiscent of the crucified Christ. His size underlines his importance. Ma chose to focus both on the executioner in Japanese army uniform holding up his bayonet and the naked woman with one of her nipples cut off. There was a crowd of people lining up that would be forthcoming to the viewer and would be executed in the same manner. Landscape Water Water is as changeable and complex as life itself. Artists observe it in all its moods, from raging storms to tranquil lakes and streams. The sea can be peaceful or provocative and Ma's Fishing in a Rainstorm, 1964 was his vivid portrait of movement of wave. Ma was believed to have stood by at the seaside amid a rainstorm brought about by a life-threatening typhoon in Hong Kong. Rural Life Through the centuries, artists, and in particular northern European artists, returned again and again to the subject of the life of farm workers and villagers as a rich source of inspiration. In the eighteenth century, when the pastoral ideal was prevalent in landscape art, rural life was transformed into a sanitized, picturesque ideal. For example, in France, Gustave Courbet and Jean-François Millet shocked the urban public with their powerful paintings of poverty and backbreaking work in the fields. Farms are rare found in the commercial city Hong Kong and Ma had ventured out to Pao On County, Shenzhen, to a large paddy field and painted the harvest. Cityscapes Artists should only attempt to paint the city views until he has developed a perspective of the entire city to make it possible to show a sweeping cityscape. Usually, an artist paints a public recognizable icon that represents the city for such a sweeping cityscape. Gerrit Berckheyde (1638–1698)'s Great Market in Haarlem, 1696 and Fyodor Alekseyev (1753–1824)'s Red Square in Moscow, 1801 and Ma's The Victoria Harbour, 1974 are works that depict the most readily identifiable scene of a particular city and viewers could immediately associate the painting with that city. Urban Life Every weekend in the 70s, Ma took his family and students to various places in the city to search for suitable scenery worthwhile to be painted. Through hard works, Ma created a great number of the city's urban life painting. "Like a sort of 20th century Cantonese Constable, Ma infused Hong Kong's rugged coasts and lush uplands with a sense of rustic romance — all the more surreal when you consider that at the peak of his career Hong Kong was no sun-dappled idyll of lusty rice farmers and blushing flower girls. It was a tough entrepôt and factory town, wrapped in a pall of soot, struggle and heartache," wrote Jing Zhang in the Time Magazine. Echoed by his son, "[t]he artist captures the spirit of his era in his paintings. My father was such an artist. His legacy of paintings of the streets and alleys and scenes of Hong Kong bears witness to, and provides coming generations with an invaluable insight into, the spirit of that era. He once said, 'Painting is a silent art; silent as a poem, it expresses the innermost feelings and sub-consciousness of the artist." Of course, the Hong Kong Museum of Art was aware of the existence of this Hong Kong John Constable and made a posthumous acquisition of Ma's Street Scene in Cheung Chau, 1978. Still life The Romans produced decorative still lifes in murals and mosaics to adorn their homes, while in China there was a long tradition from early times of painting flowers with birds, culminating in the elegant depictions of bamboo and plum flowers, created by the painters of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th and the 14th centuries. Flowers, particularly, were used for decorative or symbolic purposes. The lily, for example, was a traditional attribute of the Virgin, symbolizing her purity, and was invariably included in pictures of the Annunciation. In the East, the chrysanthemum is one of the "Four Gentlemen" () of China (the others being the plum blossom, the orchid, and bamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Qian, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobleness. It is also one of the 4 symbolic seasonal flowers. Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China. Artists have become synonymous with individual flowers: the most obvious example is Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers. Van Gogh, albeit a post-impressionist, was a realist when painting the sunflowers. ‘He painted the sunflowers exactly as he saw them, even if the heads were wilting or dead’. Ma's Chrysanthemums painted the flowers’ full bloom to reflect his approval of the spirit of the flower – to be Gentlemen-like and would not bow to power or subdued by means. Nearly all still lifes include – to a greater or lesser extent – the aspect of vanitas, a lament about the transience of all things. It is often symbolized by object such as a skull or a clock. Most notably is Pieter Claesz's Vanitas Still Life, 1630 of an overturned wine glass and an extinguished candle. Claesz's metaphysical criticism concentrates on book knowledge and its futility in the face of eternity. Books contain knowledge, experience and thoughts that were permanently valid beyond the life-span of an individual and are ever enlightening. Inculcated with Confucius teachings from the well-known Confucian Four Books and Five Classics (四書五經), Ma was of a traditional and conservative breed and he agreed with the teaching of a classic poem that encouraged people to study. Ma showed his dedicated support of continuous learning through studying in his Past Knowledge - present Usage, 1966. Ma once wrote: I love to study history, not because I like old things, but because I can benefit from lessons learned translated from 我愛讀歷史書，不是好古，而是為了今用. Museum Collection In 1977, possibly commissioned by the then Guangzhou Lu Xun Memorial Gallery, Ma painted a set of eight portraits of Lu Xun - a leftist writer who was highly acclaimed by Chairman Mao – about him visiting Hong Kong. In July 1981, this set of eight portraits were donated to the then Guangzhou Lu Xun Memorial Gallery which has now part of the Guangdong Provincial Museum. In 1987, the Hong Kong Museum of Art acquired two of Ma's paintings: Artist's Studio, 1964 (shown above) and Street Scene in Cheung Chau, 1978 (shown above). Notes External links Official website of Ma Jir Bo: www.majirbo.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20110207125553/http://majirbo.com/) Guangdong Provincial Museum: www.gdmuseum.com (http://www.gdmuseum.com/) Hong Kong Museum of Art: http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Arts/ 1927 births 1985 deaths Republic of China painters Chinese portrait painters 20th-century Chinese painters Painters from Guangdong Hong Kong painters People from Shanwei	6,500
doc-en-10446_0	London Bridge is a central London railway terminus and connected London Underground station in Southwark, south-east London. It occupies a large area on three levels immediately south-east of London Bridge, from which it takes its name. The main line station is the oldest railway station in London fare zone 1 and one of the oldest in the world having opened in 1836. It is one of two main line termini in London to the south of the River Thames (the other being Waterloo) and is the fourth-busiest station in London, handling over 50 million passengers a year. The station was originally opened by the London and Greenwich Railway as a local service. It subsequently served the London and Croydon Railway, the London and Brighton Railway and the South Eastern Railway, thus becoming an important London terminus. It was rebuilt in 1849 and again in 1864 to provide more services and increase capacity. Local services from London Bridge began to be electrified in the beginning of the 20th century, and had spread to national routes by the 1930s. The station was extensively rebuilt by British Rail during the 1970s, along with a comprehensive re-signalling scheme and track alignment. It was further redeveloped in the 2010s to better accommodate the Thameslink route which provides a connection to Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport and Crossrail. London Bridge is served by Southeastern services from Charing Cross and Cannon Street to destinations in southeast London, Kent and East Sussex and is a terminus for many Southern commuter and regional services to south London and numerous destinations in South East England. Thameslink services from Bedford, Cambridge and Peterborough to Brighton and other destinations in Sussex and Kent began serving the station in 2018. Location The main line station is one of 19 UK stations managed by Network Rail. It has a ticket hall and entrance area with its main frontage on Tooley Street, and other entrances on Borough High Street and within the main line station concourse. It is one of two mainline London termini south of the River Thames, the other is Waterloo. The Underground station is on the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. River buses use the nearby London Bridge City Pier. History London Bridge station was opened on 14 December 1836, making it the oldest London railway terminus that is still running. It was not the earliest station in the London metropolitan area, as the London and Greenwich Railway had opened stations at Spa Road (in Bermondsey) and on 8 February 1836. The completion of the line into London Bridge was postponed because of delays in constructing a bridge at Bermondsey Street. From 10 October 1836, trains were able to operate as far as the east end of this bridge, with passengers having to walk the last . The station has had several changes of ownership and complete rebuilds since opening. London and Greenwich Railway station The original station had four tracks and was wide and long. It was approached through a pair of iron gates. Three tracks led into two platforms as a stub end of a viaduct. The station was entirely exposed to the weather until a tarred canvas roof was erected in 1840. Sixteen columns and fourteen beams from this structure were retrieved in 2013 and given to the Vale of Rheidol Railway in Aberystwyth, Wales for use in a planned railway museum. Before completing the train shed, the London and Greenwich Railway entered into an agreement with the proposed London and Croydon Railway for the latter to use its tracks from Corbett's Lane, Bermondsey, and to share its station. However, the Greenwich railway had underestimated the cost of building the long viaduct leading to London Bridge and was not able to build a sufficiently large station for the traffic for both companies, and so in July 1836 it sold some land adjacent to its station (then still under construction) to the Croydon railway to build their own independent station. London and Croydon Railway station The London and Brighton Railway and the South Eastern Railway (SER) were also planning routes from London to Brighton and Dover respectively, and the British Parliament decided that the London and Greenwich line should become the entry corridor into London from South East England. The two railways were therefore required to share the route of the London and Croydon Railway from near Norwood (which in turn shared the route of the London and Greenwich Railway from Bermondsey to London Bridge). As a result, in 1838 the London and Croydon Railway obtained powers to enlarge the station it was then constructing at London Bridge, before it had opened for traffic. The London and Croydon Railway opened its line and began using its station on 5 June 1839; the London and Brighton Railway joined it on 12 July 1841, followed by the South Eastern Railway in 26 May 1842. It was soon found that the viaduct approaching London Bridge would be inadequate to deal with the traffic generated by four railways, so it was widened by the Greenwich Railway between 1840 and 1842, doubling the number of tracks to four. The new lines, intended for the Croydon, Brighton and South Eastern trains, were situated on the south side of the existing Greenwich line, whereas their station was to the north of the London Bridge site, leading to an awkward and potentially dangerous crossing of one another's lines. The directors of the companies involved decided to exchange sites; the London and Greenwich Railway would take over the newly completed London and Croydon Railway station, whilst a new joint committee of the Croydon, Brighton and South Eastern companies would demolish the first station and build a new one on its site. Joint station Plans for a large new station were drawn up, designed jointly by Lewis Cubitt, John Urpeth Rastrick and Henry Roberts. Drawings were published in the Illustrated London News and George Bradshaw's Guide to the London and Brighton Railway 1844. They show 'a quasi-Italianate building with a picturesque campanile'. It opened for business in July 1844 while only partially complete, but events were taking place which would mean that the bell tower would never be built, and the new building would only last five years. In 1843 the SER and Croydon railway companies became increasingly concerned by the high tolls charged by the London and Greenwich Railway for the use of the station approaches, and gained Parliamentary approval to build their own independent line into south London to a new station at Bricklayers Arms, which was vaguely described as a "West End terminus". This line opened on 1 May 1844 and most of the services from these two companies were withdrawn from London Bridge, leaving only the Greenwich and Brighton companies using London Bridge station. The Greenwich company was on the brink of bankruptcy and so was forced to lease its lines to the SER, which took effect from 1 January 1845. The next year the Croydon and Brighton companies, along with other small railways, merged to form the London Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR). Consequently, there were only two companies serving London Bridge. The LB&SCR used the unfinished joint station until it was demolished in 1849 and a larger building constructed. South Eastern Railway station The SER took over the second London and Greenwich station (which had been built for the London and Croydon Railway) and sought to develop that site rather than continue to invest in the former joint station, which became the property of the LB&SCR. The SER station was therefore rebuilt and enlarged between 1847 and 1850, to a design by Samuel Beazley. At the same time yet further improvements were made to the station approaches, increasing the number of tracks to six, which entirely separated the lines of the two railways. Once these extensions were complete the SER closed its passenger terminus at Bricklayer's Arms and converted the site into a goods depot in 1852. London Bridge station remained the London terminus of the SER until 1864 when its station was again rebuilt. Five of the existing platforms were converted into a through station to enable the extension of the main line into central London and the opening of Charing Cross railway station, and in 1866 to Cannon Street station. In 1899 the SER entered into a working amalgamation with the London Chatham and Dover Railway (LC&DR) to form the South Eastern and Chatham Railway Companies Joint Management Committee. Junctions were laid to enable trains through London Bridge to reach the LC&DR stations at Holborn Viaduct and St Pauls. London Brighton and South Coast Railway station The LB&SCR took over the unfinished joint station, which they demolished in 1849 and opened a temporary station in 1850. This was rebuilt and enlarged in 1853–4 to deal with the additional traffic from the lines to Sydenham and . A three-storey box-like structure in Italian style was erected, with the name of the railway emblazoned on the top parapet. In 1859 the LC&DR applied to the LB&SCR for running powers from Sydenham to London Bridge, but was refused. However, some ticketing arrangement was made between the two companies as the LC&DR advertised connections to and from London Bridge in its timetables in The Times and Bradshaw's Railway Guide for July 1861. This arrangement was short-lived pending the construction of the LC&DR line to Holborn Viaduct. The LB&SCR also built the Terminus Hotel at the station in 1861. It was designed by Henry Currey, architect for St Thomas's Hospital, and had 150 public rooms over seven stories. It was unsuccessful because it was on the south bank of the river, so was turned into offices for the railway in 1893. It was destroyed by bombing in 1941. An Act of Parliament of 1862 gave the LB&SCR power to enlarge the station further. Over the next few years under the direction of new Chief Engineer Frederick Banister, the company built four more platform-faces in an adjoining area to the south of its existing station to cope with additional traffic generated by the completion of the South London Line and other suburban lines to Victoria station. This had a single-span trussed-arch roof measuring , and was designed by J. Hawkshaw and Banister. During the first decade of the twentieth century LB&SCR station at London Bridge was again enlarged, but overall London Bridge station remained a "sprawling confusion". The chaotic nature of the station at the turn of the century was described in John Davidson's poem, "London Bridge": The South London Line from London Bridge to Victoria was electrified in 1909 with an experimental overhead system. It was successful and other suburban services were electrified including the line to Crystal Palace in 1912. Because of World War I, the line to Croydon was not electrified until 1920. Southern Railway station The Railways Act 1921 led to the Big Four grouping in 1923. All of the railways of southern England combined to form the Southern Railway (SR), bringing the London Bridge complex under single ownership. The wall that divided the Chatham and Brighton stations was partially knocked through in 1928 to provide an easier interchange between stations. This allowed a greater range of platforms to be used for the increasingly frequent suburban rail services to London Bridge. Between 1926 and 1928 the Southern Railway electrified the SE&CR suburban lines at London Bridge using a third rail system, adapting the existing LB&SCR routes to it at the same time. The first electric services ran on 25 March 1928 from London Bridge to Crystal Palace via Sydenham, followed by a peak hour service to Coulsdon North on 17 June. This was followed by electric services to Epsom Downs via West Croydon, Crystal Palace via Tulse Hill, and Streatham Hill, and to Dorking North and Effingham Junction via Mitcham on 3 March 1929. At the same time as electrification, the SR installed colour light signalling. The Southern Railway electrified the Brighton Main Line services to Brighton and the South Coast, providing a full service to on 17 July 1932. This was following by a full electric service to Brighton and West Worthing on 1 January 1933, followed by services to Seaford, and on 7 July 1935 and to and on 3 July 1938. By the 1930s, a regular feature of London Bridge traffic was a glut of commuter services all departing at or shortly after 5:00 pm. A typical timetable included 12-car services to Brighton, Eastbourne and Littlehampton, all between 5:00 and 5:05. "The fives" continued to run until the mid-1970s. Both the London Bridge stations were badly damaged by bombing in the London Blitz in December 1940 and early 1941. The shell of the two stations was patched up but the former Terminus Hotel, then used as railway offices, was rendered unsafe and demolished. British Railways station British Railways (BR) took over responsibility for the station in 1948 following nationalisation of the railways. They did not consider London Bridge a priority at first, and the war-torn damage of the station remained into the 1960s. Electrification of the lines into London Bridge continued during the 1950s and 1960s, with the final steam service running in 1964, when the line to Oxted and Uckfield was replaced by diesel / electric multiple units. The very last scheduled steam train was the 4.50am to Tonbridge via Redhill on 4 January that year hauled by an N class locomotive. By the early 1970s the station could no longer cope with the volume of traffic. Between 1972 and 1978, BR significantly redeveloped the station and its approaches. This included a £21 million re-signalling scheme that consolidated 16 signal boxes into a new London Bridge Area Signalling Centre and a new station concourse designed by N. D. T. Wikeley, regional architect for the Southern Region. This was opened 14 December 1978. New awnings were added over the former SER platforms, but the arched Brighton roof was left. It was described by The Oxford companion to British Railway History as "one of the best modern station reconstructions in Britain". Patronage to London Bridge tailed off from a peak in the early 1970s. The station remained popular for through routes to the City and the West End, but the number of terminal trains declined significantly by the early 1980s. The bridge over the station's north end became Grade II listed in January 1988, while Platforms 9–16 (the former LB&SCR side) became listed the same that December. In 1991, a "Thameslink 2000" project was proposed that would improve services between London Bridge and the Great Northern lines. It was originally hoped the work would be complete by 1997. A £500 million refurbishment programme was announced by Railtrack in 1999, which would have seen the station complex rotated by 90 degrees, and large amount of shopping space added. Thameslink Programme The station was comprehensively redeveloped between 2009 and 2017 with the rebuilding of all platforms, the addition of two major new street-level entrances, and changes to passenger concourses and retail facilities. The Shard opened next to the station in 2012. It included a new entrance and roof for the terminal level concourse, and a larger bus station was constructed in front of the building. This was followed by a major transformation programme known as Masterplan, linked to the Thameslink programme. Work began in 2012 with the terminal platforms adjacent to St Thomas Street, reducing the number from nine to six and extending them to accommodate longer 12-car trains. Through platforms were increased from six to nine, all of which catered for 12-car trains. In the redeveloped station, Charing Cross services were assigned four new dedicated platforms (6, 7, 8 and 9), and Thameslink services to platforms 4 and 5. The existing platforms for Cannon Street services on the north side of the station were also rebuilt. During the works, Charing Cross trains did not call at the station for most of 2015–16 as the platforms were rebuilt, followed by Cannon Street trains from 2016–17. Thameslink services to/from the Thameslink core did not stop between 2015 and May 2018, when an all day service with significantly enhanced frequency began as the programme of works was completed. As part of the rebuilding works, the listed northern wall of the terminus train-shed was demolished and replaced with a new retaining wall, and the listed bays of the roof over the terminating platforms were dismantled and stored. Each of the rebuilt platforms has its own full length platform canopy. The footbridge dating from the 1970s that linked platforms for passenger interchange was also demolished, replaced by an interchange concourse underneath the platforms accessed by lift, stairs and escalator. This required the demolition of brick vaults between Stainer and Weston Streets, which were pedestrianised and became part of the new concourse. A wider route was created through the Western Arcade to Joiner Street and the underground station by relocating existing shops in to renovated barrel vaults. Two major new street level entrances were opened to the south on St Thomas Street, and to the north, on Tooley Street. This required demolishing the 1893 SER office building. The refurbished station was officially opened by Prince William, Duke of Cambridge on 9 May 2018. The total estimated value of the project was around £1 billion. In July 2019, the refurbished station made the shortlist for the Stirling Prize for excellence in architecture. In 2020 the Thameslink lines at London Bridge were one of the few locations in the UK to use a digital signalling system. National Rail station The station's platform configuration is: Platforms 1, 2 and 3 serve trains to/from and southeast London and Kent. Platforms 4 and 5 serve Thameslink trains between the Brighton main line and the Thameslink core via . Platforms 6–9 serve trains to/from to southeast London, Kent and East Sussex. Platforms 10–15 serve mainly Southern services toward south London and the south coast. The platforms are linked together by a large street-level concourse, offering a ticket office, retail facilities and waiting areas, with entrances on St Thomas Street and Tooley Street. Services London Bridge is one of the busiest stations in the UK, with an estimated 63.1 million passenger entries/exits in 2019/20. However, as with other stations, patronage dropped dramatically as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The estimated usage figure fell 78% in 2020/21 to 13.8 million, although it rose in the ranking by one place to the third busiest in the country, behind and Victoria, both also in London. Typical services from the station are: Southeastern to/from Charing Cross The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is: 14 tph to London Charing Cross 2 tph to via 2 tph to Dartford via and 2 tph to via 2 tph to via 2 tph to via 2 tph to via (1 semi-fast, 1 stopping) 2 tph to of which 1 continues to Southeastern to/from Cannon Street The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is: 8 tph to London Cannon Street 2 tph to via 2 tph to via 2 tph to via and , returning to London Cannon Street via 2 tph to Slade Green via Sidcup, returning to London Cannon Street via Woolwich Arsenal and Greenwich Southern The typical weekday off-peak services in trains per hour (tph) is: 2 tph to London Victoria via 2 tph to Caterham via Tulse Hill 2 tph to Caterham and Tattenham Corner dividing and attaching at Purley 2 tph to Coulsdon Town via Forest Hill 2 tph to Beckenham Junction via Crystal Palace 2 tph to Epsom via West Croydon 1 tph to Uckfield via Oxted Thameslink The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is: 4 tph to Brighton via Gatwick Airport 2 tph to Horsham via and Gatwick Airport 2 tph to Gatwick Airport via Redhill 2 tph to Rainham via Greenwich, Woolwich Arsenal, Dartford and Gravesend 4 tph to Bedford via St Pancras International, St Albans City, Luton Airport and Luton 2 tph to Luton via St Pancras International, St Albans City and Luton Airport 2 tph to Cambridge via St Pancras International and Stevenage 2 tph to Peterborough via St Pancras International and Stevenage London Underground station The Underground station is served by the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. In , it was the station on the network with million users. It is the only station on the London Underground network with "London" in its name (while the NR termini are named, for instance, "London Waterloo" the Underground station is simply named "Waterloo"). There are two platforms on each line and two main sets of escalators to and from the Tooley Street ticket hall. All four platforms are directly accessible from the Borough High Street entrance/exit. There is an emergency exit to Joiner Street. Northern line The first underground station at London Bridge was part of the second section of the City & South London Railway (C&SLR). The company had been formed on 28 July 1884 with the intention of constructing a line under the Thames from to Stockwell via Elephant and Castle and Kennington, which opened on 18 December 1890. No station was provided at London Bridge; the first station south of the river was at Borough. King William Street was found to be badly placed owing to a steep incline towards the station from underneath the Thames, which limited its capacity. When the decision was made to extend the C&SLR northwards to Moorgate, a new pair of tunnels was constructed from north of Borough station on a new alignment providing a more convenient route and the opportunity to open a station at London Bridge. The tunnels to King William Street and the station were closed and the extension and London Bridge station opened on 25 February 1900. The station entrance was originally at Three Castles House on the corner of London Bridge Street and Railway Approach, but has since been moved to Borough High Street and Tooley Street. The original entrance remained standing until March 2013 when it was demolished. In the aftermath of the King's Cross fire in 1987, an independent report recommended that London Underground investigate "passenger flow and congestion in stations and take remedial action". As a consequence, the congested Northern line platforms were rebuilt during the late 1990s, increasing the platform and circulation areas for the opening of the Jubilee Line Extension. The station is arranged for right-hand running because it is in a stretch of the Northern line (from just south of Borough to just south of ) where the northbound line is to the east of the southbound, instead of to the west. Jubilee line The Jubilee line station is between and . It opened on 7 October 1999 as part of the Jubilee Line Extension, although trains had been running through non-stop from the previous month. It took months of major engineering works to relocate buried services in the surrounding streets to enable the Jubilee line's construction. A new ticket hall was created in the arches under the main-line station, with entrances at Joiner Street and Borough High Street. During excavations a variety of Roman remains were found, including pottery and fragments of mosaics; some of these are now on display in the station. The Jubilee line platforms have been fitted with platform screen doors in common with all other below-ground stations on the extension. There is a facing crossover to the west of the station enabling trains to terminate here. Connections London Buses routes 17, 21, 35, 43, 47, 133, 141, 149, 343, 344, 381, 388, 521 and night routes N21, N133, N199, N343 and N381 serve the station, some serving London Bridge bus station. Accidents and incidents There have been several recorded accidents at London Bridge station, though relatively few of these have caused fatalities. The most serious accidents were: On 1 February 1884, the 12:05 pm London Bridge to Victoria, hauled by LB&SCR Terrier No.71 Wapping, collided with a D1 tank which was fouling the exit from the platform. Two carriages derailed. On 27 November 1895, a local train hauled by LB&SCR Terrier No. 70 Poplar collided with the buffer stops. On August 1926, a F1 class locomotive overran the buffers and crashed into a brewery. On 9 July 1928, B2X class locomotive No. B210 was in a sidelong collision with an electric multiple unit after the driver of B210 misread signals. Two people were killed and nine were injured, six seriously. On 23 January 1948, a train formed of a 6PAN and a 6PUL unit, which formed that day's 7:30 am service from coupled with the 8:50 am from Seaford, was allowed to draw up to the inner home signal, where it should have stopped. Instead, it overran the signal and collided at a speed of between with an empty stock which had formed the 8:20 am from and was waiting to depart London Bridge's platform 14 for . This train was formed of two 6PAN units. The train that was struck was forced through the buffers and demolished a bookstall. Two train crew and one passenger were killed and 34 people were injured. On 11 April 1989, a passenger train arriving from collided with the buffers. Six people were injured. On 28 February 1992, a bomb planted by the Provisional IRA exploded at the station, injuring 29 people. On 3 June 2017, the station was closed for several hours during a terrorist attack on London Bridge and in nearby Borough Market. References Notes Citations Sources External links London Transport Museum Photographic Archive Station information on London Bridge station from Network Rail Thameslink Programme publicity: Jubilee line stations London Underground Night Tube stations Northern line stations Tube stations in the London Borough of Southwark Former City and South London Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1900 Railway termini in London Railway stations in the London Borough of Southwark Network Rail managed stations Former London, Brighton and South Coast Railway stations Former South Eastern Railway (UK) stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1836 Thameslink railway stations Railway stations served by Southern Railway stations served by Southeastern Charles Henry Driver railway stations Henry Roberts railway stations Lewis Cubitt railway stations Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom London station group 1836 in London	5,784
doc-en-10467_0	The Selous Scouts was a special forces unit of the Rhodesian Army that operated during the Rhodesian Bush War from 1973 until the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe in 1980. It was mainly responsible for infiltrating the black majority population of Rhodesia and collecting intelligence on insurgents so that they could be attacked by regular elements of the security forces. The unit did this by forming small teams that posed as insurgents and usually included captured insurgents. Over time, the Selous Scouts increasingly attacked insurgents themselves and operated in the countries that neighboured Rhodesia. The unit developed a reputation for brutality, and was responsible for attacking and killing civilians. The Selous Scouts were also involved in the Rhodesian chemical and biological weapons program and used poisons and biological agents in some of its operations. The methods used by the unit led to the deaths of large numbers of insurgents but were counter-productive as they further alienated the black majority population from the white minority Rhodesian government and increased international opposition to the regime. Following the disbandment of the Selous Scouts after Rhodesia's transition to Zimbabwe, many of its members were recruited into the Apartheid-era South African security forces. They contributed to the adoption of the Selous Scouts' methods by the South African Defence Force and South African Police, and some took part in operations to undermine the government of Zimbabwe. Background In November 1965 the government of the British colony of Southern Rhodesia issued an illegal Unilateral Declaration of Independence. This government represented the country's small white minority and was led by Prime Minister Ian Smith. The black majority of the population had little influence on the government, which sought to continue white racial privileges. At the time of independence the Rhodesian Security Forces were relatively large and well trained and equipped. Two groups with armed elements emerged as the opposition to the white Rhodesian regime. These were the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), whose military wing was the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and its armed wing the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Both groups were initially based in Zambia, and from the late 1960s began dispatching insurgents into Rhodesia who used guerrilla tactics. These attacks initially proved ineffective and the Rhodesian military, which had been bolstered by forces from South Africa, was able to effectively counter them. Rhodesia's security situation began to deteriorate from late 1972, when the guerrilla armies began making more effective attacks in the north-east of the country. The collapse of the Portuguese Empire in 1975 that led to the independence of Mozambique led to a further increase to the challenges facing the Rhodesian regime, with the guerrillas using that country as well as Botswana as bases. A tactic in which security forces pose as 'pseudo' insurgents to gather intelligence was developed prior to the Rhodesian Bush War, and had also been used by police forces. Pseudo operations involve security force personnel being trained to closely imitate insurgents. Teams of these personnel then enter regions where insurgents are active and portray themselves as insurgents. After establishing credibility, the team collects intelligence on actual insurgents and their sources of support. These tactics can be most necessary in regions where the insurgents have eliminated the government's sources of intelligence, as was the case in north-eastern Rhodesia in 1973. In general, 'pseudo' teams undertake only intelligence collection work, and do not attack insurgents themselves. 'Pseudo' tactics are generally most effective when the teams include former insurgents who have been 'turned' to side with the government. The effectiveness of these tactics is partially dependent on their use not becoming known, as this will lead to insurgents improving their security processes. Internationally, there has also been a risk of pseudo units breaking the law. If local civilians learn that the security forces are posing as insurgents and using this as cover to break the law, the tactics can be counter-productive as they will erode support for the government. Unit history Establishment The British South Africa Police's Special Branch began pseudo operations to collect intelligence in 1966. The Rhodesian Army took part in a joint trial using these tactics with the British South Africa Police and Special Branch that year, but it was not successful for at that stage the black population was largely indifferent to the insurgents and so not able to provide intelligence on them. The ZANLA began to gain control over north-eastern Rhodesia from 1971, and considerably strengthened its influence over the population in the region over the next year. This led to the networks of informers who had provided information to the Rhodesian Government ceasing to do so, which made it difficult for the security forces to locate and counter the insurgents. In response, Special Branch began to establish pseudo teams in January 1973. The Rhodesian Army also formed two such teams in February; these comprised members of C Squadron 22 (Rhodesian) SAS, black soldiers from the Rhodesian African Rifles and former insurgents. These teams enjoyed success, leading to a decision to expand pseudo operations. Major Ronald Francis Reid-Daly was selected to command the unit that became the Selous Scouts in November 1973. He was personally selected for this role by Lieutenant General Peter Walls, the head of the Rhodesian Army. An initial group of 25 personnel were selected and trained at Makuti near Lake Kariba. The first troop completed training and began operations in January 1974, followed by two other troops in February and March that year. At this time, the Selous Scouts comprised about 120 personnel and all of its officers were white. Black soldiers were offered bonuses that almost doubled their salary if they agreed to serve with the Selous Scouts. The unit was named after the British explorer Frederick Selous (1851–1917) and its motto was pamwe chete—a Shona phrase meaning "all together", "together only" or "forward together". The charter of the Selous Scouts directed them to "the clandestine elimination of terrorism both within and without the country". The South African Police's Special Branch provided funding for the Selous Scouts. This formed part of the South African Government's extensive support for the Rhodesian counterinsurgency effort. Many South African Defence Force personnel served in the Selous Scouts between 1973 and 1979, including during operations in Rhodesia, Mozambique and Zambia. After the South African Government publicly withdrew the South African Police units which had been deployed to Rhodesia in 1975 SADF personnel continued to serve with the Selous Scouts. A witness who testified at the post-Apartheid South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission stated that the Selous Scouts were covertly funded by the South African Police and South African police officers also served in the unit. Expansion Due to the success of the Selous Scouts, Walls directed in mid-1974 that it be expanded from three to six troops. This process was completed by December 1974, and included 50 former insurgents being added to the unit. A Reconnaissance Troop was formed in the second half of 1976 to conduct scouting operations in Mozambique and Zambia; this unit had a peak strength of twelve men. The size of the Selous Scouts increased further over time, and eventually reached 1,800 men. Many of these were territorial soldiers who were not permanently attached. The rapid expansion of the Selous Scouts led to a drop in the quality of its personnel, which reduced the effectiveness of pseudo operations. This in turn caused the unit to increasingly undertake offensive operations where it directly attacked insurgents rather than gathered intelligence on them. From 1979 former Selous Scouts became part of a scheme where they were armed by the Rhodesian Army and paid bounties for killing insurgents. The overlap in roles between the Selous Scouts and the SAS led to friction between the two units. Disbandment Ahead of the multi-racial 1980 Southern Rhodesian general election the Selous Scouts and SAS were involved in preparing plans to annul its results. One of these plans would have involved killing the leadership of the black nationalist parties in Operation Hectic. Another, designated Operation Quartz would have involved attacking the insurgents in the camps where they had been concentrated within Rhodesia ahead of the election. These operations were not attempted. Following the transition to majority rule and Rhodesia's reconstitution as Zimbabwe, Prime Minister Robert Mugabe decided in March 1980 to disband the Selous Scouts by April that year. Mugabe stated that the unit needed to be disbanded as part of reforms to provide Zimbabwe with a "respectable" army. At this time it was expected that many of its white members would leave the military. Walls received a hostile reception from the unit's officers and men when he visited its base in March 1980. During this visit members of the Selous Scouts called him a traitor. The Selous Scouts were disbanded without a formal ceremony to mark the occasion in April 1980. The unit had suffered between 30 and 35 fatalities during its existence. Most of the white members of the Selous Scouts moved to South Africa to join that country's security forces. The 900 black members of the unit were offered other positions within Zimbabwe's security forces, and were mainly split across three battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles. Many of the black former Selous Scouts were murdered following the transition to majority rule. Structure While an Army unit, the Selous Scouts came under the operational control of Special Branch from its establishment in November 1973. This involved Special Branch controlling where the unit operated and how the intelligence it collected was used. Special Branch also had some influence over the Selous Scouts' training. In terms of Army hierarchy, the Selous Scouts reported directly to Walls. The unit was under orders from Special Branch to not pass any information directly to the Rhodesian Directorate of Military Intelligence, which contributed to very little of the intelligence it collected being provided to Army units. The Selous Scouts and other Rhodesian special forces continued to report directly to Walls for military purposes after he became the Commander of Combined Operations in 1977. The Army headquarters provided administrative and logistical support. As the Selous Scouts increased in size and increasingly undertook offensive operations it became impossible for Special Branch to adequately oversee the unit. Each troop within the Selous Scouts comprised three sections, each usually with nine to twelve men. The size of sections varied, however, and could be as large as 30 men. Selous Scout teams usually included both black and white personnel, with the men forming close bonds. Until almost the end of the war, all of the officers in the Selous Scouts were white. Tactics within Rhodesia In line with 'pseudo' doctrine, the role of the Selous Scout was to infiltrate the black population of Rhodesia and penetrate networks of insurgents. They were to then collect intelligence on the locations of insurgent forces and guide attacks on them. Where possible, Selous Scout teams would remain in place for lengthy periods. Selous Scout teams were also used in a 'hunter killer' role, in which they followed insurgent supply networks from contested areas within Rhodesia to neighbouring countries and killed any insurgents they located during the process. Selous Scout teams were usually successful in impersonating insurgents, even though their tradecraft was at times poor. The unit was more successful in penetrating ZANLA than ZIPRA, as the latter was better disciplined and had stronger command and control processes. To prevent the regular army or police from firing at Selous Scout teams while they were operating, authorities would declare "frozen areas", where all Army and Police units were ordered to temporarily cease all operations in, and withdraw from, without being told the actual rationale. Little information was provided to the Army units on the results of these operations or the intelligence that was collected. 'Freezing' areas generally proved operationally successful, but there were several occasions in which the security forces inadvertently attacked and killed Selous Scouts. The Rhodesian military established fireforce teams to exploit the intelligence collected by the Selous Scouts. These initially involved groups of soldiers that were inserted by helicopter, and were later expanded with paratroopers. The Rhodesian Light Infantry often provided the soldiers for fireforce teams. A key element of the Selous Scouts' methods was 'turning' captured insurgents to join the Rhodesian security forces. This was normally attempted shortly after insurgents were captured, with them being both threatened and offered incentives. The captured insurgent was usually approached by a former insurgent. In the resulting conversation, the former insurgent emphasised the hardships insurgents were experiencing and that those who were captured faced the death penalty under the Law and Order (Maintenance) Act. This legislation imposed severe penalties for people found to be members of subversive organisations, including the death penalty or long prison terms. The captured insurgent was also offered a lump sum payment as well as a soldier's salary if they agreed to fight for the Rhodesian government. If an insurgent agreed to be 'turned' and passed further vetting, they were assigned to a Selous Scout team and operated in regions in which they would not be recognised. Where possible, their family was housed on a Selous Scouts base. Only a small number of 'turned' insurgents ever deserted or betrayed the unit. Some of the prisoners captured by the Selous Scouts who refused to be 'turned' were killed. One of the tactics used by the Selous Scouts was to violate local customs while posing as insurgents with the goal of reducing support for the actual insurgents. The Selous Scouts also sought to increase the divisions between the ZANLA and ZIPRA by posing as members of one group and then attacking members of the other group. These tactics became publicly known and embarrassed the government. The Selous Scouts were probably responsible for killing black business owners in rural areas who provided support for the insurgents. These killings were conducted secretly. Special Branch provided the Selous Scouts with poisoned clothing, food, beverages and medicines that the unit inserted into the guerrilla supply chains. The use of contaminated supplies resulted in the reported deaths of over 800 guerrillas, and the likely death toll probably reached well over 1,000. The Rhodesian Directorate of Military Intelligence estimated in 1978 that the Selous Scouts were responsible for 68% of insurgent fatalities within Rhodesia. These casualties largely resulted from attacks by Rhodesian Army units on insurgents located by the Selous Scouts. However, the unit's ruthless tactics were counter-productive as they contributed to further alienating Rhodesia's black population from the government. This formed part of broader flaws in the Rhodesian counter-insurgency strategy, and the historian Jakkie Cilliers has written that "the Selous Scouts were merely the instruments of an overly aggressive and punitive strategy, simply directed at killing as many insurgents as possible and punishing the rural black population to force them to desist from support for the insurgent forces. The apparent success of the Selous Scouts led to the unit being glamorised. However, the Rhodesian leadership considered the all-white SAS to be more professional and security conscious than the Selous Scouts. External operations The Selous Scouts were involved in the Rhodesian military's attacks on insurgents and their bases in neighbouring countries, often known as external operations. These operations became frequent from 1976. The unit's role in external operations included intelligence collection and directly attacking insurgents. In the intelligence gathering role, the Selous Scouts' Reconnaissance Troop conducted one or two man long-range reconnaissance patrols to locate or gather information on insurgent bases in Mozambique and Zambia. During direct attacks the Selous Scouts often impersonated soldiers of the country they were operating in. The Selous Scouts operated in eastern Botswana. This included fighting small actions against insurgents and a raid in which ZAPU leaders were captured in Francistown. The Selous Scouts also used pseudo tactics to collect intelligence in Francistown. Operation Long John was launched on 25 June 1976, against two guerilla bases located in Mozambique. This operation used 'flying column' tactics for the first time, which involved six vehicles manned by the Selous Scouts attacking the bases. Large quantities of munitions were destroyed, but few casualties were inflicted. On August 9, 1976, the Selous Scouts carried out Operation Eland, a raid on a ZANLA and FRELIMO controlled refugee camp at Nyadzonia in Mozambique. The Selous Scouts, who were mostly black and disguised in FRELIMO uniforms, included former Portuguese Army soldiers and a former ZANLA commander. They drove into the camp past FRELIMO guards to the parade ground where many were assembled before the attack commenced. The head of the Selous Scouts, Ronald Francis Reid-Daly, claimed that captured ZANLA documents showed that the people killed in the raid were either trained guerrillas or were undergoing guerrilla instruction and training. Paul L. Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin wrote in 1982, that "although the camp did contain trained guerrillas and young recruits, many of its inhabitants were old people, women and young children who had fled from Rhodesia as refugees". They further wrote in 2010, that "although nearly all the personnel in the camp were unarmed, many were trained guerillas or undergoing instruction" and that documents captured from ZANLA, revealed more than 1,028 were killed in the operation. A 1994 Amnesty International publication described the operation as a massacre and stated that the camp at Nyadzonya housed refugees, and that a soldier who participated in the raid later stated: "We were told that Nyadzonia was a camp containing several thousand unarmed refugees who could be recruited to join the guerrillas. It would be easier if we went in and wiped them out while they were unarmed and before they were trained rather than waiting for the possibility of them being trained and sent back armed into Rhodesia". According to Amnesty International, 1,000 people were killed and the operation was "a gross human rights violation and a war crime". The South African government was angered by this escalation of the war, and withdrew its military and diplomatic support for the Rhodesian regime. Pressure from South Africa led Prime Minister Smith to accept the principle of black majority rule in Rhodesia in September 1976. The Selous Scouts unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Joshua Nkomo, the leader of ZIPRA, while he was in Zambia. While the attacks made outside of Rhodesia by the Selous Scouts were usually militarily successful, they worsened the country's political position. This was because they resulted in civilians and members of the armed forces in the neighbouring countries being killed. Atrocities and illegal activities The Selous Scouts had a reputation for brutality. The unit conducted a number of atrocities against villages that were believed to have collaborated with the guerrillas. Members of the units also poached ivory, smuggled guns and beat and killed civilians. During attacks into Botswana, the Selous Scouts committed arson and abducted civilians. The use of insurgent uniforms and civilian clothing by the Selous Scouts may also have violated the 1907 Hague Convention and the Geneva Conventions which prohibit military personnel from wearing enemy uniforms in most circumstances and require that they clearly distinguish themselves from civilians. Some of the actions undertaken by the Selous Scouts were illegal under Rhodesian law. Selous Scout teams at times attacked Rhodesian Security Forces units and white farms in attempts to persuade local civilians that they were actually insurgents. Another tactic involved repeatedly calling in air strikes and fireforce attacks on insurgents after they had left a specific kraal leading the insurgents to kill innocent civilians in the kraal because they suspected civilians of informing on their positions; it was intended that this would sow divisions between the insurgents and civilians. The Selous Scouts also labelled insurgents as traitors to the insurgent cause and then publicly killed them leading to "disillusionment and bewilderment" among local civilians; this led to several murder investigations being opened into members of the unit. While these illegal activities provided substantial short-term benefits for the Rhodesian government, over the longer term they became well known among civilians and undermined the rule of law and the government's legitimacy. Robert Mugabe accused the Selous Scouts of killing priests and missionaries. The New York Times noted in 1979 that while no evidence had been provided to support this claim the Rhodesian Catholic Commission on Justice and Peace believed that an unnamed "rogue unit" of the Rhodesian security forces had been disciplined for killing seven religious figures in 1977. In 1980 The Washington Post reported that the Selous Scouts had bombed churches. Atrocities conducted by Selous Scouts operating under the guise of insurgents were often blamed on the insurgents in Rhodesian propaganda publications and broadcasts. These atrocities included mutilating civilians, with photos of the victims being included in Rhodesian propaganda. The unit was also involved with the Rhodesian chemical and biological weapons program. By 1975 some of the prisoners who were held at the Selous Scouts' secret detention centre at Mount Darwin were being used by the Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO) for human testing of chemical and biological weapons. The bodies of these prisoners were dumped in mine shafts. During 1976 members of the Selous Scouts disseminated v. cholerae in the Ruya River. The unit also used the material to contaminate the water supply of the town of Cochemane in Mozambique. Deaths from cholera occurred in both areas. The Selous Scouts may also have spread anthrax. According to former CIO Officer Henrik Ellert, an incident where Selous Scouts poisoned a well with unknown substances in an area of heavy rebel activity near Rhodesia's border with Mozambique killed 200 civilians. Paul L. Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin argued in 1982 that the Selous Scouts' "notoriety for treachery and brutality was only partly deserved, for the bulk of its members were engaged on routine military tasks". They also stated that as the Selous Scouts came under the direct command of the Commander for Combined Operations, the most senior officers in the Rhodesian security forces were complicit in at least some of the atrocities the unit committed. Theodore L. Gatchel has written that the Selous Scouts were frequently accused of a wide range of crimes, but it is difficult to differentiate their real crimes from false accusations and atrocities committed by the actual insurgents. He noted that the unpopularity of the Rhodesian regime resulting from its colonial and racist policies meant that accusations made against the unit were widely believed. Michael Evans observed in 2007 that the Selous Scouts "became rogue elements, as guilty of illegal activities as the very guerrillas they were fighting" and "significant numbers" of the unit "became implicated in activities that included torture, field executions, political assassination, kidnapping and the use of chemical warfare". Mpho G. Molomo described the Selous Scouts in 2009 as "a terrorist unit within the Rhodesian security forces". Piers Brendon wrote in 2010 that "the Selous Scouts committed the worst atrocities" of any Rhodesian unit. Ian Martinez has written that the Selous Scout's killings of prisoners and use of chemical and biological weapons were war crimes. Legacy Following the dissolution of the Selous Scouts in 1980, most of its white soldiers emigrated to South Africa and were integrated into the South African Special Forces and the South African Police's special units. This formed part of an effort by the SADF to recruit white veterans of Rhodesian counter-insurgency units that was designated Operation Winter. The former Selous Scouts contributed to the adoption by the South African security forces of the unit's ruthless tactics. For instance, former Selous Scouts comprised most of the initial personnel of the South African Koevoet unit, and it used similar tactics. This unit was responsible for many human rights violations. The South African Police's Vlakplaas paramilitary hit squad that was established in 1979 was also inspired by the Selous Scouts, as was the Civil Cooperation Bureau that was formed in 1986. Following the end of the Apartheid regime in South Africa some former Selous Scouts joined private military companies. Reid-Daly's memoirs Selous Scouts: Top Secret War, which were first published in 1982, have had a strong influence on the historiography of the Rhodesian Bush War. It was among the first such works to be published, and was followed by many books by white veterans of the war. The book has been widely cited, with historians and commentators arguing that it clearly illustrated the tactics used by the Rhodesians. It does not mention any of the atrocities committed by the Selous Scouts. Many other books have since been published about the Selous Scouts. In 2018 The New York Times reported that glorification of the Selous Scouts formed part of online nostalgia for Rhodesia and had been taken up by far-right movements that were sympathetic to the white Rhodesian regime. Items branded with the slogan and insignia of the Selous Scouts were available for sale, and a company called the "Selous Armory" was selling a range of apparel glorifying the Rhodesian military. In 2021, the newly established Ranger Regiment in the British Army adopted a cap badge that was similar in appearance to the Selous Scouts' and may have been based on it. The Telegraph reported that "that numerous officers have raised concerns" over the badge. The British Army denied that the badge was based on the Selous Scouts', stating that it was "designed around the peregrine falcon" and not the osprey as used by the Rhodesian badge. See also Special forces of Rhodesia 32 Battalion (South Africa) Flechas UR-416 Footnotes References Further reading Counterinsurgency Counter-terrorist organizations Military units and formations disestablished in 1980 Military units and formations established in 1973 Military units and formations of Rhodesia in the Bush War Regiments of Rhodesia Special forces of Rhodesia	5,557
doc-en-7460_0	The Israelites (; ) were a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes of the ancient Near East, who inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods. Two related Israelite kingdoms, Israel and Judah, emerged during the monarchic period. The northern Kingdom of Israel, with its capital in Samaria, was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire; The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, was destroyed in 587 BCE following the destruction of the city by the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Modern Jews and Samaritans are both descended from the Israelites. Overview In the Hebrew Bible, the term Israelites is used interchangeably with the term Twelve Tribes of Israel. Although related, the terms "Hebrews", "Israelites", and "Jews" are not interchangeable in all instances. "Israelites" (Yisraelim) refers to the people whom the Hebrew Bible describes specifically as the direct descendants of any of the sons of the patriarch Jacob (later called Israel), and his descendants as a people are also collectively called "Israel", including converts to their faith in worship of the national god of Israel, Yahweh. "Hebrews" (ʿIvrim), on the contrary, is used to denote the Israelites' immediate forebears who dwelt in the land of Canaan, the Israelites themselves, and the Israelites' ancient and modern descendants (including Jews and Samaritans). "Jews" (Yehudim) is used to denote the descendants of the Israelites who coalesced when the Tribe of Judah absorbed the remnants of the northern Israelite tribes.During the period of the divided monarchy, "Israelites" was only used to refer to the inhabitants of the northern Kingdom of Israel, and it is only extended to cover the people of the southern Kingdom of Judah in post-exilic usage. Efforts to confirm the Israelites' biblical origins through archaeology, once widespread, have been largely abandoned as unproductive, with many scholars viewing the stories as inspiring national myth narratives with little historical value. Based on the archaeological evidence, according to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the indigenous Canaanite peoples that long inhabited the Southern Levant, Syria, ancient Israel, and the Transjordan region through a gradual evolution of a distinct monolatristic (later monotheistic) religion centered on Yahweh. The outgrowth of Yahweh-centric monolatrism from Canaanite polytheism started with Yahwism, the belief in the existence of the many gods and goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon but with the consistent worship of only Yahweh. Along with a number of cultic practices, this gave rise to a separate Israelite ethnic group identity. The final transition of their Yahweh-based religion to monotheism and rejection of the existence of the other Canaanite gods set the Israelites apart from their fellow Canaanite brethren. The Israelites, however, continued to retain various cultural commonalities with other Canaanites, including use of one of the Canaanite dialects, Hebrew, which is today the only living descendant of that language group. According to the religious narrative of the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites' origin is traced back to the biblical patriarchs and matriarchs Abraham and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and his wife Rebecca, and their son Jacob (who was later called Israel, whence they derive their name) with his wives Leah and Rachel and the handmaids Zilpa and Bilhah. Modern Jews and Samaritans can trace their ancestry to the Israelites. Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah, particularly the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon and partially Levi. Many Israelites took refuge in the Kingdom of Judah following the collapse of the Kingdom of Israel. Finally, in Judaism, the term "Israelite" is, broadly speaking, used to refer to a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious group, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites. In texts of Jewish law such as the Mishnah and Gemara, the term יהודי (Yehudi), meaning Jew, is rarely used, and instead the ethnonym ישראלי (Yisraeli), or Israelite, is widely used to refer to Jews. Samaritans are not and never call themselves "Jews" יהודים (Yehudim), but commonly refer to themselves and to Jews collectively as Israelites, and they describe themselves as Israelite Samaritans. Etymology The name Israel first appears in non-biblical sources c. 1209 BCE, in an inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah. The inscription is very brief and says simply: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not". The inscription refers to a people, not to an individual or a nation state. Three Egyptologists have suggested that the name Israel appears in a topographical relief that either dates to the period of the Nineteenth Dynasty (perhaps during the reign of Ramesses II) or even earlier during the Eighteenth Dynasty. This reading remains controversial. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 32:29 where it is given to Jacob by the angel with whom he has wrestled because he has "striven with God and with men, and hast prevailed.". The folk etymology given in the text derives Israel from yisra, "to prevail over" or "to struggle with", and El (god). However, modern scholarship interprets El as the subject, "El rules/struggles", from sarar (שָׂרַר) 'to rule' (cognate with sar (שַׂר) 'ruler', Akkadian šarru 'ruler, king'), which is likely cognate with the similar root sara (שׂרה) "fought, strove, contended". Related terms Judahite, Judaean, Jew The Greek term Ioudaios (Jew) was an exonym originally referring to members of the Tribe of Judah, and by extension the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Judah and the Judean region, and was later adopted as a self-designation by people in the Jewish diaspora who identified themselves as loyal to the God of Israel and the Temple in Jerusalem. Samaritan The Samaritans claim descent from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (plus Levi through Aaron for kohens) but many Jewish authorities contest their claimed lineage, deeming them to have been conquered foreigners who were settled in the Land of Israel by the Assyrians, as was the typical Assyrian policy to obliterate national identities. The terms Jews and Samaritans largely replaced the title "Children of Israel" as the commonly used ethnonym for each respective community. Biblical narrative The Israelite story begins with some of the culture heroes of the Jewish people, the patriarchs. The Torah traces the Israelites to the patriarch Jacob, grandson of Abraham, who was renamed Israel after a mysterious incident in which he wrestles all night with God or an angel. Jacob's twelve sons (in order of birth), Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph and Benjamin, become the ancestors of twelve tribes, with the exception of Joseph, whose two sons Manasseh and Ephraim, become tribal eponyms (). The mothers of Jacob's sons are: Leah: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun Rachel: Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), Benjamin Bilhah (Rachel's maid): Dan, Naphtali Zilpah (Leah's maid): Gad, Asher () Jacob and his sons are forced by famine to go down into Egypt, although Joseph was already there, as he had been sold into slavery while young. When they arrive they and their families are 70 in number, but within four generations they have increased to 600,000 men of fighting age, and the Pharaoh of Egypt, alarmed, first enslaves them and then orders the death of all male Hebrew children. A woman from the tribe of Levi hides her child, places him in a woven basket, and sends him down the Nile river. He is named Mosheh, or Moses, by the Egyptians who find him. Being a Hebrew baby, they award a Hebrew woman the task of raising him, the mother of Moses volunteers, and the child and his mother are reunited. At the age of forty Moses kills an Egyptian, after he sees him beating a Hebrew to death, and escapes as a fugitive into the Sinai desert, where he is taken in by the Midianites and marries Zipporah, the daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro. When he is eighty years old, Moses is tending a herd of sheep in solitude on Mount Sinai when he sees a desert shrub that is burning but is not consumed. The God of Israel calls to Moses from the fire and reveals his name, Yahweh, and tells Moses that he is being sent to Pharaoh to bring the people of Israel out of Egypt. Yahweh tells Moses that if Pharaoh refuses to let the Hebrews go to say to Pharaoh "Thus says Yahweh: Israel is my son, my first-born and I have said to you: Let my son go, that he may serve me, and you have refused to let him go. Behold, I will slay your son, your first-born". Moses returns to Egypt and tells Pharaoh that he must let the Hebrew slaves go free. Pharaoh refuses and Yahweh strikes the Egyptians with a series of horrific plagues, wonders, and catastrophes, after which Pharaoh relents and banishes the Hebrews from Egypt. Moses leads the Israelites out of bondage toward the Red Sea, but Pharaoh changes his mind and arises to massacre the fleeing Hebrews. Pharaoh finds them by the sea shore and attempts to drive them into the ocean with his chariots and drown them. Yahweh causes the Red Sea to part and the Hebrews pass through on dry land into the Sinai. After the Israelites escape from the midst of the sea, Yahweh causes the ocean to close back in on the pursuing Egyptian army, drowning them. In the desert Yahweh feeds them with manna that accumulates on the ground with the morning dew. They are led by a column of cloud, which ignites at night and becomes a pillar of fire to illuminate the way, southward through the desert until they come to Mount Sinai. The twelve tribes of Israel encamp around the mountain, and on the third day Mount Sinai begins to smolder, then catches fire, and Yahweh speaks the Ten Commandments from the midst of the fire to all the Israelites, from the top of the mountain. Moses ascends Mount Sinai and fasts for forty days while he writes down the Torah as Yahweh dictates, beginning with Bereshith and the creation of the universe and earth. He is shown the design of the Mishkan and the Ark of the Covenant, which Bezalel is given the task of building. Moses descends from the mountain forty days later with the Sefer Torah he wrote, and with two rectangular lapis lazuli tablets, into which Yahweh had carved the Ten Commandments. In his absence, Aaron has constructed an image of Yahweh, depicting him as a young golden calf, and has presented it to the Israelites, declaring "Behold O Israel, this is your god who brought you out of the land of Egypt". Moses smashes the two tablets and grinds the golden calf into dust, then throws the dust into a stream of water flowing out of Mount Sinai, and forces the Israelites to drink from it. Moses ascends Mount Sinai for a second time and Yahweh passes before him and says: 'Yahweh, Yahweh, a god of compassion, and showing favor, slow to anger, and great in kindness and in truth, who shows kindness to the thousandth generation, forgiving wrongdoing and injustice and wickedness, but will by no means clear the guilty, causing the consequences of the parent's wrongdoing to befall their children, and their children's children, to the third and fourth generation' Moses then fasts for another forty days while Yahweh carves the Ten Commandments into the second set of stone tablets. After the tablets are completed, light emanates from the face of Moses for the rest of his life, causing him to wear a veil so he does not frighten people. Moses descends Mount Sinai and the Israelites agree to be the chosen people of Yahweh and follow all the laws of the Torah. Moses prophesies if they forsake the Torah, Yahweh will exile them for the total number of years they did not observe the shmita. Bezael constructs the Ark of the Covenant and the Mishkan, where the presence of Yahweh dwells on earth in the Holy of Holies, above the Ark of the Covenant, which houses the Ten Commandments. Moses sends spies to scout out the Land of Canaan, and the Israelites are commanded to go up and conquer the land, but they refuse, due to their fear of warfare and violence. In response, Yahweh condemns the entire generation, including Moses, who is condemned for striking the rock at Meribah, to exile and death in the Sinai desert. Before Moses dies he gives a speech to the Israelites where he paraphrases a summary of the mizwoth given to them by Yahweh, and recites a prophetic song called the Ha'azinu. Moses prophesies that if the Israelites disobey the Torah, Yahweh will cause a global exile in addition to the minor one prophesied earlier at Mount Sinai, but at the end of days Yahweh will gather them back to Israel from among the nations when they turn back to the Torah with zeal. The events of the Israelite exodus and their sojourn in the Sinai are memorialized in the Jewish and Samaritan festivals of Passover and Sukkoth, and the giving of the Torah in the Jewish celebration of Shavuoth. Forty years after the Exodus, following the death of the generation of Moses, a new generation, led by Joshua, enters Canaan and takes possession of the land in accordance with the promise made to Abraham by Yahweh. The land is allocated to the tribes by lottery. Eventually, the Israelites ask for a king, and Yahweh gives them Saul. David, the youngest (divinely favored) son of Jesse of Bethlehem would succeed Saul. Under David, the Israelites establish the united monarchy, and under David's son Solomon they construct the Holy Temple in Jerusalem, using the 400-year-old materials of the Mishkan, where Yahweh continues to tabernacle himself among them. On the death of Solomon and reign of his son, Rehoboam, the kingdom is divided in two. The kings of the northern Kingdom of Israel are uniformly bad, permitting the worship of other gods and failing to enforce the worship of Yahweh alone, and so Yahweh eventually allows them to be conquered and dispersed among the peoples of the earth; and strangers rule over their remnant in the northern land. In Judah some kings are good and enforce the worship of Yahweh alone, but many are bad and permit other gods, even in the Holy Temple itself, and at length Yahweh allows Judah to fall to her enemies, the people taken into captivity in Babylon, the land left empty and desolate, and the Holy Temple itself destroyed. Yet despite these events, Yahweh does not forget his people but sends Cyrus, king of Persia to deliver them from bondage. The Israelites are allowed to return to Judah and Benjamin, the Holy Temple is rebuilt, the priestly orders restored, and the service of sacrifice resumed. Through the offices of the sage Ezra, Israel is constituted as a holy nation, bound by the Torah and holding itself apart from all other peoples. Historical Israelites Origins Several theories exist proposing the origins of the Israelites in raiding groups, infiltrating nomads or emerging from indigenous Canaanites driven from the wealthier urban areas by poverty to seek their fortunes in the highland. Various, ethnically distinct groups of itinerant nomads such as the Habiru and Shasu recorded in Egyptian texts as active in Edom and Canaan could have been related to the later Israelites, which does not exclude the possibility that the majority may have had their origins in Canaan proper. The name Yahweh, the god of the later Israelites, may indicate connections with the region of Mount Seir in Edom. The prevailing academic opinion today is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominantly indigenous to Canaan, although an Egyptian matrix of peoples may also have played a role in their ethnogenesis (giving birth to the saga of The Exodus), with an ethnic composition similar to that in Ammon, Edom and Moab, and including Habiru and Shasu. The defining feature which marked them off from the surrounding societies was a staunch egalitarian organisation focused on the worship of Yahweh, rather than mere kinship. Israelites also had a distinct ethnic identity, including tribal identities, from early on. The origin of the god Yahweh are currently uncertain, since the early Israelites seemed to worship the Caanaanite god El as their national deity, only to later replace it with Yahweh. It has been speculated by some scholars that the cult of Yahweh may have been brought into Israel by a group of Caananite slaves fleeing from Egypt, who later merged with the Israelites. The name "Israel" The name Israel first appears c. 1209 BCE, at the end of the Late Bronze Age and the very beginning of the period archaeologists and historians call Iron Age I, on the Merneptah Stele raised by the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah. The inscription is very brief: As distinct from the cities named (Ashkelon, Gezer, Yenoam) which are written with a toponymic marker, Israel is written hieroglyphically with a demonymic determinative indicating that the reference is to a human group, variously located in central Palestine or the highlands of Samaria. Over the next two hundred years (the period of Iron Age I) the number of highland villages increased from 25 to over 300 and the settled population doubled to 40,000. Monarchic period United Monarchy According to the Hebrew Bible, the various tribes of Israel united in the 10th century BCE and formed the United Kingdom of Israel, under the leadership of Saul, who was later overthrown by David; after the death of David, his son Solomon ascended to the throne and reigned until his death, after which the Kingdom split into the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. The historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists (Kenneth Kitchen, William G. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Baruch Halpern and others) believe that the biblical account can be considered as more or less accurate, biblical minimalists (Israel Finkelstein, Ze'ev Herzog, Thomas L. Thompson and others) believe that the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah developed as separate states and there was never a United Monarchy. The debate has not yet been resolved, although recent archaeological discoveries by Israeli archaeologists Eilat Mazar and Yosef Garfinkel seem to support the existence of a united monarchy. From 850 BCE onwards a series of inscriptions are evidence of a kingdom which its neighbors refer to as the "House of David." Kingdoms of Israel and Judah Historians and archaeologists agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by 900 BCE and that a Kingdom of Judah existed by 700 BCE. The political power of Judah was concentrated within the tribe of Judah, Israel was dominated by the tribe of Ephraim and the House of Joseph; the region of Galilee was associated with the tribe of Naphtali, the most eminent tribe of northern Israel. The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Kingdom of Judah later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire. A revolt against the latter led to its destruction by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BCE. According to the Hebrew Bible, Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Solomon's Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles. Persian period Following the fall of Babylon to the Persian Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE, The Jews who had been deported in the aftermath of the Babylonian conquest of Judah were eventually allowed to return following a proclamation by the Persian king Cyrus the Great that was issued after the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire. The returned Jewish population in Judah were allowed to self-rule under Persian governance. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple. Around the same era, the Samaritans emerged as an ethnic and religious community in the region of Samaria, claiming descent from the Israelites. With their temple on Mount Gerizim, they continued to thrive for centuries. Most scholars believe the Samaritans are a blend of Israelites with other nationalities whom the Assyrians had resettled in the area. Hellenistic period During the Hellenistic period, Yehud was absorbed into the subsequent Hellenistic kingdoms that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. In the 2nd century BCE the Jews revolted against the Seleucid Empire and formed the Hasmonean Kingdom. This, the last nominally independent kingdom of Israel, gradually lost its independence from 63 BCE with its conquest by Pompey of Rome, becoming a Roman and later Parthian client kingdom. The relations between the Jews and Samaritans remained tense. In 120 BCE, the Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. Hyrcanus also subdued the Edomites and converted them to Judaism, and they were gradually incorporated into the Jewish nation. Roman period Following the installation of Jewish client states under the Herodian dynasty, the Province of Judea was wracked by civil disturbances, which culminated in the First Jewish–Roman War, the destruction of the Second Temple, and the emergence of Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity. The name Judea (Iudaea) then ceased to be used by Greco-Romans. After the Bar Kokhba revolt of 135 CE, the Romans expelled most Jews from the region and renamed it Syria Palaestina. Subsequently, many Jews were exiled from Judea, and the Galilee became the heartland of Jewish community in the region. The Samaritan population shrunk significantly in the wake of the bloody suppression of the Samaritan Revolts (mainly in 525 CE and 555 CE) against the Byzantine Empire; conversions to Christianity under the Byzantines and later to Islam following the Muslim conquest of the Levant also reduced their numbers significantly. Genetics In 2000, M. Hammer, et al. conducted a study on 1371 men and definitively established that part of the paternal gene pool of Jewish communities in Europe, North Africa and Middle East came from a common Middle East ancestral population. Another study (Nebel et al. 2001) noted; "In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors." The authors found that "Palestinian Arabs and Bedouin differed from the other Middle Eastern populations studied, mainly in specific high-frequency Eu 10 haplotypes not found in the non-Arab groups." and suggested that some of this difference might be due to migration and admixture from the Arabian peninsula during the last two millennia. A 2004 study (by Shen et al.) comparing Samaritans to several Jewish populations (including Ashkenazi Jews, Iraqi Jews, Libyan Jews, Moroccan Jews, and Yemenite Jews, as well as Israeli Druze and Palestinians) found that "the principal components analysis suggested a common ancestry of Samaritan and Jewish patrilineages. Most of the former may be traced back to a common ancestor in what is today identified as the paternally inherited Israelite high priesthood (Cohanim) with a common ancestor projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel." See also Biblical archaeology Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites Lachish relief Masoretic Text Samaritan Pentateuch Tribal allotments of Israel Who is a Jew? Yom HaAliyah References Bibliography Ancient Jewish history Ethnonyms Land of Israel Samaritan culture and history Semitic-speaking peoples	5,579
doc-en-9148_0	Daniel Graham (March 31, 1942 – February 19, 2022) was an American visual artist, writer, and curator in the writer-artist tradition. In addition to his visual works, he published a large array of critical and speculative writing that spanned the spectrum from heady art theory essays, reviews of rock music, Dwight D. Eisenhower's paintings, and Dean Martin's television show. His early magazine-based art predates, but is often associated with, conceptual art. His later work focused on cultural phenomena by incorporating photography, video, performance art, glass and mirror installation art structures, and closed-circuit television. He lived and worked in New York City. Childhood and early career Dan Graham was born in Urbana, Illinois, the son of a chemist and an educational psychologist. When he was 3, Graham moved from Illinois to Winfield Township, New Jersey, and then to nearby Westfield. He had no formal education after high school and was self-educated. During his teens, his reading included Margaret Mead, Claude Lévi-Strauss, the literary critic Leslie Fiedler and the French Nouveau Roman writers. Work Graham began his art career in 1964, at the age of 22, when he founded the John Daniels Gallery in New York City. He worked there until 1965, when he started creating his own conceptual pieces. During his time at the gallery, he exhibited works by minimalist artists such as Carl André, Sol LeWitt—LeWitt's first solo gallery show, Donald Judd, Robert Smithson, and Dan Flavin. When making his own work, Graham proved himself to be a wide-ranging post-conceptual artist who worked at the intersection of minimalism and conceptual art. His work consisted of performance art, installations, video, sculpture, and photography. Commissioned work included Rooftop Urban Park Project for which he designed the piece Two-Way Mirror Cylinder Inside Cube and Video Salon (1981–1991). Some other commissions in the U.S. are Yin/Yang at MIT, the labyrinth at the Minneapolis Sculpture Garden, and at Middlebury College, and in Madison Square Park. Graham's work was always firmly based within conceptual art or post-conceptual art practice. Early examples were photographs and numerological sequences, often printed in magazines, such as Figurative (1965) and Schema (1966). With the latter, Graham drew on the actual physical structure of the magazine in which it is printed for the content of the work itself. As such the same work changes according to its physical/structural location within the world. His early breakthrough-work however was a series of magazine-style photographs with text, Homes for America (1966–67), which counterpoints the monotonous and alienating effect of 1960's housing developments with their supposed desirability and the physical-geometry of a printed article. Graham's other works include Side Effects/Common Drugs (1966) and Detumescence (1966). After this Graham broadened his conceptual practice with sculpture, performance, film, video including perhaps his best known works Rock My Religion (1984) and Performer/Audience/Mirror (1975). His installations, such as Public Space/Two Audiences (1976) or Yesterday/Today (1975), further inspired his working on indoor and outdoor pavilions. His many conceptual pavilions, including Two Way Mirror with Hedge Labyrinth (1989) and Two Way Mirror and Open Wood Screen Triangular Pavilion (1990), increased his popularity as an artist. Graham's first sculpture building project was Café Bravo at Kunst-Werke Institute for Contemporary Art in Berlin. After a lecture at the Berlin University of the Arts, Klaus Biesenbach invited Graham to conceive the pavilion for Kunst-Werke, which Biesenbach founded, and he assisted Graham in the realization of the project. Influences In Sarah Lehrer-Graiwer's publication Pep Talk in 2009, Graham gave "Artists' and Architects' Work That Influenced Me" (in alphabetical order): Michael Asher, Larry Bell, Flavin, Itsuko Hasegawa, LeWitt, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Mangold, Bruce Nauman, Claes Oldenburg, Kazuo Shinohara, Michael Snow, Mies van der Rohe, and Robert Venturi. Writer Brian Wallis said that Graham's works “displayed a profound faith in the idea of the present, [he] sought to comprehend post-war American culture through imaginative new forms of analytical investigation, facto-graphic reportage, and quasi-scientific mappings of space/time relationships.” Graham's work was influenced by the social change of the Civil Rights Movement, The Vietnam War, the Women's liberation movement as well as many other cultural changes. These prolific events and changes in history affected the conceptual art and minimalist movements. Graham exhibited a predominantly minimalist aesthetic in his earlier photographs and prints. His prints of numeric sequences, words, graphs, and graphics strongly reflect his minimalist qualities. His later works became very conceptual, and examine the relationships between interior space, exterior space, and the perception of the viewer when anticipated boundaries are changed. Photography Soon after he left the John Daniels Gallery, Graham started a series of photographs which began in the nineteen sixties and continued into the early twenty first century. Of his magazine work, Graham said, These photographs question the relationship between public and private architecture and the ways in which each space affects behavior. Some of his first conceptual works dealt with different forms of printed artwork of numeric sequences. In 1965 Graham began shooting color photographs for his series Homes For America. All the photographs taken were of single-family homes around the American suburbs. This photo series, one of the first artworks in the space of text, was published as a twopage spread in Arts Magazine. The "article" is an assembly of texts including his photographs. The photographs were also chosen for the exhibition "Projected Art" at the Finch College Museum of Art. In 1969, Graham focused on performance and film that explored the social dynamic of the audience, incorporating them into the work, leading to an 80 ft photo series, Sunset to Sunrise. Performance, film, and video From the late 1960s into the late 70's, Graham shifted toward a largely performance-based practice, incorporating film and the new medium of video in his systematic investigations of cybernetics, phenomenology, and embodiment. In 1969, he made his first film Sunset to Sunrise, in which the camera moves opposite to the course of sun, inverting the progression of time. This piece is emblematic of his filmic work that would extend into the early 1970s, in which he would explore “subjective, time-based processes” through perceptual, kinetic exercises, using the camera as an extension of his body and implicating the subjectivity of the viewer. His other films from this period include Two Correlated Rotations (1969), Roll (1970), and Body Press (1970–72), all three featuring the interaction of two cameras or the juxtaposition of two films. Roll (1970) was a performance exercise in phenomenology similar to Bruce Nauman's early films. Body Press, in which a naked man and woman stand back-to-back in a cylinder lined with concave mirrors filming themselves and their distorted reflections, introduces the mirrored image as a prominent theme for Graham, which he would explore extensively in his performance and video practice as well as his later architectural work. Graham stated that his works are “models to define the limits of an idea of representation as the conventional limits which necessarily define the situation between the artist and spectator,” and his performances in the 1970s foreground this relational approach. In these works Graham explicitly invoked theories of structural linguistics, especially the work of Jacques Lacan. Graham's 1972 performance piece Two Consciousness Projections underscores a preoccupation with phenomenological aspects of relationality, utilizing the reflective capacities of video feedback. In the performance, a woman sits in front of a monitor displaying her image from the live feed of a video camera held by a man behind the monitor and attempts to narrate her conscious mind, while the man describes her as he watches through the camera. This work presents an experiment in self-perception and representation, modulated by numerous mirroring agents—the woman's own image on the monitor, the “image” of her depicted by the man, as well as both performers’ awareness of the audience. In his own writings, Graham articulated an interest in deconstructing the divisions between interior intention and visible behavior formed when looking at one's reflection in a mirror, and proposed video feedback as both a technical and conceptual means by which to achieve this. Many of Graham's performance pieces work to exhibit and exploit the spontaneous interaction between thought and expression, inside and outside, extending this dissolution of barriers to dichotomies of performer and audience, private and public. Graham's most complex interrogation of this is the performance Performer/Audience/Mirror (1977), in which he stood between a large mirror and an audience, describing himself, the audience, his reflection, and the audience's reflection in sequential phases of continuous commentary. Expanding upon the themes in Two Consciousness Projections, this work implicates the audience in their own feedback cycle of self-perception. Graham produced a number of videos that documented his performance works, such as the 1972 Past Future Split Attention, in which the conversation of two acquaintances becomes a cacophony of simultaneous speech and interruption. One other major example of a documented performance by Graham Performance/Audience/Mirror (1975). Graham also incorporated video into installations, where he created environments in which video technology is used to alter the viewer's own bodily experience. In 1974, he created an installation with a series of videos called "Time Delay Room", which used time-delayed Closed-circuit television cameras and video projections. Lastly, Graham produced a number of video documentaries, such as Rock My Religion from (1983–84) and Minor Threat (1983). Rock My Religion (1984) explores rock music as an art form and draws a parallel between it and the development of the Shaker religion in the United States. He observed the changes in beliefs and superstitions in the Shaker religion since the 18th century, and related them to the development of rock culture. The film has been distributed widely, and has included screenings at both institutional and counter-cultural venues across Europe and the U.S., including Lisson Gallery, Auto Italia South East, Whitney Museum of American Art, and Château de Montsoreau-Museum of Contemporary Art. Minor Threat documents the youth culture surrounding the band of the same name. In it, Graham analyses the social implications of this subculture, treating it "as a tribal rite, a catalyst for the violence and frustration of its predominantly male, teenage audience." Pavilions Some of Graham's artworks are said to blur the line between sculpture and architecture. From the 1980s on, Graham worked on an ongoing series of freestanding, sculptural objects called pavilions. Graham's popularity grew after he started his walk-in pavilions and he received commissions all over the world. His pavilions are steel and glass sculptures which create a different space which disorients the viewer from his or her usual surroundings or knowledge of space. They are made of a few huge panes of glass or mirror, or of half-mirrored glass that is both reflective and transparent. Wooden lattice and steel are other materials most commonly used in his work. The List Visual Arts Center at MIT calls his pavilions rigorously conceptual, uniquely beautiful, and insistently public. The pavilions create a unique experience for the viewer. His pavilions are created for the public experience. His pavilions combine architecture and art. Dan Graham's pavilion works have been compared to Ryue Nishizawa and Kazuyo Sjima’s work on the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa. The glass wall of the structure reflects and distorts light much like Graham's sculptures. The layered, but simplistic quality is said to be very much like Graham's. The structures are similar in their study of space and light. In 1981, Graham started work on a decade long project in New York City. The work Two-Way Mirror Cylinder Inside Cube and Video Salon was part of the Rooftop Urban Park Project. Graham worked on the piece in collaboration with architects Mojdeh Baratloo and Clifton Balch. This transparent and reflective pavilion transformed the roof of 548 West 22nd Street into a rooftop park. The pavilion captures the surrounding landscape and changes of light creating an intense visual effect with the sky. The Two-Way Mirror Cylinder Inside Cube and Video Salon has become one of his most well-known works throughout his art career. After numerous commissions in Europe, the Children's Pavilion (1988–93) was the first piece Graham was commissioned to do in the United States. A collaboration with Jeff Wall, the pavilion is a conceptual piece relating to the children of the nation. It is a circular shaped room with an oculus that is both transparent and reflective at the top, so the viewers on the outside of the building could look inside as well. Wall's nine circular framed photographs of children belonging to many nationalities and ethnic backgrounds surround the room. Each child is shown half-length and viewed from below against the background of a sky. In each image Wall chooses a different sky. In 1991, the Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art attempted to realise the pavilion in Rotterdam's Ommoord district; the plan was eventually abandoned in 1994. Related works include Children's Pavilion (Chambre d'Amis) (1986), Skateboard Pavilion (1989), and Funhouse for the Children of Saint-Janslein (1997–99). In 2014, a temporary installation by Graham called Hedge Two-Way Mirror Walkabout (2014) was created on the roof of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in collaboration with the Swiss landscape architect Günther Vogt. The pavilion consists of an S-shaped curve of slightly reflective glass, bookended by two parallel ivy hedgerows. Later, Graham worked with the British fasion designer Phoebe Philo to create an S-shaped steel-and-glass pavilion in which to show her spring/summer 2017 collection. Selected pavilions Other realized pavilions by Graham include: Crazy Spheroid – Two Entrances (2011), originally designed for the New York Botanical Garden, now at DeCordova Museum and Sculpture Park, Lincoln, MA; Norwegian Wood Lattice Bisected By Curved 2-way-mirror, 2010 on the banks of Lake Lemonsjøen, Norway Kaleidoscope/Doubled (2010), La Rochelle, France; Half Cylinder/ Perforated Steel Triangular Enclosure, Kortrijk, Belgium; Two V's and 2 Half-Cylinders off-Aligned, Brussels, Belgium; One Straight Line Crossed by One Curved Line (2009) Novartis HQ, Basel, Switzerland; Dhaka Pavilion (2008), Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, Spain; Two Half Cylinders (2008) at Bob Rennie's Rennie Collection, Vancouver, BC; Half Square/Half Crazy at Casa del Fascio, Como, Italy; From Mannerism to Rococo (2007); Homage to Vilanova Artigas (2006), the São Paulo Biennial 2006; Bisected Triangle, Interior Curve (2002), Inhotim, Brumadinho; Bisected Triangle Inside Curve (2002), Madison Square Park, New York; Waterloo Sunset (2002–2003), Hayward Gallery, London; Yin/Yang Pavilion (1997/2002), MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts (in Steven Holl's dormitory); Two-Way Mirror / Hedge - Almost Complete Circle (2001), K21 Ständehaus, Düsseldorf, Germany; S-Curve for St. Gallen (2001), Hauser & Wirth Collection, St Gallen; Rivoli Gate Pavilion (2000), Castello di Rivoli, Torino, Italy; Curved Two-Way Mirror Triangle, One Side Perforated Steel (2000), Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, Japan; Two Different Anamorphic Surfaces (2000), Wanås Castle, Sweden; Walkway for Hypo-Bank (1999), Bayerische Hypotheken und Wechselbank AG, Munich, Germany; Star of David Pavilion (1999), Tel Aviv Museum of Art; Elliptical Pavilion (1995/1999), Vattenfall Europe, Michaelkirchstrasse, Berlin; Café Bravo (1998), Kunst-Werke Institute for Contemporary Art, Berlin; Two-Way Mirror Curved and Straight and Open Shōji Screen Triangle (1998), Museum Ludwig, Cologne; Argonne Pavilion II (1998), Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois; Triangular Solid With Circular Insert (1997), Chiba City Museum of Art, Hikari, Areba; Two Two-Way Mirrored Parallelograms Joined with One Side Balanced Spiral Welded Mesh (1996), National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh; Two-Way Mirror Curved Hedge Zig-Zag Labyrinth (1996), Middlebury College, Middlebury; Two-Way Mirror Triangle with One Curved Side (1996), Vågan, Norway; Two-Way Mirror and Punched Aluminum Solid Triangle (1996), originally created for the garden of the Royal Shooting Club in Copenhagen, now at the Arken Museum of Modern Art; Parabolic Triangular Pavillon I (1996), Nordhorn; Two-Way Mirror Punched Steel Hedge Labyrinth (1994–1996), Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; Star of David Pavillon for Schloss Buchberg (1991–1996), Gars am Kamp; Double Exposure (1995/2003), initially proposed for a 1995 exhibition in Germany, later installed at Serralves Foundation, Porto; Cylinder Bisected by Plane (1995), Benesse House Museum, Naoshima; Double Cylinder (The Kiss) (1994), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; New Labyrinth for Nantes (1992–1994), Place Commandant Jean l'Herminier, Nantes; Triangular Bridge Over Water (1990), Laumeier Sculpture Park, St. Louis; Star of David Pavillon/Triangular Pavilion with Triangular Roof Rotated 45° for Hamburg (1989/99), Hamburg; Triangular Solid with Circular Inserts, Variation D (1989), Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; Triangular Solid with Circular Inserts (1989), Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice; Triangular Pavilion with Circular Cut-Out (1989–2000), various places; Skateboard Pavilion (1989), various places; Octagon for Münster (1987), Münster, Germany; Two-Way Mirror Pergola Bridge I, Fonds Régional d’Art Contemporain des Pays de la Loire, Clisson, France; Pavilion Sculpture II (1984), Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden; Rooftop Urban Park Project (1981/91-2004) for Dia:Chelsea, New York; Two Adjacent Pavilions (1981), Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo, Netherlands; Pavilion / Sculpture for Argonne (1978–81), Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois; Gate of Hope (1993), Leibfriedscher Garten, Stuttgart, Germany. Writings Graham produced a notable body of writing. He worked as an art critic, writing revealing articles about fellow artists, art, architecture, video, and rock music. His writings and works are collected in several catalogues and books as "Dan Graham Beyond" (MIT Press 2011), Rock My Religion. Writings and Projects 1965–1990, edited by Brian Wallis andTwo Way Mirror Power: Selected Writings by Dan Graham on His Art". Collaborations For the 2007 Performa, Graham designed the stage set made for New York City based band Japanther's performance. Graham collaborated previously with Japanther on the rock puppet opera Don't Trust Anyone Over Thirty: Entertainment by Dan Graham with Tony Oursler and Other Collaborators (2004). Personal life and death Graham died in New York City on February 19, 2022, at the age of 79. Select artworksHomes for America, 1967, John Gibson Piece, 1969, Cindy Hinant, New York.Opposing Mirrors and Video Monitors on Time Delay, 1974, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.Yesterday/Today, 1975, Stedelijk Van Abbe Museum, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.Back-Yard New Housing Project, 1978, Lisson Gallery, London.Two Way Mirror with Hedge Labyrinth, 1989, Lisson Gallery.Pavilion Influenced by Moon Windows, 1989.Untitled sculpture, 1996, installed in Vågan, North Norway.Triangular Pavilion with Circular Cut-Out Variation C, 1989–2000, Lisson Gallery Swimming Pool/Fish Pond, 1997, Patrick Painter Editions.Two Way Mirror with Lattice with Vines Labyrinth, 1998, Lisson Gallery.Girls Make-Up Room, 1998–2000, Hauser & Wirth Zürich London.Greek Meander Pavilion, Open, 2001, Lisson Gallery.Bisected Triangle, Interior Curve, 2002, Madison Square Park.Waterloo Sunset at the Hayward Gallery, London, 2002–03.Terminal 5 In 2004, the dormant Saarinen-designed TWA Flight Center (now Jetblue Terminal 5) at JFK Airport) briefly hosted an art exhibition called Terminal Five, curated by Rachel K. Ward and featuring the work of 18 artists including Dan Graham. The show featured work, lectures and temporary installations drawing inspiration from the terminal's architecture — and was to run from October 1, 2004, to January 31, 2005 — though it closed abruptly after the building itself was vandalized during its opening gala. Sculpture or Pavillion?, 2015, Museum De Pont Exhibitions Graham's first solo show was held in 1969 at the John Daniels Gallery in New York. In 1991, an exhibition of his pavilions and photographs was held at the Lisson Gallery in London. Another important exhibition featuring Graham was "Public/Private", an exhibition that traveled to four different venues. The show, which included his pavilions, architectural photographs and models, performances, and video installations, had its opening in 1994 at the Moore College of Art and Design. In 2001, a retrospective was held covering his 35-year career. The museums holding the event included the Musee d'Art Moderne de la Ville in Paris, Kroller-Muller Museum in Otterlo, the Netherlands, and Kiasma Museum in Helsinki, Finland. In 2009, another major retrospective was mounted in the U.S., showing at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York and the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis. Graham's work has also been exhibited at the Venice Biennale (1976, 2003, 2004 and 2005), documentas V, VI, VII, IX and X (1972, 1977, 1982, 1992 and 1997), and at Skulptur Projekte Münster '87 and '97. Selected solo exhibitions 2015, Dan Graham Observatory/Playground, MAMO, Centre d'art de la Cité Radieuse, Marseille, France 2011, Dan Graham: Exposition d'overture, Le Consortium, France 2011, Dan Graham: Models and Videos, Eastside Projects, Birmingham 2010, Les Rencontres d'Arles festival, France. 2009, Dan Graham: Beyond, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis (Retrospective) 2009, Dan Graham: Beyond, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York (Retrospective) 2009, Dan Graham: Beyond, The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (Retrospective) 2001, Dan Graham Œuvres, 1965–2000, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris 2001, Dan Graham Works, 1965–2000, Museu de Arte Contemporânea de Serralves, Porto 2000, Dan Graham: Children's Day Care Center, CD-Rom, Cartoon, and Computer Screen Library Project, Marian Goodman Gallery, New York 1999, Dan Graham, Architekturmodell, Kunst-Werke Berlin, Berlin 1997, Dan Graham, The Suburban City, Neue Galerie am Landesmuseum Joanneum, Graz 1995, Dan Graham, Video/Architecture/Performance, EA-Generali-Foundation, Vienna 1994, Dan Graham: Public/Private, Moore College of Art and Design, Philadelphia; List Visual Arts Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Toronto, LACE - Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions, Los Angeles 1991, Pavilion Sculptures & Photographs, Lisson Gallery, London 1986, Storefront for Art and Architecture, New York 1981, P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center / Institute for Art and Urban Resources, Long Island City, New York 1977, Stedelijk Van Abbe Museum, Eindhoven References Bibliography Alberro, Alexander and Graham, Dan Dan Graham - Models to Projects (Marian Goodman Gallery 1998) Alberro, Alexander, Dan Graham, and Friedrich W. Heubach. "Dan Graham: Half Square Half Crazy". Barcelona: Poligrafa, Ediciones, S.a., 2001. Charre, Alain, Marc Perelman, and Marie-Paule Macdonald. "Dan Graham." Paris: Editions Dis Voir, 1995. Dreher, Thomas: Sculptural Models as Bridgeable Historical Metaphors. In: Artefactum, Nr.30/1989, September/October 1989, p. 15-20,48-50 (English translation at the end of the German text) Francis, Mark, Beatriz Colomina, Birgit Pelzer, and Dan Graham. "Dan Graham." New York City: Phaidon P, Inc., 2001. Graham, Dan Dan Graham Interviews, Dan Graham; (Hatje Cantz 1995) Graham, Dan, Adachiara Zevi, Brian Hatton, and Mark Pimlott. "Dan Graham: Architecture." London: Architectural Association, 1997. Graham, Dan, and Adachiara Zevi. "Dan Graham: Half Square Half Crazy". New York City: Charta, 2005. Graham, Dan, and Brian Wallis. "Rock My Religion: Writings and Projects" 1965–1990. Boston: MIT P, 1994. Graham, Dan. "Two-Way Mirror Power." Boston: MIT P, 1999. Graham, Dan, Two-Way Mirror Power: Selected Writings by Dan Graham on His Art, (MIT Press 1999) Graham, Dan, Dan Graham: Catalogue Raisonné, (Richter Verlag 2001) Graham, Dan, Valle, Pietro, Zevi, Adachiara, Dan Graham: Half Square Half Crazy (Charta 2005) Jodidio, Philip. "Architecture: Art." New York: Prestel. 86–87. Smith, Matt Dan Graham's Rock My Religion, The Nonnus Blog. 26 Mar. 2008. Wallis, Brian, Rock My Religion: Writings and Projects 1965-1990 by Dan Graham, (MIT Press 1994) Further reading Josh Thorpe (2009). Dan Graham Pavilions: a guide''. Toronto: Art Metropole. External Links 1942 births 2022 deaths American conceptual artists Postmodern artists Artists from Illinois Artists from New Jersey Artists from New York (state) American installation artists Postmodernists American art critics Cultural historians Writers from Urbana, Illinois People from Westfield, New Jersey People from Winfield Township, New Jersey	6,141
doc-en-10495_0	Liberty, formerly, and still formally, called the National Council for Civil Liberties (NCCL), is an advocacy group and membership organisation based in the United Kingdom, which challenges unjust laws, protects civil liberties and promotes human rights. It does this through the courts, in Parliament and in the wider community. Liberty also aims to engender a "rights culture" within British society. The NCCL was founded in 1934 by Ronald Kidd and Sylvia Crowther-Smith (later Scaffardi), motivated by their humanist convictions. During the 1950s, the NCCL campaigned for reform of the mental health system, under which people known to be sane but deemed 'morally defective' – unmarried mothers, for example – could be locked up in an asylum. By 1957, the campaign had seen the release of around 2,000 inmates, the abolition of the Mental Deficiency Act 1913, and the establishment of new Mental Health Review Tribunals which culminated in the Mental Health Act 1959. Since 2016, Liberty's work has been dominated by a High Court challenge to the Investigatory Powers Act, as well as campaigning against the so-called 'hostile environment' policies which allow indefinite immigration detention in the UK. In Autumn 2019, the organisation setup Liberty Investigates, an editorially independent journalism unit. Its initial focus was on how the coronavirus pandemic affects Human Rights in the UK. History Foundation and early years The immediate spur to the organisation's formation was the National Hunger March of 1932. The first Secretary was Ronald Kidd, and first President was the novelist E. M. Forster; Vice-Presidents were the politician and author A. P. Herbert and the journalist Kingsley Martin of the New Statesman. H. G. Wells, Lewis Clive, Vera Brittain, Clement Attlee, Rebecca West, Edith Summerskill and Harold Laski were also founder members. The National Council for Civil Liberties (NCCL) was founded in 1934. The inaugural meeting took place in the church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields in London on 22 February. A letter published in The Times and The Guardian newspapers announced the formations of the group, citing "the general and alarming tendency to encroachment on the liberty of the citizen" as the reason for its establishment. The first campaign was against the criminalisation of pacifist or anti-war literature. Under the proposed Incitement to Disaffection Bill, commonly known as the 'Sedition Bill', it would have been a criminal offence to possess pacifist literature, for example anti-war pamphlets. Although the Bill became law as the Incitement to Disaffection Act 1934, NCCL succeeded in watering it down. Other prominent early themes included campaigning against fascists, against film censorship and support for striking miners in Nottinghamshire. World War II When Oswald Mosley was released from prison in 1943 (he had been imprisoned without trial under Defence Regulation 18B), the National Council for Civil Liberties demanded his continued imprisonment. A.W. Brian Simpson notes that the NCCL "had become an enthusiastic supporter of detention without trial". Harold Nicolson and 38 others resigned from the NCCL over the issue. Liberty In 1989, NCCL rebranded as "Liberty". During this period, the organisation was headed by Andrew Puddephatt and John Wadham. On 10 September 2001, Shami Chakrabarti joined Liberty. After working as in-house counsel, she was appointed director of Liberty in 2003. As director, she began campaigning against what the pressure group saw as the "excessive" anti-terrorist measures that followed the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, such as the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (ATCSA). Liberty became increasingly high-profile, with Chakrabarti making regular appearances in the media. She was described in The Times newspaper as "the most effective public affairs lobbyist of the past 20 years". Since the 2015 UK general election, Liberty has spearheaded the campaign to save the Human Rights Act. In August 2015, Chakrabarti said Liberty intended to become "more vigilant and active" in Scotland. She later shared a platform with Scotland's First Minister Nicola Sturgeon to jointly defend the HRA. In January 2016 it emerged that Chakrabarti was standing down as Liberty's director. Martha Spurrier took up the post at the end of May. Since 2016, Liberty's work has been dominated by taking a High Court challenge to the Investigatory Powers Act, and campaigning against the so-called 'hostile environment' policies and for an end to the use of indefinite immigration detention in the UK. In Autumn 2019, the organisation setup Liberty Investigates, an editorially independent journalism unit that sits within Liberty. The unit formally launched in April 2020 with an initial focus on how the coronavirus pandemic is affecting Human Rights in the UK. Campaigns Post-war BBC ban During the 1940s, the NCCL led protests against a BBC ban on artists who attended a 'People's Convention' organised by the Communist Party. Soldiers' civil liberties In the years following the Second World War, the NCCL campaigned for better civil liberties protections for members of the Armed Forces, including for better education and vocational training, a fairer military justice system and freedom of voluntary association. Miscarriages of justice At this time NCCL was also involved in several miscarriage of justice cases, including that of Emery, Powers and Thompson, who were sentenced to between four and ten years imprisonment for assaulting a police officer, even though someone else confessed to the crime and the prosecution evidence was flawed. NCCL found a witness who confirmed the men's alibi and they were released from prison and granted a royal pardon. Reform of the Mental Health System During the 1950s NCCL campaigned for reform of the mental health system, under which people known to be sane but deemed 'morally defective' – unmarried mothers, for example – could be locked up in an asylum. By 1957, the campaign had seen the release of around 2,000 former inmates, the abolition of the Mental Health Act 1913 and the establishment of new Mental Health Review Tribunals and the Mental Health Act 1959. 1960–1974 The 1960s saw the organisation broaden its scope, particularly from 1966 under new general secretary Tony Smythe. It campaigned on racial issues, on behalf of gypsies, children, prisoners and servicemen who had changed their decision about joining the forces. This broader range of campaigning resulted in a large rise in membership and a higher profile in the media. It campaigned for the retaining of the public right to petition the ECHR, its General Secretary Martin Loney writing to the Prime Minister, Edward Heath. However, Loney was controversially sacked by the executive of the NCCL led by its chair, Henry Hodge. Opposition to racial discrimination After 1960, NCCL responded to the tightening of immigration laws and a rise in race-hate incidents by lobbying for the Race Relations Act, which came into force in 1965. NCCL also published pamphlets exposing the effective 'colour bar', whereby black and Asian people were refused service in certain pubs and hotels. Following Conservative MP Enoch Powell's Rivers of Blood speech in 1968 the NCCL set about organising an emergency "Speak out on Race" meeting and also presented an NCCL petition to the Prime Minister. Women's rights Campaigning for women's rights was also a major part of NCCL's work in this period, including successfully calling for reform of jury service laws that effectively prevented women and the poor from serving on juries by means of a property qualification. Right to public protest NCCL intervened on behalf of groups refused permission to protest and monitoring the policing of demonstrations such as those against the Vietnam War. Support for reluctant servicemen NCCL also campaigned to raise awareness of the difficulty faced by 'reluctant servicemen' – men in the armed forces who had often signed-up as teenagers then realised they'd made a mistake but were prevented from discharging themselves for anything up to 16 years. Northern Ireland In 1972 NCCL campaigned for civil rights in Northern Ireland. Data protection In 1975 NCCL bought 3 million credit rating files from Konfax Ltd after they were offered for sale in the Evening Standard. The files were destroyed and the major privacy protection 'Right to Know' campaign to give individuals greater control over their personal information was launched in 1977. 1975–1989 Near the end of 1974, Patricia Hewitt, later a Labour cabinet minister, was appointed as general secretary. A number of other future high-profile Labour politicians worked at the organisation at this time, such as Harriet Harman, who worked as the legal officer from 1978 to 1982, Jack Dromey, later her husband, was a member (1970–79) and chairman of the Executive Committee, and Diane Abbott was employed as Race Relations Officer (1978–80). Paedophilia In 1976, the NCCL in a submission to the Criminal Law Revision Committee of the British Parliament argued that "Childhood sexual experiences, willingly engaged in, with an adult result in no identifiable damage… The real need is a change in the attitude which assumes that all cases of paedophilia result in lasting damage". The NCCL also sought to place the "onus of proof on the prosecution to show that the child was actually harmed" rather than having a blanket ban on child pornography and advocated the decriminalisation of incest. Organisations such as Paedophile Information Exchange (P.I.E.), a pro-paedophile activist group, and Paedophile Action for Liberation became affiliated to the pressure group. Prominent pro-paedophile activist Tom O'Carroll also sat on the NCCL's sub-committee for gay rights. Shami Chakrabarti, the former director of Liberty, issued an apology about the links between the NCCL and the PIE. In December 2013, she said: "It is a source of continuing disgust and horror that even the NCCL had to expel paedophiles from its ranks in 1983 after infiltration at some point in the 70s." Gay rights and censorship NCCL acted for the owners of Gay's the Word bookshop, whose stock was confiscated by Customs officers in 1984. All charges were dropped in 1986. Miners' strike During the miners' strike, NCCL campaigned on behalf of miners stopped from picketing outside their home regions. MI5 surveillance The European Court of Human Rights ruled that MI5 surveillance of Harriet Harman and Patricia Hewitt during the pair's tenure at Liberty breached the European Convention on Human Rights. 1990–2004 Detention without charge During the Gulf War, Liberty successfully campaigned for the release of over 100 Iraqi nationals – some of whom were openly opposed to Saddam Hussein – detained without charge in Britain on the grounds that they posed a risk to national security. Miscarriage of justice Throughout the 1990s Liberty focused again on miscarriage of justice cases and campaigned for reform of the criminal justice system. High-profile cases included that of the Birmingham Six, who were released after 16 years in prison for IRA bombings they did not commit. Human Rights Act At the start of the 2000s, Liberty used the protections in the new Human Rights Act 1998 to fight a number of landmark cases, including supporting terminally ill Diane Pretty's fight to die with dignity and Christine Goodwin's fight for transgender rights. A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department Liberty intervened in the long-running A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department case following which the Law Lords ruled that detaining non-British nationals without trial was unlawful. In a 2005 judgment the Law Lords also confirmed that evidence obtained through torture was not admissible in British courts. Katherine Gun In 2004, Liberty acted for the translator and whistleblower Katharine Gun who claimed that the American National Security Agency had requested the British Government's help in illegal surveillance on the UN. She was prosecuted under the Official Secrets Act 1989. The charges were dropped when the prosecution failed to offer any evidence. 2005–2014 Pre-charge detention During 2007 and 2008 Liberty led the opposition to government plans to extend detention without charge for those suspected of terrorism to 42 days. Chakrabarti and Liberty claimed a major campaign victory when the government dropped the proposal after it was rejected by the House of Lords in October 2008. Gooch Gang In April 2009, Liberty protested against a poster campaign by Greater Manchester Police which depicted a series of notorious Manchester gangsters, the Gooch Gang, as pensioners. The billboard campaign used computer-generated images of Colin Joyce and Lee Amos to show how the "aged" criminals would look when they are finally released from prison in the 2040s. Liberty supported claims that the posters should be removed following complaints from family members of the gangsters, not involved with their relative's criminality, who claimed they were being targeted in the community after the posters were erected. Cream of Conscience November 2011 saw Liberty successfully assist in preventing Westminster City Council from implementing a proposed byelaw which would have essentially criminalised "soup runs" within areas of Southwark. Freedom Games? In response to the vast security systems which were put in place ahead of the London 2012 Olympic Games, Liberty raised concerns with regards to the infringements to civil liberties which would subsequently occur. Liberty argued that neither peaceful protest nor the right to free speech were a factor in ensuring the safety of the Games. For their eyes only Another prominent campaign in 2012 was "For their eyes only" in response to the proposed Justice and Security Bill which was introduced in the House of Lords on 28 May 2012. The Bill was introduced as a result of prolific media investigations and litigation surrounding the UK Government and proposed "secret courts" and evidence which would be non-disclosable. A campaign presence and attendance by Shami Chakrabarti at the Liberal Democrats Conference in September 2012 in Brighton successfully led to the passing of a motion by Jo Shaw, Liberal Democrat Parliamentary Spokesperson for Holborn and St Pancras, against the Bill. Nevertheless, the substantially unchanged Bill became law in April 2013. Extradition Watch A prominent campaign by Liberty was in relation to fairer extradition laws and the opposition of unfair extradition proceedings, the most prominent case being that of Gary McKinnon who gained world wide press attention. Other prolific cases included that of Babar Ahmed, Talha Ahsan and Christopher Tappin. Gary McKinnon 16 October 2012 saw a victory for Gary McKinnon, after a decade-long ordeal, as the Home Secretary, Theresa May, announced that she was refusing to allow Gary's extradition to the US on the basis that doing so would breach his Human Rights. Gary McKinnon was charged in 2002 of hacking into US military and NASA systems, but maintains that he was looking for UFOs and evidence of free energy suppression. Gary, who has Asperger syndrome, could have spent up to 70 years in a US jail if convicted and it was argued by his lawyers in an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) that because of this factor and because the crime was committed in the UK that he should be tried in the UK. Director of Liberty, Shami Chakrabarti said of the Home Secretary's decision "This is a great day for rights, freedoms and justice in the United Kingdom." The Home Office also admitted that it was the Human Rights Act which essentially prevented the extradition. Gay rights Liberty intervened in the case of gay couple Michael Black and John Morgan who were turned away from a bed and breakfast because of the owner's religious views. On 18 October 2012 it was ruled that the B&B owner was in breach of equality legislation by unlawfully discriminating against the couple on the basis of their sexual orientation. Liberty's Legal Director James Welch said of the decision "Hopefully today's ruling signals the death knell of such 'no gays' policies – policies that would never be tolerated if they referred to a person's race, gender or religion." 2015 onwards Save our Human Rights Act Immediately following the 2015 General Election result, Liberty launched a campaign to save the Human Rights Act. The Conservative Party – which had won a majority – had included a pledge in its manifesto to repeal the Act. Liberty called this "a knowing attempt by Government ministers to hand itself the right to end the universality of human rights and choose when and to whom they apply". In May 2016, Liberty, Amnesty International UK and the British Institute of Human Rights published a statement opposing repeal of the Act, backed by more than 130 organisations including UK Families Flight 103, Friends of the Earth, Refuge, Quakers in Britain, Stonewall, the Terrence Higgins Trust, the Down's Syndrome Association and the Football Supporters' Federation. In July 2015, Liberty coordinated an intervention from a number of former Anti-Apartheid campaigners including Archbishop Njongonkulu Ndungane and Denis Goldberg. The Deepcut inquests Liberty represents the families of three of four young soldiers who died of gunshot wounds at Deepcut army barracks between 1995 and 2002 – Cheryl James, Sean Benton and James Collinson. Liberty used the Human Rights Act to compel Surrey Police to disclose evidence about the deaths to the families, which they were then able to use to apply for fresh inquests. The second inquest into the death of Cheryl James took place at Woking Coroner's Court from January to April 2016. On 3 June 2016, Coroner Brian Barker QC recorded a verdict of suicide, delivering a narrative verdict that strongly condemned the culture at Deepcut. Following the verdict, Liberty called for reform to tackle the "pervasive sexualised culture" in the Armed Forces. The second inquest into the death of Sean Benton also took place from January to June 2018, also in Woking. On 18 July 2018, Coroner Peter Rook QC also recorded a verdict of suicide and again strongly criticised failings at Deepcut and in the Surrey Police investigation. Following the verdict, Liberty and Sean's family called for all serious crimes within the Armed Forces to be investigated by the civilian police, rather than the Royal Military Police. Corporal Anne-Marie Ellement Liberty represented the family of Corporal Anne-Marie Ellement, a Royal Military Police Office who took her own life in 2011 after alleging that she had been raped by two colleagues. The allegations were investigated by military police themselves, and no charges were brought. An initial inquest in March 2012 recorded a verdict of suicide, but Anne-Marie's family, represented by Liberty, used the Human Rights Act to secure a second, more thorough inquest. They alleged that Anne-Marie had been bullied and that the Royal Military Police had failed in their duty of care. On 3 July 2014, Nicholas Rheinberg – Coroner in the second inquest – ruled that bullying, the lingering effect of the alleged rape and "work-related despair" had contributed to Anne-Marie's suicide. In 2013, Anne-Marie's family, represented by Liberty, also used the threat of legal action under the Human Rights Act to compel the Ministry of Defence and Royal Military Police to agree to refer the Anne-Marie's rape allegations for a fresh, independent investigation. This was carried out by RAF Police and Bedfordshire Police, overseen by the Crown Prosecution Service. On 29 October 2015, the Service Prosecuting Authority announced that two former soldiers had been charged with raping Anne-Marie and stated that "the original decision by the SPA not to prosecute was "wrong. The two men were acquitted on 20 April 2016. In October 2016, the Royal Military Police apologised to Anne-Marie's family for failings and mistakes in the original rape investigation. In November 2017, the Ministry of Defence announced it would stop Commanding Officers investigation allegations of sexual assault themselves – a call Liberty had made from Corporal Ellement's 2014 inquest. Mass surveillance Following Edward Snowden's whistleblowing in 2013, mass surveillance became a major part of Liberty's work. Shortly after the revelations, Liberty brought a legal challenge to the UK government's practices with a coalition of other organisations, including Amnesty International, Privacy International and ACLU. In September 2018, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that GCHQ's bulk interception practices had violated privacy rights and failed to provide sufficient safeguards. In 2014, Liberty represented MPs David Davis and Tom Watson in a legal challenge to the Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act (DRIPA), claiming that it breached privacy rights. The case was referred to the European Court of Justice (ECJ) by the Court of Appeal, and in December 2016 the ECJ ruled that the general and indiscriminate retention of emails and electronic communications by governments was illegal. In January 2018, the Court of Appeal found DRIPA unlawful. Throughout 2016, Liberty campaigned against what it believed to be a serious lack of privacy safeguards in the Investigatory Powers Bill. The Bill passed in November 2016. In January 2017, Liberty launched a crowdfunder to raise funds to challenge the Act in the High Court, raising more than £53,000 in a week. Liberty's challenge to various parts of the Investigatory Powers Act is ongoing. In April 2018, the High Court issued its ruling on the first part of the challenge, giving the government six months to rewrite core parts of the Act, which it found incompatible with EU law. Equal pensions for same-sex couples Liberty represented John Walker in a legal challenge to a loophole in the Equality Act which let employers exempt same-sex spouses from spousal pension benefits. Upon retirement from Innospec, John had discovered that his husband would only receive a few hundred pounds a year. If he were married to a woman, she would have received around £45,000. In July 2017, the Supreme Court found the loophole unlawful under EU law. Hostile environment policies Liberty campaigned against the introduction of the 'hostile environment' policies and has since campaigned for their repeal. It has also campaigned against data-sharing arrangements between immigration enforcement and public services including hospitals, schools and police. In August 2017, Liberty exposed that the Home Office had secretly gained access to nationality data on homeless people in London. Facial recognition In June 2018, Liberty announced it would be representing Cardiff resident Ed Bridges in a legal challenge to South Wales Police's use of facial recognition technology in public spaces. Liberty argues that the technology "is dangerously inaccurate and has the potential to trample on the freedoms we all take for granted". Immigration detention In January 2017, Liberty launched a campaign calling for a 28-day statutory limit on immigration detention in the UK. Organisation Liberty is both a non-profit company that employs staff and runs campaigns, and a member-based association. Both work closely with the Civil Liberties Trust. Liberty is divided into three organisations: Liberty – an unincorporated association A democratically run membership association, which individuals can join. Liberty – the company A non-profit company that employs staff and runs campaigns etc. It leases buildings and works closely with the Civil Liberties Trust (see below). The Civil Liberties Trust The Civil Liberties Trust (CLT) is a registered charity (No. 1024948), independent of Liberty. The CLT has no staff, but commissions Liberty to conduct charitable work such as providing public advice and information, also research, policy work, and litigation. Causes and associations The main issues Liberty is campaigning in 2018 include: Mass surveillance Police use of facial recognition and other intrusive surveillance technology such as IMSI catchers Human rights in the UK after Brexit Hostile environment policies and public service data-sharing with UK immigration enforcement Soldiers' rights, in particularly campaigning for an overhaul of the military justice system Immigration detention Public spaces protection orders In addition, Liberty campaigns on a number of 'core' issues that remain constant: Torture Privacy Free speech Equality Protest rights Policing General secretaries and directors 1932: Ronald Kidd 1942: Elizabeth Acland Allen 1960: Martin Ennals 1966: Tony Smythe 1973: Martin Loney 1974: Patricia Hewitt 1984: Larry Gostin 1985: Sarah Spencer 1989: Andrew Puddephatt 1995: John Wadham 2003: Shami Chakrabarti 2016: Martha Spurrier Publications Liberty produces briefings on its campaign issues, as well as researching and writing reports on particular areas of human rights and civil liberties. Reports A Guide to the Hostile Environment: The border controls dividing our communities and how we can bring them down. April 2018. Bringing human rights home? What's at stake for rights in the incorporation of EU law after Brexit. February 2018. Military Justice: Proposals for a fair and independent military justice system. June 2014. A Journalist's Guide to the Human Rights Act. January 2011. Litigating the Public Interest, July 2006 Twelve Point Terror Package Initial Thoughts, August 2005 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 summary Impact of Anti-Terror Measures on British Muslims, June 2004 ID Card Bill key points, 2004 A New 'Suspect Community', October 2003 Rights of victims of crime, February 2003 Magistrates Court Review, February 2003 Casualty of War – Counter Terror Legislation in Rural England, 2003 An Independent Police Complaints Commission, April 2000 Policy Papers Being a cross-party, non-party political organisation, Liberty regularly publishes briefings to MPs and peers, to provide consultation to parliamentary committees and to respond to consultations on issues relating to human rights and civil liberties in the UK. See also American Civil Liberties Union, an American equivalent Civil libertarianism Convention on Modern Liberty On Liberty (Chakrabarti book) References External links https://www.libertyhumanrights.org.uk Civil liberties advocacy groups Civil rights organisations in the United Kingdom Human rights organisations based in the United Kingdom Organisations based in the City of Westminster Organizations established in 1934 Political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom Political organisations based in London 1934 establishments in the United Kingdom	5,759
doc-en-10514_0	King's Highway 17, more commonly known as Highway 17, is a provincially maintained highway and the primary route of the Trans-Canada Highway through the Canadian province of Ontario. It begins at the Manitoba boundary, west of Kenora, and the main section ends where Highway 417 begins just west of Arnprior. A small disconnected signed section of the highway still remains within the Ottawa Region between County Road 29 and Grants Side Rd. This makes it Ontario's longest highway. The highway once extended even farther to the Quebec boundary in East Hawkesbury with a peak length of about . However, a section of Highway 17 "disappeared" when the Ottawa section of it was upgraded to the freeway Highway 417 in 1971. Highway 17 was not re-routed through Ottawa, nor did it share numbering with Highway 417 to rectify the discontinuity, even though Highway 417 formed a direct link between the western and eastern sections of Highway 17. However, from East Hawkesbury to Ottawa, Highway 17 retained the Trans-Canada Highway routing and signs until it met up again and merged with Highway 417 until 1997 when Highway 17 through Ottawa was downgraded. The Trans-Canada Highway designation now extends along all of Highway 417. Ontario Highway 17 is a very important part of the national highway system in Canada, as it is the sole highway linking the eastern and western regions of the country. Although other small roads connect the province of Ontario with the province of Manitoba, it is the only major highway that links the two, making it a crucial section of Canada's primary commercial and leisure route for all traffic travelling between Canada's largest cities, from Toronto and Montreal in the east to Calgary and Vancouver in the west. History Beginnings With the establishment of the provincial highway network on February 26, 1920, the Department of Public Highways, predecessor to today's Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, sought to establish a network of reliable roads through the southern part of the province. Through July and August 1920, a highway east of Ottawa to Pointe-Fortune at the Quebec boundary, known as the Montreal Road, was assumed by the department. This original routing of Highway 17 followed what is now Montreal Road, St Joseph Boulevard, and the Old Montreal Road eastward out of Ottawa; Laurier Street through Rockland; Regional Road 55 and 26 between Clarence and Plantagenet; Blue Corner Road and Bay Road (Regional Road 4) to L'Original; John Street, Pharand Street, Eliza Street, and Main Street to Hawkesbury; Front Rd along the shore of the Ottawa River from Hawkesbury to Chute-a-Blondeau and Des Outaouais Rd just west of and Pointe-Fortune, and Regional Road 17 elsewhere. A portion of this original highway was lost when the completion of the Carillon Generating Station in 1964 raised the water level of the Ottawa River north of Voyageur Provincial Park. West of Ottawa, a route was assumed to Arnprior on October 6, following today's Carling Avenue, March Road and Donald B. Munro Drive between Ottawa and Kinburn, and Kinburn Side Road and Madawaska Boulevard between Kinburn and Arnprior. On June 15, 1921, the highway was extended to Pembroke via Renfrew, Cobden, and Beachburg. The entire route between Pembroke and Pointe-Fortune became known as Highway 17 in the summer of 1925. Although the jurisdiction of the soon-to-become Department of Highways did not extend beyond Pembroke, a rough trail continued to North Bay, and a trunk road constructed by the Department of Northern Development beyond there to Sault Ste. Marie by 1923, roughly following the route of Highway 17 today. The Pembroke and Mattawan Road Colonization Road was constructed between 1853 and 1874 to encourage settlement in the Upper Ottawa Valley. Between Mattawa and North Bay, many aboriginals and early settlers made use of the Mattawa River, the headwaters of which lie just north of Lake Nipissing. From there they would travel down the French River into Georgian Bay and onwards to Lake Superior. Highway 17 between Mattawa and Sault Ste. Marie roughly traces this early voyageur route. Northern development and the Lakehead Following World War I, discussions of a cross-continental road through Canada became vocal and construction of such a route was underway in several places. However, funding for this work was soon halted as the government distributed funding to projects that were believed to be more important than the luxury of the new road. The most significant accomplishment of this work was the Nipigon Highway between Thunder Bay and Nipigon, opened in 1924. With the signing of the Department of Northern Development (DND) Act in 1926, construction resumed on improving many northern roads; the Ferguson Highway was the main project to begin as a result of the act. The onset of the Great Depression would result in federally funded relief projects being signed with provinces in late 1930. Thousands of men were hired to construct highways in remote areas of the province from temporary camps, named Bennett Camps after then-Prime Minister R. B. Bennett. This provided the necessary labour to open road links through vast expanses of wilderness in a relatively short period of time. Beginning in 1931, certain routes were designated as the Trans-Canada Highway, including the route between Sault Ste. Marie and the Quebec boundary as well as the planned connection to Thunder Bay and Winnipeg. By June 1931, planning for the route of the highway was complete, and work underway on the new link between Thunder Bay and Winnipeg that would roughly parallel the Canadian Pacific Railway. The first section to open was between the Manitoba town of Whitemouth and Kenora. On Dominion Day (July 1) 1932, an inter-provincial ceremony was held in Kenora to dedicate the new route. The next link would connect the road through the Kenora with the rough road connecting Vermilion Bay, Dryden and Dyment. This section opened in early 1933. From the east, construction proceeded at a similar pace, although through much more barren expanses of forests and lakes. By the end of 1932, construction had proceeded from Thunder Bay through Upsala to English River. A gap was all that remained, between Dyment and English River. On June 4, 1934, crews cleared the last section of forest separating Thunder Bay from Winnipeg. However, it would require another year of rock blasting and construction to make the route navigable by vehicles. On July 1, 1935, a multi-day motorcade celebration was held to officially open the new highway. A convoy of vehicles travelled from Thunder Bay to Winnipeg along the route, resting overnight in Kenora before completing the two-day journey. By the end of 1935, numerous factors combined which resulted in the termination of the highway camps. The federal government of R. B. Bennett used Section 98 of the Criminal Code in 1931 to arrest several leaders of the Communist Party of Canada. However, the lack of evidence and protests would eventually lead to the early release of the men, much to the embarrassment of the government. The men, with public support behind them, headed north to highway camps, where mounting tensions due to low wages, poor conditions, lacklustre food, isolation, and military-like discipline resulted in organized labour strikes. Funding was pulled from the Trans-Canada Highway in 1936. On April 1, 1937, the DND was absorbed into the Department of Highways, and the road west of Pembroke became an extension of Highway 17. At this point, the highway from Sault Ste. Marie to the Quebec boundary was long. Portions were paved at this point: east of Sault Ste. Marie, west of Blind River, through Sudbury, east of Sturgeon Falls, through Mattawa, and from Chalk River to Quebec; the remainder was a gravel road. The highway between the Manitoba boundary and Nipigon was , mostly gravel-surfaced. The only significant exceptions were in the Kenora and Thunder Bay areas. Before the outbreak of World War II in 1939, a new bridge spanning the Nipigon River was completed alongside a highway eastward to Schreiber. Both were opened together ceremoniously on September 24, 1937. When the war began, construction on Highway 17 halted, with effort instead focused on the simpler northern route via Geraldton and Hearst. The Gap Following the war, construction on the missing segment of Highway 17 between Schreiber and Sault Ste. Marie proceeded slowly; the completion of Highway 11 between Nipigon and Hearst already provided a road between the east and west. However, in 1949 the federal government signed the Trans Canada Highway Act, which provided up to a 90% subsidy to provinces to complete their portion of the highway to the required standards. Two portions of Ontario's route were eligible for this subsidy: Highway 69 between Parry Sound and Sudbury, and Highway 17 along the north shore of Lake Superior. Amongst some of the most difficult terrain encountered in Canada, engineers blasted 2,087,234 cubic metres (2,730,000 cubic yards) of rock, removed 5,982,641 cubic metres (7,825,000 cubic yards) of earth, and cleared of forest in order to bridge the of wilderness known as "the Gap". The Gap was completed and opened to traffic on September 17, 1960, uniting the two segments and completing the route of Highway 17 from the Manitoba border to the Quebec border. The Queensway During the 1950s, the Greber Plan called for the creation of numerous parkways and divided highways through the growing city of Ottawa. One of these, known as The Queensway, was a grade-separated freeway that would bypass the urban alignment of Highway 17. The Greber Plan was produced by Jacques Gréber under the direction of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King in the late 1940s. Although Gréber had been corresponding with King as early as 1936, World War II halted any plans from reaching fruition at that time. Following the war, Gréber was again contacted and his expertise requested. He arrived on October 2, 1945, and began working almost immediately. The Greber Plan, as it came to be known, was released in 1950 and presented to the House of Commons on May 22, 1951. The plan called for the complete reorganization of Ottawa's road and rail network, and included amongst the numerous parkways was an east to west expressway along what was then a Canadian National Railway line. With the rail lines removed, construction of the new expressway got underway in 1957 when Queen Elizabeth visited Ottawa to open the first session of the 23rd Parliament. On October 15, the Queen detonated dynamite charges from the Hurdman Bridge, which now overlooks the highway as it crosses the Rideau River, and formally dedicated the new project as the Queensway. At the ceremony, premier Leslie Frost indicated that the entire project would cost C$31 million and emphasized the importance of the link to the Trans-Canada Highway. The Queensway was constructed in four phases, each opening independently: phase one, from Alta Vista Drive (now Riverside Drive) east to Highway 17 (Montreal Road); phase two, from Highway 7 and Highway 15 (Richmond Road) to Carling Avenue; phase three, from Carling Avenue to O'Connor Street; and, phase four, from O'Connor Street to Alta Vista Drive, crossing the Rideau Canal and Rideau River. Phase one opened to traffic on November 25, 1960, extending up to the Rideau River. On the western side of Ottawa, phase two opened a year later in October 1961. The central section presented the greatest challenge, as an embankment was built to create grade-separations. In addition, the structures over the Rideau Canal and river required several years of construction. On May 15, 1964, the majority of the third phase was ceremonially opened. completing the Carling Avenue interchange and extending the freeway as far as Bronson Avenue. Several months later, on September 17 the short but complicated section east to O'Connor Street was opened. This left only phase four, the central section of the Queensway, which was opened in three segments. On November 26, 1965, the structures over the Rideau Canal were opened to traffic. At the same time, the westbound lanes of the Queensway were extended to Concord Street, located west of the Nicholas Street interchange. The interchange opened on January 1, 1966, allowing travel in both directions over the canal. The final segment, linking the two section of the Queensway, was placed into service on October 28, 1966. Following this, the Highway 17 designation was applied along the Queensway and the old routing renumbered as Highway 17B. Bypasses and upgrades Although it was completed from Manitoba to Quebec in 1960, many upgrades to the original routing of Highway 17 had and would take place over the years. In addition to bypasses around almost every urban centre it encountered, many original sections have been downloaded to regional and local jurisdiction or decommissioned entirely to lie abandoned in the forest. Of special note are reroutings in the Ottawa Valley – where the highway follows very little of the original routing – and around Thunder Bay, where it has undergone several reroutings and upgrades since the 1920s. In the following section, upgrades are listed from west to east due to complex chronologies. Thunder Bay The original routing of Highway 17 travelled into Port Arthur along the Dawson Road, now Highway 102. Nipigon Highway 17 originally entered Red Rock along what is now Highway 628 before turning north alongside the Nipigon River north to Nipigon. Sault Ste. Marie Although the route into and out of Sault Ste. Marie has remained generally the same, Highway 17 has been rerouted through the city numerous times. In addition, to the east of the city, the route has been redirected onto a four lane at-grade expressway around Echo Bay. Espanola Sudbury The route of Highway 17 in Sudbury currently follows the Southwest and Southeast Bypasses through the south end of the city. Prior to the completion of this route, the highway followed what is now Municipal Road 55 through the downtown core. North Bay Upper Ottawa Valley Construction of the Renfrew Bypass began in June 1974, and continued for three years, opening in 1977. Ottawa Lower Ottawa Valley Elsewhere The last gravel stretches of Highway 17, between Kenora and Dryden and north of Batchawana Bay, were paved in 1964. Downloads On April 1, 1997, the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) transferred the responsibility of maintenance and upkeep along of Highway 17 east of "the split" with Highway 417 to Trim Road (Regional Road 57), a process commonly referred to as downloading. The Region of Ottawa–Carleton designated the road as Regional Road 174. Despite the protests of the region that the route served a provincial purpose, a second round of transfers saw the remainder of Highway 17 to the Region's eastern limit downloaded on January 1, 1998, adding to the length of Regional Road 174. The highway was also downloaded within the United Counties of Prescott and Russell, where it was redesignated as County Road 17. The result of these transfers was the truncation of Highway 17 at the western end of Highway 417, while the Trans-Canada Highway designation was taken from the former Highway 17 and applied to Highway 417. A short disconnected section of Highway 17 between Ottawa Road 29 and Grants Side Road remains under provincial jurisdiction to the present day. Since 2000 417 extensions / shortening of Highway 17 Route description Highway 17 crosses some of the most remote regions of Ontario. Although there are several settlements established throughout its length, the distance between gas stations can often exceed several hundred kilometres. Despite the isolation of the highway, it is well-travelled throughout its length. The section of Highway 17 north of Lake Superior is regarded as one of the most scenic drives in the province. Manitoba to Nipigon Highway 17 begins at the boundary between Ontario and Manitoba, where a large installation greets drivers in both directions. The highway is two lanes wide and travels over and between the surface features of the Canadian Shield; further west into Manitoba the highway widens into a four-lane divided expressway. To the east, the highway travels through thick boreal forest towards Keewatin, where the Kenora Bypass, Highway 17A, splits to the north. Through the town of Kenora, Highway 17 is signed but maintained under a connecting link agreement between the town and the province. Full provincial maintenance resumes at the eastern town limits. Further east, the highway merges with the Kenora Bypass. It meets the northern terminus of Highway 71, then makes a gradual eastward journey through the lake-dotted Kenora District to the town of Dryden. Here the highway encounters one of the few agriculturally-sustainable areas of northern Ontario. The highway begins to zig-zag southeasterly, passing through several minor settlements before entering the mining town of Ignace. Shortly thereafter, it begins to curve to the south. It meets Highway 11 east of the Manitoba boundary. The two highways travel concurrently towards Thunder Bay at the western Lakehead of Lake Superior. Though it originally travelled through what was then the twin-cities, the highway bypasses to the northwest on the at-grade Thunder Bay Expressway. Nipigon to Sudbury Within Nipigon, Highway 11 and Highway 17 cross the Nipigon River on the Nipigon River Bridge. Along with the railway crossing immediately to the south, and another on the northern shore of Lake Nipigon, this forms the narrowest bottleneck in Canada between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. On the eastern shore of the river, Highway 11 separates and travels north towards Geraldton and Hearst. Highway 17 continues east along the northern shore of Lake Superior. Near White River, the highway enters Algoma District and turns southward. It meets the western terminus of Highway 101 near Wawa, which provides for a shorter route to Sudbury via the Sultan Industrial Road. South of Wawa, the highway enters Lake Superior Provincial Park. After proceeding through several mountain ranges, and crossing numerous rivers and the Montreal River Hill, the highway enters Sault Ste. Marie. Here a border crossing into the United States is provided via the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge, which connects with I-75 in Michigan. As the highway exits Sault Ste. Marie to the east, a newly constructed segment of four-lane divided highway branches north; Highway 17B (one of two remaining business routes of Highway 17 in service) continues east through Garden River. The divided highway bypasses Garden River and passes east of Echo Bay before curving south and merging with Highway 17B. Shortly thereafter, it turns to the east and travels along the North Channel of Lake Huron towards Sudbury, passing through numerous small towns, including Thessalon, Blind River, Massey and McKerrow. At Sudbury, the highway widens into a freeway through the Walden area of the city until reaching the Southwest / Southeast Bypass at Lively, where it narrows again to a Super 2 road. This segment is currently undergoing an environmental assessment, with plans to upgrade it to a full freeway in the next ten years. Sudbury to Arnprior Highway 17 passes to the south of the urban centre of Sudbury. It meets Highway 69 at an interchange. At this interchange, the Southwest and Southeast Bypasses meet, and for just over a kilometre, Highway 17 is a divided four-lane freeway. The Super 2 continues northeast to meet the original alignment of Highway 17 east of downtown Sudbury. Here it turns east and travels through the city's outlying neighbourhoods of Coniston and Wahnapitae; a new freeway alignment of this route is currently in the planning stages. The highway route passes through the rural municipalities of Markstay-Warren and West Nipissing before reaching North Bay, where it follows an undivided four-lane expressway alignment, with reduced but not full control of access, through the city of North Bay; as of 2012, early preparations have taken place for a freeway conversion and realignment of this segment. For 4.1 kilometres from Algonquin Avenue to the Twin Lakes area, the route is once again concurrent with Highway 11. At the northern end of this concurrency, Highway 11 travels north and wraps westward and south to Nipigon; at the southern end, it continues southward towards Toronto, while Highway 17 turns east toward the Ottawa Valley. An at-grade intersection with Highway 63 is located at approximately the midpoint of the concurrency. East of North Bay, Highway 17 meets Highway 94, thereafter travelling alongside the Mattawa River to its confluence with the Ottawa River in Mattawa, where it meets Highway 533 at a roundabout. The highway then parallels the Ottawa River through a mountainous region, first passing through the villages of Stonecliffe and Rolphton before arriving in Deep River, a planned community developed as part of the Manhattan Project. It then passes through Chalk River and enters Canadian Forces Base Petawawa. Beginning at the southern end of the army base, Highway 17 follows the Pembroke Bypass, bypassing west of Petawawa and Pembroke, where it intersects Highway 41. The bypass ends at Renfrew County Road 40, north of Muskrat Lake. The highway then travels south through the town of Cobden. It follows a bypass east of Renfrew and meets Highway 60. Highway 17 curves east and passes north of Alexander Stewart Provincial Park. Approximately west of Scheel Drive, west of Arnprior, the highway divides and widens to four lanes, at which point Highway 417 begins. A disconnected section of Highway 17 still exists within the City of Ottawa, between Ottawa Road 29 and Grants Side Road, travelling parallel to Highway 417. However, it is likely to be downgraded, becoming an extension of Ottawa Road 117. Business routes Highway 17 used to have a number of business routes, all but one of which have been decommissioned. All were at one time the primary route of Highway 17 through their respective locations, and were given the business route designation following the construction or designation of a newer bypass alignment. Highway 17B (Ottawa) Highway 17B (North Bay) Highway 17B (Thessalon) Highway 17B (Sault Ste. Marie) Highway 17B (Thunder Bay) Future With all route planning studies now completed on Highways 11 and 69/400, in the latter half of the 2000s, the Ministry of Transportation's planning branch began undertaking more active preparations for the eventual conversion of Highway 17 to freeway. Although no comprehensive conversion plan is currently in place, planning and construction projects are now underway at a number of locations along the highway. Sault Ste. Marie MPP David Orazietti has spearheaded a petition to have the entire highway four-laned from Arnprior to Sault Ste. Marie, similar to the campaign previously undertaken by his caucus colleague Rick Bartolucci regarding the extension of Highway 400. Cheryl Gallant, the federal Member of Parliament for Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke, has also advocated the four-laning of the highway through the Ottawa Valley toward North Bay, and ultimately the entire length of the highway throughout Northern Ontario. A 2009 study commissioned by the forestry trade magazine The Working Forest, titled "A Vision for Ontario's Trans Canada Highway, North Bay to the Manitoba Border", determined that it would cost the Ontario government $600 million per year over 25 years to convert the entire length of both Highway 17 and Highway 11 to freeway, suggesting that a comprehensive plan would be affordable and achievable if the provincial and federal governments could reach a cost-sharing agreement. Renfrew County Studies are underway on the extension of Highway 417 through the Ottawa Valley region from its current terminus at Arnprior to Petawawa. From Arnprior to Haley Station and from Meath to Petawawa, the proposed freeway route largely follows the existing alignment — in these areas, the current highway route largely avoids existing communities, and thus a second set of lanes can be easily added alongside the existing route. Within the township of Whitewater Region, however, a new alignment is planned several kilometres east of the existing road in order to bypass communities such as Cobden. In August 2017, the Ministry of Transportation formally confirmed that detail design studies have commenced on the next westward extension of Highway 417, from the existing terminus at Scheel Drive in Arnprior to three kilometres west of the Bruce Street intersection at Renfrew. North Bay Planning studies have been completed for the conversion of Highway 17's alignment through North Bay, which is currently a four-lane expressway with partial but not full control of access, into a full freeway. The plan will include an interchange with a new alignment of Highway 11, which would replace the existing Algonquin Avenue segment. In the city, the four-laned route will follow the existing highway route from the western city limits to Meighen Avenue, and then a new alignment from there to the eastbound Highway 11/17 interchange. The bypassed portion of the current route will be realigned to connect with Lansdowne Avenue. This alignment, nicknamed "Route 6", has been planned since the 1970s; although minor adjustments to the plan have been made since, as of 2017 the ministry has not announced an official construction schedule. Studies commenced on an extension of the four-lane route easterly to Bonfield in early 2011, and from Eau Claire Station to the Nipissing District-Renfrew County boundary in early 2012; further studies on the routes from Bonfield to Eau Claire Station and from North Bay to Cache Bay are expected to begin at a later date. Sudbury As the extension of Highway 400 approaches Sudbury, the MTO began a route planning and environmental assessment study on Highway 17 easterly from Highway 69 to Markstay in 2010; studies for the segment from Highway 69 westerly to the existing freeway in Walden were completed in 2007. The current route plan involves twinning the existing Southeast Bypass to its terminus, along with the construction of a new four-lane route north of Coniston and Wahnapitae. Original plans called for a new multi-level interchange with Highway 69 in the Lake Laurentian Conservation Area. However, public consultation has since removed this proposal from the route planning process; all of the plans currently under consideration involve converting the existing alignment of Highway 69 to a full freeway which would meet Highway 17 at the existing interchange. Preliminary route planning studies have also been completed on the freeway's westerly extension to McKerrow, near Espanola, but no construction schedule has been announced to date. However, the first phase of this route, extending the existing freeway from Municipal Road 55 in Sudbury for six kilometres farther west through the Den-Lou neighbourhood, is currently in the detail design phase. Sault Ste. Marie At Sault Ste. Marie, the expressway segment currently ends six kilometres short of its eventual terminus at Black Road and Second Line, as an agreement has yet to be reached with the Batchawana First Nation regarding land use through Rankin. The completion date for this segment is not currently known. In the interim, highway traffic travels between the expressway and the current highway alignment through Sault Ste. Marie by means of the previously planned northerly extension of Trunk Road. The former segment of Highway 17 through Garden River was initially redesignated as part of Highway 638, although the Garden River First Nation disputed this designation and insisted that the highway be renamed Highway 17B. As of February 2009, the former route is now designated as Highway 17B. In February 2010, Garden River's band council publicly warned that they would consider imposing tolls on the routes of both Highway 17 and Highway 17B through their territory if the provincial government did not assist the council with a funding shortfall of approximately $1 million. In February 2011, the Ministry of Transportation announced that the expressway's current level intersection at Highway 638 in Echo Bay will be upgraded to a full interchange. Thunder Bay and Kenora Construction started in 2004 on a westerly extension of Thunder Bay's Harbour Expressway, from the Thunder Bay Expressway to Vibert Road, intended to serve as a new alignment for Highways 11 and 17. In July 2008 the federal and provincial governments announced a $6.2 billion infrastructure program that makes the four-laning of Hwys. 11 and 17 near Kenora and Thunder Bay a priority. Engineering work on twinning 11/17 between Nipigon and Thunder Bay was to begin in 2008. On May 1, 2009 the federal and provincial government announced that twinning of Highway 11/17 would begin in 2010. On May 15, 2009, the federal and provincial government announced that twinning of Highway 17 at the Manitoba/Ontario boundary easterly toward Kenora would also begin in 2010. Construction to twin the highway between Ouimet and Dorion northeast of Thunder Bay is currently underway. On November19, 2021, the first contracts for the twinning of Highway17 east from the Manitoba boundary to Kenora were signed. Work is set to begin in the spring of 2022 on the portion from the provincial boundary to Highway 673. Major intersections Notes References Sources Bibliography External links Trans Canada Highway distance charts, road conditions, maps Highway 17 photos and information Google Maps: Highway 17 route 017 Ontario 017 Lake Superior Circle Tour Roads in Greater Sudbury Roads in Thunder Bay Transport in Dryden, Ontario Transport in Kenora Transport in North Bay, Ontario Transport in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario	6,448
doc-en-10540_0	According to the Fourth Five-Year Economic Development Plan (2005–2010), the Privatization Organization of Iran affiliated with the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance is in charge of setting prices and ceding shares to the general public and on the Tehran Stock Exchange. The privatization effort is primarily backed by reformist members of the Iranian government and society who hope that privatization can bring about economic and social change. In 2007, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei requested that government officials speed up implementation of the policies outlined in the amendment of Article 44, and move towards economic privatization. Khamenei also suggested that ownership rights should be protected in courts set up by the Justice Ministry; the hope was that this new protection would give an additional measure of security and encourage private investment. Despite these statements, true official backing for privatization remains very slow due to political reasons. Some 80 percent of the companies subject to Article 44 of the Constitution would be transferred to public ownership, 40 percent of which will be conducted through the "Justice Shares" Scheme and the rest through the Tehran Stock Exchange. The government will keep the title of the remaining 20 percent. It is widely believed that if current governmental organizations are privatized they will need to become more efficient. At present many are not profitable due to large numbers of unnecessary employees hired by the government to reduce unemployment. Furthermore, many of these companies are subsidized by oil revenues. True privatization will inevitably lead to many unpopular job cuts and large scale lay offs. The current privatization effort calls for an initial public offering (IPO) of five percent of the firms being privatized. Once the five percent is public, it will establish a base market price for future offerings. According to a study conducted by the IMF in 18 countries, privatization adds 2 percent to the government's GDP per annum. The Iranian constitution According to the Article 44 of the Iranian Constitution, the economy of Iran is to consist of three sectors: state, cooperative, and private; and is to be based on systematic and sound planning. The state sector is to include all large-scale industries, foreign trade, major minerals, banking, insurance, power generation, dams and large-scale irrigation networks, radio and television, post, telegraph and telephone services, aviation, shipping, roads, railroads and the like; all these will be publicly owned and administered by the State. The cooperative sector is to include cooperative companies (Bonyad) and enterprises concerned with production and distribution, in urban and rural areas, in accordance with Islamic criteria. The private sector consists of those activities concerned with construction, agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade, and services that supplement the economic activities of the state and cooperative sectors. A strict interpretation of the above has never been enforced in the Islamic Republic and the private sector has been able to play a much larger role than is outlined in the Constitution. In recent years, the role of the private sector has been further on the increase. Furthermore, an amendment of the article in 2004 has allowed 80 percent of state assets to be privatized (ref: Note C, article 44 of Constitution). Background Iranian Revolution and Iran–Iraq War (1979–88) In July 1979, six months after the victory of the Revolution, 28 private banks that held 43.9 percent of the total assets of all the Iranian banks in their possession, were declared nationalized by the government. At the same time, all the car-making, copper, steel and aluminum industries, as well as the assets of 51 capitalists and major industrialists and their next of kin were declared nationalized by the government. In 1982, Mostazafen Foundation of Islamic Revolution alone came to possess 203 manufacturing and industrial factories, 472 big agricultural fields, 101 major construction firms, 238 trade and services companies and 2,786 big plots of real estates. Immediately following the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War over 80% of Iran's economy came under the control of the government. This created numerous problems for Iran as previously internationally competitive companies, such as Iran Air or Iran Khodro, degraded into basic domestic companies that could barely function without massive government subsidies – primarily derived from oil revenues. Rafsanjani government (1989–97) After the Iran–Iraq War in 1988, the Iranian government declared its intention to privatize most state industries in an effort to stimulate the ailing economy. The sale of state-owned factories and companies proceeded slowly, however (mostly because of the opposition in Majlis), and most industries remained state-owned in the early 21st century (70% of the economy as of 2006). The majority of heavy industry—including steel, petrochemicals, copper, automobiles, and machine tools—was in the public sector, while most light industry was privately owned. Khatami government (1997–2005) In 2004, under the presidency of reformist Mohammad Khatami a number of efforts were made to eliminate the role of the government: The Tehran Stock Exchange was re-launched, which allowed a mechanism for trading shares of government companies. Elements of the constitution (article 44) that decreed that core-infrastructure should remain state run were eliminated, and private banks were launched. Despite plans to sell billions worth of state assets to the private sector, uptake was very slow. A common criticism of the privatization effort by investors was the only local Iranian organizations that are capable of buying the large share blocks are themselves government owned. Also analysts have blamed international fears about the Iranian nuclear programme and an absence of transparency and information reporting for the lack of enthusiasm for state assets. In 2005, Iran tried to sell $2.5bn of government assets but only managed to offload less than 30 per cent. At present, at least 20 percent of the companies slated for selloff are officially loss-making. While the rest have earned an average profit of 5.5 percent in recent years, that figure does not take into account the extensive political and economic incentives and monopoly protections that they enjoy. Ahmadinejad government (2005–2013) In July 2006, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei decreed a renewed effort to privatize the economy and said in his order that “ceding 80 per cent of the shares of large companies will serve to bring about economic development, social justice and the elimination of poverty”. The decree is also an effort to revive Iran's stalled privatization programme and kick-start the country's many uncompetitive industries, which are heavily protected by subsidies. In February 2008, Iran announced that 3 newly formed Investment Banks (AminIB, Novin and Pasargad Bank) will take share subscriptions and act as an intermediary between the Privatization Organization and the stock exchange, helping Iran divest state-owned enterprises. Close to 370 trillion rials worth of shares of firms covered by Article 44 of the Constitution have been sold to the private sector from 2006 to 2009. The value of government assets are between 1,000 and 1,100 trillion rials ($110 billion), one third of which have been ceded to the private sector (December 2008). In 2009 it was reported that 30 percent of the revenues obtained from ceding the ownership of state entities within the framework of Article 44 of the Constitution are allocated to the nationwide cooperatives. As of 2009, Iran has privatized $63 billion worth of government equity in state-owned firms since 2005 (out of $120 billion). Subsequently, the disinvestment has brought the government's direct ownership in the GDP from 80% down to 40%. However, privatization through the Tehran Stock Exchange has tended to involve the sale of state-owned enterprises to other state actors such as pension funds. The Iranian Government announced in 2010 that it aims to raise some $12.5 billion by privatizing more than 500 state-owned firms. The money raised through privatization of the firms will be spent on paying the state's debts. Rouhani government (2013–) Iran's government was due to privatize 27 huge companies, 76 large companies, 31 medium companies, and 31 companies of other sizes in 2014. Huge companies are those companies with the shares value of over 10 trillion rials (about $403 million) and large companies are those with the shares value of over one trillion rials (about $40 million). As of November 2014, the value of shares transferred over the mentioned 1.5 years (about $9.2 billion) is tantamount to the value of shares transferred since the establishment of the organization 12.5 years ago. As of 2016, regarding privatizations conducted by the IPO, 25% of such entities were divested to the Civil Servants Pension Organization, 15% to the Farmers, Villagers and Nomads’ Social Insurance Fund and 25% to the Social Security Organization and only 5% to the "real private sector". For years it has been the country's position to privatize 80% of all power plants. As of August 17, 2017 Energy Minister Hamid Chitchian has said that 55% of all power plants have completed privatization. The country aims to clinch international contracts in order to aid in attracting much needed investment. "Justice shares" plan The government has approved a plan to offer shares to low-income families, starting with the poorest. Under the “Justice Shares“ plan, millions of Iranian families will receive shares in state-owned firms, the value of which will be reimbursed in 20 years from the dividends generated by those shares. The project is in line with President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's election promise to improve the condition of Iran's poor. Ahmadinejad in July 2005 promised to distribute shares to Iranian families, adding that these shares would be from state-run companies that must be privatized. Justice shares are valued at $36 billion as of 2014. Implementation The poorest strata of society shall receive justice shares at a 50 percent discount and will pay the said amount in 10-year instalments. Villagers and nomads shall have priority in this respect. The holding period for those shares is a minimum of 2 years [afterwards]. Those covered by charity services rendered by the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee and the State Welfare Organizations as well as the jobless war veterans are prioritised in the first phase of the justice shares initiative. In the second phase, rural population and tribesmen will receive the shares. Directives on identifying those eligible to receive justice shares (in the second phase) have been issued and the shares will be distributed (among the rural residents and the tribesmen) after receiving their national code number. Up to 6.5 million rural residents who qualify for the shares have been identified and that 1.2 million more people are yet to complete their documents. The Government is promoting the shareholding culture in Iran. The total number of shareholders has reached 700,000 people and this figure is expected to reach 24-25 million. In December 2006, the Government informed that some 4.6 million low-income Iranians had received Justice shares worth $2.5 billion as part of the privatization scheme. Each person received around $550 in shares with a maximum of 5 payments for each family. In February 2008 the Iranian Economic Ministry announced that some 15 million rural people out of 23 million are entitled to justice shares by the next Iranian year (to start March 20, 2008). In November 2008 Iran announced that some 22.5 million people have received justice shares. However, in 2009 labor leaders complained that workers had received hardly any. More than seven million people have been categorized in the lowest-income bracket. By mid-June 2009, it was reported that almost 40 million people had received justice shares. As of 2020, some 49 million Iranians have Justice Shares. Beneficiaries of justice shares could not trade the shares and received a small part of the dividends between 2018 ad 2020. As of 2020, shareholders have the new option to either directly gain the ownership of their shares and sell it in the stock exchange, or let the investment companies manage their portfolio as in the past. The Justice Share portfolio includes 49 state-owned companies in the auto, metal, mining, and agriculture, petrochemical and banking sectors. Criticism Some observers have argued that this "privatization" is modeled on the voucher distribution programs of Russia and Czechoslovakia in the 1990s, which, at least in the case of Russia, led to the rise of the oligarchs. The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance (Iran) has announced that it was forming a special committee to facilitate the process of making Justice Shares tradable on the stock exchange. Shares for workers As part of a policy of transferring shares of state firms to employees (5% of privatization proceeds), 20 million shares valued at 18.5 billion rials were transferred during September and October 2008, including to employees of Satkab, Iranian Mines and Mining Industries Development and Renovation Organization, and subsidiaries of the Industrial Development and Renovation Organization. Iranian expatriates' role Privatization drive may gain further momentum if Iranian expatriates increase investment in their motherland. Iranian nationals residing abroad are holding significant assets. Many have invested their capital in other countries, following the 1979 Islamic Revolution and the 1980–1988 war. Statistics at hand suggest that close to $10 billion (of goods) were re-exported into Iran last year. Multinational companies, particularly Iranian firms mostly owned and controlled by Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, are involved in export of goods into the country from Dubai. There are differing estimates of the expatriates' total capital (1.3 trillion dollars), but what is clear is that it is so huge that it will be enough to buy shares of all state companies. In Dubai alone, Iranian expatriates are estimated to have invested up to $200 billion. If 10 percent of this capital arrives, things will change drastically in Iran. Investments In 2000, the Iran Press Service reported that Iranian expatriates had invested between $200 and $400 billion in the United States, Europe, and China, but almost nothing in Iran. The Iranian government's efforts to encourage foreign investment from Iranians in the United States were thwarted in 1997 when President Bill Clinton issued an executive order prohibiting investments in Iran (ILSA). Nevertheless, FIPPA provisions apply to all foreign investors, and many Iranian expatriates based in the US continue to make substantial investments in Iran. Expatriate fund The government has proposed setting up a joint investment fund with $5 billion in basic capital and an economic union to serve Iranians living abroad. The stated goal is to attract investment from Iranian expatriates and using their experience in stimulating foreign investments. Later, in 2010, it was announced that Iran will start the process by creating a national fund with a basic capital of eight million euros. This fund will later transform into a bank. Foreign investment Foreign investors can bid in Iranian privatization tenders, but need permission from the Economy Ministry on a case-by-case basis. Iran has announced it will begin to allow foreign firms to purchase Iranian state-run companies, with the possibility of obtaining full ownership. Offshore fund A subsidiary of Iran's largest bank, Melli Investment Bank with branches in Dubai (UAE) and London, plans to launch a fund of up to $300 million to invest in the Tehran Stock Exchange, providing an alternative venue for foreigners to invest in the Iranian economy. The market, with a capitalisation of $37 billion, is trading at a fraction of the earnings multiples enjoyed by Iran's neighbours, while average earnings continue to grow at about 25 per cent a year. The fund will be composed of blue chip companies like Iran Khodro and will be based in the Cayman Island and managed from Iran. Top 100 Iranian companies The ranking has been assessed by Iran Industrial Management Company for the past 10 years. Based on financial statements for March 2005–06, the '100 top Iranian corporations' were ranked and announced in a conference in early 2007. According to the economic expert in charge of the rankings, the main index considered was the sales of companies because "Sales figure indicates the growth of a corporation". According to the same survey, while 67 percent of the firms have experienced a decline in profit margin, car manufacturers, cement factories, investment institutions and banks have had an increase in the same index. The Iranian year March 2005-06 was a good year for these industries. Meanwhile, the Persian daily Ettelaat named the top five corporations as follows: Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) ranking first with an asset of 112,658 billion rials followed by Iran Khodro Industrial Group with an asset of 65,971 billion rials, Mining Industries Development and Renovation Organization (IMIDRO) with 52,184 billion rials, SAIPA car factory with 40,528 billion rials and National Iranian Petrochemical Company with 32,024 billion rials. They were followed by SAPCO, Bank Melli Iran, Bank Saderat Iran, Mobarakeh Steel Co. and Bank Mellat taking the sixth to tenth positions. Latest statistics show that the number of companies worth over one billion dollars on Tehran Stock Exchange (listed companies only) has reached 12. Among them are National Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICIC shares are worth $5.2 billion), Kharg Petrochemical Company, Ghadir petrochemical companies, Khuzestan Steel Company, Power Plant Projects Management Company (MAPNA), Retirement Investment Firm, Metal and Mine Investment Companies, Gol-Gohar Iron Ore Company ($2.1 billion), and Chadormalu Mining and Industrial Company. Valuation The assets of the top 100 Iranian publicly traded corporations — not including the National Iranian Oil Company and affiliated companies, various IDRO-affiliated companies, the Defense Industries Organization, Iran Air and the Iran Aviation Industries Organization — add up to $86 billion, which is less than that of a corporation such as Microsoft. But this does not account for goodwill that likely increases the real assets value of those same companies to more than one trillion US dollars. Major companies listed for privatization Of 1,000 companies awaiting the cabinet's approval, 240 companies had the green light already to be privatized by March 2008. As of 2014, Iran had also 930 industrial parks and zones, of which 731 are ready to be ceded to the private sector. Banking and insurance Most smaller state banks will be open to flotation, but excluded key banks including the Central Bank of Iran, Bank Melli Iran, Sepah Bank of Iran, Bank of Industry and Mines, Bank of Agriculture, Housing Bank (Bank Maskan) and the Export Development Bank of Iran. The privatization-bound banks are Tejarat, Mellat, Refah, Saderat, and Post Bank (ceding 100 percent of stakes of all 5 banks). Insurance companies Asia, Dana and Alborz will be listed on the stock exchange in 2009 after review and improvement in their financial accounts, internal regulations, organizational structure and dispersion nationwide. In 2008, the total insurance premiums generated in Iran were $4.3 billion. This is less than 0.1% of the world's total, while Iran has approximately 1% of the world's population. The insurance penetration rate is approximately 1.4%, significantly below the global average of 7.5%. This underdevelopment is also evident in product diversity. Approximately 60% of all insurance premiums are generated from car insurance. Also, 95% of all premiums come from general insurance contracts and only 5% relate to life products. Payout ratios have shown consistent growth over the years. Last year, the industry average payout ratio was 86%. Industry 102 companies out of the total 130, affiliated with IDRO, were due to be privatized by March 2009 Leading automakers Iran Khodro and Saipa were also due to be privatized in March 2008. In July 2010, the government sold a further 18% stake in both Iran Khodro and Saipa for about $2 billion in total, bringing down its participation in both companies to about 20%. Shares of Iran Tractor Manufacturing Company have also been offered on the Tehran Stock Exchange as part of an IPO. Utilities Mapna Company. Sahand, Bistoun, Shazand (Arak), Shahid Montazeri, Tous, Shahid Rajaei and Neishabour power stations are among the profit-making plants, work on privatizing them will be finalized by late March 2007. Jahrom, Khalij-e Fars (Persian Gulf) and Sahand power plants will be ceded to the private sector in 2009. All domestic power plants will be privatized gradually, except those the government feels it should run to ensure security of the national electricity grid. Power plants of Damavand, Mashhad, Shirvan, Kerman, Khalij-e Fars, Abadan, Bisotoon, Sanandaj, Manjil and Binalood, which have been turned into public limited firms, are ready for privatization. As of 2010, 20 power plants were ready for privatization in Iran. Upon ceding the 20 power plants to IPO, some 40 percent of the capacity of power plants nationwide will be assigned to the private and cooperative sectors. Mines & metals National Iranian Copper Industries Co.(NICICO), Mobarakeh Steel Co., Khuzestan Steel Company, Isfahan Steel Mills, Iranian Aluminum Company (IRALCO), Ehdas Sanat Company (ESC) and Iran Alloy Stell Co. are all candidates for privatization. The Privatization Organization of Iran announced that Iranian Aluminum Co. and Bushehr Cement Co. would be privatized in June 2007. The steel, cement and iron ore prices are currently being liberalized in Iran. Transport As planned, all airline companies except for Civil Aviation Organization as well as Ports and Shipping Organization should be ceded to the people. This covers flag carrier Iran Air and its affiliate Iran Aseman Airlines. The fast-growing Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Lines has also been lobbying for more independence. The government has agreed to offer the shares of Iran Post Company in the bourse (2008). The National Iranian Tanker Company's shares have been offered to the private sector in 2009. In 2009 Iran announced that Imam Khomeini port, its biggest port in the Persian Gulf, will be privatized. Bandar Abbas has also been listed for privatization. Telecommunication In 2006, the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology announced that it will float the shares of affiliated companies such as Mobile Telecommunications Company in the stock market. Under the general policies of Article 44, telecom companies are categorised in four groups as follows: Group One: Among the 30 provincial telecom networks, the fixed telecom networks pertain to those of Tehran, Isfahan, Fars, Hamedan, Ahvaz, Khorasan Razavi, Khuzestan and East Azarbaijan. The first group concerns fixed line telecom networks, including those in the public sector with 30 subsidiary telecom networks in provinces. The non-governmental sector includes companies such as Iraphone, Novin, Zahi Kish, Kouh-e Nour, Montazeran Adlgostar and Pouya Ertebat with each having hundreds of thousands of subscribers. Group Two: The second group concerns mobile telephone networks. In the public sector, they include the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI) to be privatized by March 2008. In the non-governmental sector, they include telecommunications companies such as Omran Kish, Isfahan, Rafsanjan Complex and Irancell. Group Three: There is only one public network in the data network sector, namely Data and Telecommunications Company of Iran, which is considered a basic telecom network in terms of mobile networks and Shomal IT Company. In the non-governmental sector, there are over 100 companies with a shared data network. Group Four: The subsidiary telecom network named Subsidiary Telecommunications Company is another basic telecom network. They are completely owned by the state and not targeted for privatization. In 2009, 51% of TCI was sold to Mobin Trust Consortium, a consortium belonging to the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps for the sum of $7.8 billion. Oil, gas and petrochemicals According to the Supreme Leader of Iran the downstream oil and gas sectors will be privatized, excluding the upstream oil and gas industry, the National Iranian Oil Company, the state companies involved in exploration and the production of crude oil and gas. Iran's Oil Ministry plans to cede shares of 95 percent of its affiliated companies to the private sector. Just 7 out of 142 subsidiaries of the Ministry of Petroleum have been excluded from the privatization process. Some shares will be dual-listed on regional foreign stock exchanges to attract expatriate investors. A list of 21 companies to be privatized will be released by mid-2007. Of these companies, five belong to National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), nine to National Iranian Petrochemical Company (NPC), five are affiliates of National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC), and two of National Iranian Oil Refining and Distribution Company (NIORDC), including the Abadan Refinery. National Iranian Gas Company, the Iranian Oil Terminals Company and the National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company are also on the list. Iranian Oil Terminals Co., a division of the National Iranian Oil Co., has four transport hubs that load more than 2,000 oil tankers per year. Iran is to target foreign investment in its energy sector by creating an umbrella group of nearly 50 state-run firms and listing its shares on four international stock exchanges. Under the privatization plan, 47 oil and gas companies (including PetroIran and North Drilling Company) worth an estimated $90 billion are to be privatized on the Tehran Stock Exchange by 2014. Iran's National Petrochemical Company (NPC) plans to privatize 17 companies by the end of 2007. Forty percent of those shares will go to "Justice Shares" for underprivileged citizens in Iran. 20% will be allocated to NPC. 35% will be put on sale on the Tehran Stock Exchange and the remaining 5% will go the petrochemical industry personnel. The 20 percent allocated to the NPC is meant to support petrochemical industry projects but may be offered to the private sector in the future. 89.6 percent of Shiraz Petrochemical Complex, and 27.76 percent of Petrochemical Investment Company will be sold to the public in June 2009. All shares of domestic petrochemical firms will be offered to the public in the frame of a holding company by the end of Iranian year (ending March 21, 2010). As part of the 2010 Iranian Economic Reform Plan, petrochemical companies, which use natural gas as their feedstock (rather than fuel), will pay no more than 65% of the average export price (rather than 75% for the general population) for a period of 10 years. Iran also projects to privatize some of its oil refineries (2009). Isfahan, Bandar Abbas, Tabriz, Shiraz, Kermanshah, Lavan, and Tehran (Shahid Tondgouyan) oil refineries will be transferred to the private sector but the ownership of Abadan and Arak oil refineries will remain in government control. The government of Iran announced in 2017 that a vast majority of the country's 3,600 gas and diesel stations along with 2,400 CNG stations would be privatized in order improve service and raise accountability. On August 8, 2017, a European firm based jointly in Greece and Romania announced it was planning to commercialize a number of stations. The deal is expected to grow economic ties between the EU and Iran. See also Organization for Collection and Sale of State-owned Properties of Iran (OCSSPI) Economy of Iran International Rankings of Iran in Economy Iranian Economic Reform Plan Labor and tax laws in Iran List of Major Iranian Companies Next Eleven Tehran Stock Exchange Transition economy References External links Privatization Organization of Iran – affiliated with the Ministry of Economy and Finance (With latest info on the companies being privatized, including regulations) List of Companies that have already been approved for privatization (early 2007) Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges – Tehran Stock Exchange statistics, listing requirement, regulations, operations, comparisons and latest news (including IPOs) Iran Industrial Management Company – Top 100 Iranian companies list free online Microsoft translator Press articles Privatization of Public Goods in the Islamic Republic by Kaveh Ehsani Law in Force – Iran Daily Pros and Cons of Privatization – Iran Daily Privatization and Structure of Iran's Transportation System (2000) Privatization of State-Owned Enterprises in Iran: Panacea or Prescription for Disaster By Dr. Ali Mostashari Iran: Inflation, privatization lead intensify working class struggles Economy of Iran Government of Iran	6,147
doc-en-10557_0	Hurling (, ) is an outdoor team game of ancient Gaelic Irish origin, played by men. One of Ireland's native Gaelic games, it shares a number of features with Gaelic football, such as the field and goals, the number of players and much terminology. There is a very similar game for women called camogie (), which shares a common Gaelic root. The objective of the game is for players to use an ash wood stick called a hurley (in Irish a , pronounced or ) to hit a small ball called a between the opponent's goalposts either over the crossbar for one point or under the crossbar into a net guarded by a goalkeeper for three points. The can be caught in the hand and carried for not more than four steps, struck in the air or struck on the ground with the hurley. It can be kicked or slapped with an open hand (the hand pass) for short-range passing. A player who wants to carry the ball for more than four steps has to bounce or balance the on the end of the stick, and the ball can only be handled twice while in the player’s possession. Provided that a player has at least one foot on the ground, he may make a shoulder-to-shoulder charge on an opponent who is in possession of the ball or is playing the ball, or when both players are moving in the direction of the ball. No protective padding is worn by players. A plastic protective helmet with a faceguard is mandatory for all age groups as of 2010. The game has been described as "a bastion of humility", with player names absent from jerseys and a player's number decided by his position on the field. Hurling is administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). It is played throughout the world and is popular among members of the Irish diaspora in North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina and South Korea. In many parts of Ireland, however, hurling is a fixture of life. It has featured regularly in art forms such as film, music and literature. The final of the All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship was listed in second place by CNN in its "10 sporting events you have to see live", after the Olympic Games and ahead of both the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championship. After covering the 1959 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Final between Kilkenny and Waterford for BBC Television, English football commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme was moved to describe hurling as his second favourite sport in the world. Alex Ferguson used footage of an All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship final in an attempt to motivate his players during his time as manager of Premier League football club Manchester United. The players winced at the standard of physicality and intensity in which the hurlers engaged. In 2007, Forbes magazine described the media attention and population multiplication of Thurles town ahead of one of the game's annual provincial hurling finals as being "the rough equivalent of 30 million Americans watching a regional lacrosse game". Financial Times columnist Simon Kuper wrote after Stephen Bennett's performance in the 2020 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Final that hurling was "the best sport ever and if the Irish had colonised the world, nobody would ever have heard of football". UNESCO lists hurling as an element of Intangible cultural heritage. Statistics A team comprises 15 players, or "hurlers" The hurl is generally in length The ball, known as a sliotar, has a cork centre and a leather cover; it is between in diameter, and weighs between The goalkeeper's hurl usually has a bas (the flattened, curved end) twice the size of other players' hurleys to provide some advantage against the fast moving sliotar A good strike with a hurl can propel the ball over in speed and in distance. A ball hit over the bar is worth one point. A ball that is hit under the bar is called a goal and is worth three points. As of 2010, all players must wear helmets. Rules Playing field A hurling pitch is similar in some respects to a rugby pitch but larger. The grass pitch is rectangular, stretching long and wide. There are H-shaped goalposts at each end, formed by two posts, which are usually high, set apart, and connected above the ground by a crossbar. A net extending behind the goal is attached to the crossbar and lower goal posts. The same pitch is used for Gaelic football; the GAA, which organises both sports, decided this to facilitate dual usage. Lines are marked at distances of 14 yards, 21 yards and 65 yards (45 yards for Gaelic football) from each end-line. Shorter pitches and smaller goals are used by youth teams. Teams Teams consist of fifteen players: a goalkeeper, three full backs, three half backs, two midfielders, three half forwards and three full forwards (see diagram). The panel is made up of 24–30 players and five substitutions are allowed per game. An exception can now be made in the case of a blood substitute being necessary. Blood substitutes are a result of one player needing medical treatment for a laceration, usually stitches, and another coming on as a temporary replacement while the injured player is tended to. Helmets From 1 January 2010, the wearing of helmets with faceguards became compulsory for hurlers at all levels. This saw senior players follow the regulations already introduced in 2009 at minor and under 21 grades. The GAA hopes to significantly reduce the number of injuries by introducing the compulsory wearing of helmets with full faceguards, both in training and matches. Hurlers of all ages, including those at nursery clubs when holding a hurley in their hand, must wear a helmet and faceguard at all times. Match officials will be obliged to stop play if any player at any level appears on the field of play without the necessary standard of equipment. Duration, extra time, replays Senior inter-county matches last 70 minutes (35 minutes per half). All other matches last 60 minutes (30 minutes per half). For teams under-13 and lower, games may be shortened to 50 minutes. Timekeeping is at the discretion of the referee who adds on stoppage time at the end of each half. There are various solutions for knockout games that end in a draw, such as a replay, or what the rules refer to as "Winner on the Day" measures such as extra time (20 minutes), further extra time (10 more minutes), or a shoot-out. The application and details of these measures vary according to the importance of the match and the difficulty of scheduling possible replays, and can change from year to year. The general trend is that the GAA have been trying to reduce the need for replays, to ease scheduling. Technical fouls The following are considered technical fouls ("fouling the ball"): Picking the ball directly off the ground (instead it must be flicked up with the hurley) Throwing the ball (instead it must be "hand-passed": slapped with the open hand) Going more than four steps with the ball in the hand (it may be carried indefinitely on the hurley) Catching the ball three times in a row without it touching the ground (touching the hurley does not count) Putting the ball from one hand to the other Hand-passing a goal "Chopping" slashing downwards on another player's hurl Deliberately dropping the Hurley or throwing it away. A 'square ball', entering the opponent's small rectangle prior to the ball entering it To cover or shield the ball by lying down on it. To deliberately throw the ball up and catch it again (the ball must touch a hurl or other body part) Carrying the ball over the opponent's goal line Aggressive fouls Can be deliberate or accidental, oftentimes accompanied by a card. They are as follows: Pulling down an opponent. Using the hurl in an uncontrolled or reckless way. Tripping an opponent up Using threatening and/or abusive language to an opposing player, a teammate or an official Throwing the hurl in a dangerous manner Attempts to strike any player or official with a hurl, elbow, fist, head or kick Spitting at an opponent Any form of racial, sectarian or homophobic abuse Scoring Scoring is achieved by sending the sliotar between the opposition's goal posts. The posts, which are at each end of the field, are H posts as in rugby football but with a net under the crossbar as in football. The posts are 6.4 m apart and the crossbar is 2.44 m above the ground. If the ball goes over the crossbar, a point is scored and a white flag is raised by an umpire. If the ball goes below the crossbar, a goal, worth three points, is scored, and a green flag is raised by an umpire. A goal must be scored by either a striking motion or by directly soloing the ball into the net. The goal is guarded by a goalkeeper. Scores are recorded in the format {goal total} – {point total}. For example, the 1997 All-Ireland final finished: Clare 0–20 Tipperary 2–13. Thus Clare won by one point (2–13 being worth nineteen points). In speech, a score consisting of at least one goal and one point is read as simply the two numbers, so Tipperary's 2–13 is read "two thirteen"; the words "goals" and "points" invariably omitted. Goals are never "converted" into points; it is incorrect to describe a score of 2–13 as "nineteen". 2–0 would be referred to as "two goals", never "two zero". Likewise, 0–10 would be referred to as "ten points", never "zero ten". 0–0 is said "no score". So the Clare/Tipperary match score would be read as "Clare twenty points, Tipperary two thirteen". Tackling Players may be tackled but not struck by a one-handed slash of the stick; exceptions are two-handed jabs and strikes. Jersey-pulling, wrestling, pushing and tripping are all forbidden. There are several forms of acceptable tackling, the most popular being: the "block", where one player attempts to smother an opposing player's strike by trapping the ball between his hurley and the opponent's swinging hurl the "hook", where a player approaches another player from a rear angle and attempts to catch the opponent's hurley with his own at the top of the swing the "side pull", where two players running together for the sliotar will collide at the shoulders and swing together to win the tackle and "pull" (name given to swing the hurley) with extreme force The "shoulder barge" where one player attackes the other player by shoving them with their shoulder contacting the other players shoulder Restarting play The match begins with the referee throwing the sliotar in between the four midfielders on the halfway line After an attacker has scored or put the ball wide of the goals, the goalkeeper may take a "puckout" from the hand at the edge of the small square. All players must be beyond the 20 m line. After a defender has put the ball wide of the goals, an attacker may take a "65" from the 65 m line level with where the ball went wide. It must be taken by lifting and striking. However, the ball must not be taken into the hand but struck whilst the ball is lifted. After a player has put the ball over the sideline, the other team may take a 'sideline cut' at the point where the ball left the pitch. It must be taken from the ground. After a player has committed a foul, the other team may take a 'free' at the point where the foul was committed. It must be taken by lifting and striking in the same style as the "65". After a defender has committed a foul inside the square (large rectangle), the other team may take a "penalty" from the ground from behind the 20 m line. Only the goalkeeper may guard the goals. It must be taken by lifting and striking and the sliotar must be struck on or behind the 20m line (The penalty rule was amended in 2015 due to safety concerns. Before this the ball merely had to start at the 20m line but could be struck beyond it. To balance this advantage the two additional defenders previously allowed on the line have been removed). If many players are struggling for the ball and no side is able to capitalize or gain control of it the referee may choose to throw the ball in between two opposing players. This is also known as a "throw in". Officials A hurling match is watched over by eight officials: The referee (on field) Two linesmen (sideline) Sideline official/standby linesman (inter-county games only) Four umpires (two at each end) Hawkeye Video technology for some scoring situations in Croke Park and Semple Stadium (inter-county games only) The referee is responsible for starting and stopping play, recording the score, awarding frees, noting infractions, and issuing yellow (caution) and red (order off) penalty cards to players after offences. A second yellow card at the same game leads to a red card, and therefore to a dismissal. Linesmen are responsible for indicating the direction of line balls to the referee and also for conferring with the referee. The fourth official is responsible for overseeing substitutions, and also indicating the amount of stoppage time (signalled to him by the referee) and the players substituted using an electronic board. The umpires are responsible for judging the scoring. They indicate to the referee whether a shot was: wide (spread both arms), a 65 m puck (raise one arm), a point (wave white flag), or a goal (wave green flag). Contrary to popular belief within the association, all officials are not obliged to indicate "any misdemeanours" to the referee, but are in fact permitted to inform the referee only of violent conduct they have witnessed which has occurred without the referee's knowledge. A linesman or umpire is not permitted to inform the referee of technical fouls such as a "third time in the hand", where a player catches the ball for a third time in succession after soloing or an illegal pick up of the ball. Such decisions can only be made at the discretion of the referee. Injury risk Blunt injury to the larynx is an infrequent consequence of contact sports despite protective equipment and stringent rules. Hurling, one of the two national sporting games of Ireland, is seen as one of the fastest field sports on earth and only played with a facemask and helmet as protection, making injury an unavoidable feature of the game without further padding. The two most common sites of injury in hurling are the fingers and the hamstrings. Hurling is also considered to have, "...a notable proportion of blunt scrotal trauma." History Hurling is older than the recorded history of Ireland. It is thought to predate Christianity, having come to Ireland with the Celts. The earliest written references to the sport in Brehon law date from the 5th century. Seamus King's book A History of Hurling references oral history going back as far as 1200 BCE of the game being played in Tara, County Meath. Hurling is related to the games of shinty that is played primarily in Scotland, cammag on the Isle of Man and bando which was played formerly in England and Wales. The tale of the Táin Bó Cuailgne (drawing on earlier legends) describes the hero Cúchulainn playing hurling at Emain Macha. Similar tales are told about Fionn Mac Cumhail and the Fianna, his legendary warrior band. Recorded references to hurling appear in many places such as the fourteenth century Statutes of Kilkenny and a fifteenth-century grave slab survives in Inishowen, County Donegal. The eighteenth century is frequently referred to as "The Golden Age of Hurling". This was when members of the Anglo-Irish landed gentry kept teams of players on their estates and challenged each other's teams to matches for the amusement of their tenants. One of the first modern attempts to standardise the game with a formal, written set of rules came with the foundation of the Irish Hurling Union at Trinity College Dublin in 1879. It aimed "to draw up a code of rules for all clubs in the union and to foster that manly and noble game of hurling in this, its native country". The founding of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in 1884 in Hayes Hotel, Thurles, Co Tipperary, ended decline by organising the game around a common set of written rules. In 1888, Tipperary represented by Thurles Blues beat Meelick of Galway to win the first All-Ireland Championship. However, the twentieth century saw Cork, Kilkenny as well as Tipperary dominate hurling with each of these counties winning more than 20 All-Ireland titles each. Wexford, Waterford, Clare, Limerick, Offaly, Antrim, Dublin, and Galway were also strong hurling counties during the twentieth century. As hurling entered the new millennium, it has remained Ireland's second most popular sport. An extended qualifier system resulted in a longer All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. Pay-for-play remains controversial and the Gaelic Players Association continues to grow in strength. The inauguration of the Christy Ring Cup and Nicky Rackard Cup gave new championships and an opportunity to play in Croke Park to the weaker county teams. Further dissemination of the championship structure was completed in 2009 with the addition of the Lory Meagher Cup to make it a four tier championship. Hurling at the Olympic Games Hurling was an unofficial sport at the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States. In the final, Fenian F.C. (Chicago) USA beat Innisfails (St. Louis). This was the only time hurling was in the Olympics. International Although many hurling clubs exist worldwide, only Ireland has a national team (although it includes only players from weaker counties in order to ensure matches are competitive). It and the Scotland shinty team have played for many years with modified match rules (as with International Rules Football). The match is the only such international competition. However, competition at club level has been going on around the world since the late nineteenth century thanks to emigration from Ireland, and the strength of the game has ebbed and flowed along with emigration trends. Nowadays, growth in hurling is noted in Continental Europe, Australia, and North America. Argentina Irish immigrants began arriving in Argentina in the 19th century. The earliest reference to hurling in Argentina dates from the late 1880s in Mercedes, Buenos Aires. However, the game was not actively promoted until 1900, when it came to the attention of author and newspaperman William Bulfin. Under Bulfin's patronage, the Argentine Hurling Club was formed on 15 July 1900, leading to teams being established in different neighborhoods of Buenos Aires and the surrounding farming communities. Games of hurling were played every weekend until 1914 and received frequent coverage from Argentina's Spanish language newspapers, such as La Nación. After the outbreak of World War I, it became almost impossible to obtain hurleys from Ireland. An attempt was made to use native Argentine mountain ash, but it proved too heavy and lacking in pliability. Although the game was revived after the end of the war, the golden age of Argentine hurling had passed. World War II finally brought the era to its close. In the aftermath of the Second World War, immigration from Ireland slowed to a trickle. In addition, native born Irish-Argentines assimilated into the local community. The last time that hurling was played in Argentina was in 1980, when the Aer Lingus Hurling Club conducted a three-week tour of the country and played matches at several locations. Since 2009, with the realization of several Summers Camps and the visit of the All Stars in December, hurling returned to be a frequent activity at the Hurling Club, where many boys and young men have since been trained and taught to play. Even the Hurling Club are invited to participate Hurling Festival is organized within The Gathering events organized by Aer Lingus. This team will be present in September 2013 in the city of Galway. The team consists of 21 players from Hockey and Rugby teams. Many have contributed to the return of hurling as an activity in the club. As an example we can name Alejandro Yoyo Wade, Johnny Wade, Barbie, Cecilia and Irene Scally, David Ganly, Dickie Mac Allister, Eduardo Cabrera Punter, Hernan Magrini Scally. Several Irish have participated in many opportunities to work with the skills and education: Jonathan Lynch, Kevin O'Connors and Michael Connery, who currently works with the team's training to participate in the Aer Lingus International Hurling Festival. Australia The earliest reference to hurling in Australia is related in the book "Sketches of Garryowen." On 12 July 1844, a match took place at Batman's Hill in Melbourne as a counterpoint to a march by the Orange Order. Reportedly, the hurling match attracted a crowd of five hundred Irish immigrants, while the Orange march shivered out of existence. Several hurling clubs existed in Victoria in the 1870s including Melbourne, Collingwood, Upper Yarra, Richmond and Geelong. In 1885, a game between two Sydney based teams took place before a crowd of over ten thousand spectators. Reportedly, the contest was greatly enjoyed despite the fact that one newspaper dubbed the game "Two Degrees Safer Than War." Arden Street Oval in North Melbourne was used by Irish immigrants during the 1920s. The game in Australasia is administered by Australasia GAA. Great Britain Hurling was brought to Great Britain in the 19th century. The game is administered by British GAA. Warwickshire and Lancashire compete at inter-county level in the Lory Meagher Cup, competing against other counties in Ireland. London is the only non-Irish team to have won the All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship (having captured the title in 1901), and after winning the 2012 Christy Ring Cup gained the right to contest the Liam MacCarthy Cup in 2013. The first ever hurling game played in the Scottish Highlands was played at Easter 2012 between CLG Micheal Breathnach and Fir Uladh, an Ulster select of Gaeiligoiri, as part of the Iomain Cholmcille festival, na Breathnaich coming out victorious. Wales has its own club, St. Colmilles in Cardiff. South Africa Soldiers who served in the Irish Brigade during the Anglo-Boer War are believed to have played the game on the veldt. Immigrants from County Wicklow who had arrived to work in the explosives factory in Umbogintwini, KwaZulu-Natal formed a team c. 1915–16. A major burst of immigration in the 1920s led to the foundation of the Transvaal Hurling Association in Johannesburg in 1928. Games were traditionally played in a pitch on the site of the modern day Johannesburg Central Railway Station every Easter Sunday after Mass. In 1932, a South African hurling team sailed to Ireland to compete in the Tailteann Games, where they carried a banner donated by a convent of Irish nuns in Cape Town. On their arrival, they were personally received by the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) at the time, Éamon de Valera. South African hurling continued to prosper until the outbreak of the Second World War, which caused immigration from Ireland to cease and made it impossible to import equipment. Games of hurling and Gaelic football were occasionally sponsored by the Christian Brothers schools in Boksburg and Pretoria well into the 1950s. Both games have all but ceased to be played. North America References to hurling on the North American continent date from the 1780s in modern-day Canada concerning immigrants from County Waterford and County Kilkenny, and also, in New York City. After the end of the American Revolution, references to hurling cease in American newspapers until the aftermath of the Great Famine when Irish people moved to America in huge numbers, bringing the game with them. Newspaper reports from the 1850s refer to occasional matches played in San Francisco, Hoboken and New York City. The first game of hurling played under GAA rules outside Ireland was played on Boston Common in June 1886. In 1888, there was an American tour by fifty Gaelic athletes from Ireland, known as the 'American Invasion'. This created enough interest among Irish Americans to lay the groundwork for the North American GAA. By the end of 1889, almost a dozen GAA clubs existed in America, many of them in and around New York City, Philadelphia and Chicago. Later, clubs were formed in Boston, Cleveland, and many other centers of Irish America. Concord, New Hampshire has its state's only hurling team, New Hampshire Wolves, sponsored by Litherman's Limited Craft Brewery. In 1910, twenty-two hurlers, composed of an equal number from Chicago and New York, conducted a tour of Ireland, where they played against the County teams from Kilkenny, Tipperary, Limerick, Dublin and Wexford.Traditionally, hurling was a game played by Irish immigrants and discarded by their children. Many American hurling teams took to raising money to import players directly from Ireland. In recent years, this has changed considerably with the advent of the Internet and increased travel. The Barley House Wolves hurling team from New Hampshire was formed when U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq saw a hurling game on the television in Shannon Airport as their plane refuelled. Outside of the traditional North American GAA cities of New York, Boston, Chicago and San Francisco, clubs are springing up in other places where they consist of predominantly American-born players who bring a new dimension to the game and actively seek to promote it as a mainstream sport, especially Joe Maher, a leading expert at the sport in Boston. Currently, the Milwaukee Hurling Club, with 300 members, is the largest Hurling club in the world outside Ireland, which is made of all Americans and very few Irish immigrants. The St. Louis Gaelic Athletic Club was established in 2002 and has expanded its organization to an eight team hurling league in the spring and six team Gaelic football league in the fall. They also have a 30-member camogie league. Saint Louis has won two National Championships in Jr C Hurling (2004 and 2011), as well as two National Championships in Jr D Gaelic Football (2005, and 2013). The Indianapolis Hurling Club began in 2002, then reformed in 2005. In 2008, the Indy Hurling Club won the Junior C National Championship. In 2011, Indy had 7 club teams and sent a Junior B, Junior C and Camogie team to nationals. Hurling continues to grow in popularity with teams now in Charleston, SC, Orlando, FL, Tampa, FL, Augusta, GA, Greenville, SC, Indianapolis, IN, Worcester, MA, Corvallis, OR, Akron, OH, Akron, OH, Raleigh, NC, Concord, NH, Portland, Maine, Providence, RI, Twin Cities, MN, Madison, WI, Milwaukee, WI, Washington, DC, Hampton Roads, VA, Rochester NY, Nashville, TN, Richmond, VA, Hartford, CT, and Seattle, WA. The GAA have also begun to invest in American college students with university teams springing up at University of Connecticut, Stanford University, UC Berkeley, Purdue University, Indiana University, University of Montana and other schools. On 31 January 2009, the first ever US collegiate hurling match was held between UC Berkeley and Stanford University, organized by the newly formed California Collegiate Gaelic Athletic Association. UC Berkeley won the challenge match by one point, while Stanford won the next two CCGAA matches to win the first collegiate cup competition in the U.S. On Memorial Day Weekend of 2011, the first ever National Collegiate GAA championship was played. The Indiana University Hurling Club won all matches of the tournament, and won by four points in the championship final to be crowned the first ever U.S. National Collegiate Champions. Major hurling competitions All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Connacht Senior Hurling Championship Leinster Senior Hurling Championship Munster Senior Hurling Championship Ulster Senior Hurling Championship National Hurling League Christy Ring Cup Nicky Rackard Cup All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship Leinster Under-21 Hurling Championship All-Ireland Minor Hurling Championship Poc Fada Féile na nGael Composite rules shinty–hurling (usually internationals between Scotland and Ireland) References Further reading External links Hurling at the GAA website Gaelic games Hurlers Sports originating in Ireland Team sports	6,361
doc-en-10575_0	Traci Lords (born Nora Louise Kuzma; May 7, 1968) is an American actress, singer, and former pornographic actress. Lords entered into the adult film industry by using a fake birth certificate to conceal that she was two years under the legal age of eighteen. Lords starred in adult films and was one of the most sought-after actresses in the adult entertainment industry during her career. When the FBI acted on an anonymous tip that Lords was a minor during her time in the industry, and that pornographers were distributing and selling these illegal images and videotapes, the resulting fallout led to prosecution of those responsible for creating and distributing the tapes. In addition, all but the last of her adult films were banned as child pornography. After leaving the pornography industry two days after turning the legal age of eighteen, Lords enrolled at the Lee Strasberg Theater Institute, where she studied method acting with the intention of becoming a mainstream actress. She made her mainstream screen debut at age nineteen in a leading role in the 1988 remake of the 1957 Roger Corman science fiction film Not of This Earth. Lords followed with the role of Wanda Woodward in John Waters' teen comedy, Cry-Baby (1990). Her other acting credits included the television series MacGyver, Married... with Children, Tales from the Crypt, Roseanne, Melrose Place, Profiler, First Wave, Highlander: The Series, Gilmore Girls and Will & Grace. She also appeared in films such as Skinner (1993), Virtuosity (1995), Blade (1998), Zack and Miri Make a Porno (2008) and Excision (2012), which earned her a Fangoria Chainsaw Award for Best Supporting Actress as well as a Fright Meter Award and a CinEuphoria Award. Lords also pursued music in addition to her film career. After her song "Love Never Dies" was featured on the soundtrack to the film Pet Sematary Two (1992), she was signed to Radioactive Records and subsequently released her debut studio album, 1000 Fires (1995) to generally positive reviews. Despite the poor sales of the album, the lead single "Control" had moderate commercial success. It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart and was included on the soundtrack to the film Mortal Kombat (1995), which was eventually certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In 2003, Lords published her autobiography, Traci Lords: Underneath It All, which received positive reviews from critics and debuted at number 31 on The New York Times Best Seller list. She is currently starring in the comedy series Swedish Dicks on Pop. Life and career 1968–1983: Early life Lords was born Nora Louise Kuzma on May 7, 1968, in Steubenville, Ohio, to Louis and Patricia Kuzma. Her father's parents were of Ukrainian descent, while her mother was of Irish ancestry. Louis was employed as a steelworker. Kuzma has one elder sister, Lorraine, and two younger sisters, Rachel and Grace. Her parents divorced when she was seven years old and Kuzma moved with her mother and three sisters to her great-grandmother's house. Following their divorce, her alcoholic, abusive father got partial custody. Around that same time, her mother enrolled at Ohio University and became employed part-time. When Kuzma was 12, she moved with her mother, her mother's new boyfriend, and sisters to Redondo Beach, California. She did not see her father for many years after. In September 1982, she began attending Redondo Union High School but dropped out at age 15 to enter the porn industry. During her early school years, Kuzma developed a rebellious attitude. She was angry at her mother and found a father figure in her mother's boyfriend. Roger Hayes, as she calls him in her autobiography, was a drug abuser and molested Kuzma in her sleep. After her mother broke up with Hayes due to his drug use, she began dating his friend. Kuzma refused to follow them to a new place and was left with her older sister Lorraine. Her mother and two younger sisters eventually found a new apartment. 1984–1986: Pornography career At age 15, Kuzma became pregnant by her high school boyfriend. Afraid of her mother's reaction, she went to Hayes for help. He arranged for her to have an abortion without her mother's knowledge. Looking for a job to get some money, she was introduced to his friend and started working for her as a babysitter. The woman offered to improve Kuzma's job opportunities by helping her get a fake driver's license. She provided Kuzma with a new birth certificate on condition that if she were ever caught she would say that she had stolen the phony identification. Kuzma now had the alias Kristie Elizabeth Nussman and a new driver's license that stated she was 20 rather than 15 years old. In February 1984, she answered a newspaper advertisement for Jim South's World Modeling Talent Agency. Posing as her stepfather, Hayes drove her to the agency. After signing a contract, she began working as a nude model and appeared in magazines such as Velvet, Juggs, and Club. During August, when she was selected to model for Penthouse magazine's September 1984 15th-anniversary issue, Kuzma was asked to choose a stage name. According to a 1988 interview, she chose Traci—one of the popular names she had longed for growing up—and Lords, after the actor Jack Lord, since she was a fan of the television series Hawaii Five-O, in which he portrayed the character of Steve McGarrett. Lords made the first of many porn movies in 1984, when she appeared in What Gets Me Hot! alongside Tom Byron, who later became her boyfriend offscreen. She first appeared only in a non-sex role but was later replaced with a hardcore scene. In her next movie, Those Young Girls, she appeared in a sex role alongside Harry Reems and Ginger Lynn. After appearing after turning 16 with John Leslie (an actor 23 years her senior) in the porno parody Talk Dirty to Me Part III (which won the AVN Award for the best movie), Lords was hailed as the "Princess of Porn". She became one of the highest-paid porn actresses of that time, earning more than $1,000 a day. Besides her work in porn, she also appeared in the music video for "Gimme Gimme Good Lovin'" by the heavy metal band Helix. Lords continued making more movies until late 1984 when she tried to quit the industry at age 16, but returned a few months later. Afterwards, just before her 17th birthday she met Stuart Dell, who became her boyfriend, manager, and business partner - Dell used two pseudonyms: Steven Cartier and Stephen Cartier. Together they formed the Traci Lords Company. Dell and Lords made a distribution deal with Sy Adler, an industry veteran who ran Vantage International, that they would produce three movies for the company. During March 1986, the first TLC feature which was shot in Tokyo around Christmas Day 1985, titled Traci Takes Tokyo, was released. The second, Beverly Hills Copulator, was released afterwards, but the third movie, Screamer, was shelved. During late May 1986 (around three weeks after Lords' 18th birthday), authorities were informed that she had been underage when she appeared in the porn movies. She had lied (according to Lords, it was a "white lie") to law enforcement, photographers, producers, directors, co-workers, and the general public for two years. The owners of her movie agency and X-Citement Video, Inc. were arrested (see United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc.). She was taken into protective custody and hired high-profile lawyer Leslie Abramson. On July 10, district attorney's investigators searched Lords' Redondo Beach home as well as the Sun Valley offices of Vantage International Productions (a major producer of adult movies) and the Sherman Oaks offices of modeling agent Jim South. South and other industry officials said that Lords, who was seeking employment, provided a California driver's license, a U.S. passport, and a birth certificate, which stated that her name was Kristie Nussman and gave a birth date of November 17, 1962. Leslie Jay, a spokeswoman for Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione, also said Lords showed identification indicating that she was older than 18 before the illicit photos for the September 1984 issue were taken. When investigators used Lords' fake birth certificate and fake state identification cards to locate the real Kristie Nussman, Nussman said that her birth certificate had been stolen a few years earlier and that an impostor had apparently forged her name on official forms. Two adults who knew Lords, but who requested anonymity, said they saw her picture in the adult magazine Velvet during July 1984 and telephoned the district attorney's office to inform authorities that she was underage, but that an investigator told them, "There isn't anything we can do about it." On July 17, 1986, video rental shops and adult movie theaters in the US scrambled to withdraw from their shelves all hardcore material featuring Lords in order to avoid prosecution for distributing child pornography. John Weston, attorney of the Adult Film Association of America, said distributors should withdraw any movie made before May 1986, featuring Lords "in sexual conduct, no matter how briefly." The withdrawal of Lords' movies from the market cost the industry millions of dollars. Government prosecutors declared that Lords was a victim of a manipulative industry, maintaining that she was drugged and made to do non-consensual acts. Industry insiders, including Ron Jeremy, Tom Byron, Peter North, and Ginger Lynn said they never saw her use drugs and that she was always fully aware of her actions. While most of her movies were permanently removed from distribution in the United States, several were re-edited to remove Lords' scenes entirely (such as Kinky Business and New Wave Hookers), or in a few cases, had new footage filmed with a different actress playing her part (as in Talk Dirty to Me Part III). The only movie legally available in the United States was Traci, I Love You, filmed in Cannes, France only two days after her 18th birthday. 1987–1991: Transition to mainstream, Not of This Earth and Cry-Baby After spending several months in therapy, Lords decided to concentrate on acting. She enrolled at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute, where she studied method acting for three months. After leaving the school, Lords placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter looking for representation. She was contacted by Fred Westheimer and although the agency declined to officially represent her, he decided to send her out on a few auditions. As a result, she was offered a guest role in an episode of the television series Wiseguy. Shortly afterwards, she met the director Jim Wynorski, who was directing the remake of Roger Corman's 1957 sci-fi classic Not of This Earth. He immediately cast Lords into the lead role of Nadine Story, and Not of This Earth (1988) became her first mainstream film debut since her departure from the adult film industry. Although the film failed at the box office, it did well in video sales. Based on that success, Lords was offered to appear in Wynorski's next film, The Haunting of Morella (1989). However, Lords turned down the offer due to the requirement of having a nude scene, since she was trying to establish herself as a serious actress. She also signed with a modeling agency under her birth name Nora Kuzma and appeared on two covers of Joe Weider's magazine Muscle & Fitness. Around that time, Lords became a spokesperson for Children of the Night, an organization for runaways and abused children, and was planning to release a book titled Out of the Blue: The Traci Lords Story. In November 1988, Lords enrolled in another acting class and again began looking for an agent. In December, she mass-mailed her resumé to various agents and arranged a meeting with Don Gerler. Lords auditioned for the part of Breathless Mahoney in the film Dick Tracy (1990), but the role went to Madonna. In March 1989, John Waters auditioned her for his teenage comedy musical Cry-Baby (1990); Waters had referred to Lords as a "sexual terrorist". She won the role and appeared in the film alongside Johnny Depp and Ricki Lake. The film was a critical and commercial success, and her portrayal of the rebellious teenager Wanda Woodward established her as a legitimate actress. On the set of the film, she met the property master Brook Yeaton, whom she began dating. The couple married in September 1990 in Baltimore, Maryland. In June 1990, the exercise video Warm up with Traci Lords was released. Directed and produced by her former boyfriend and business partner Stewart Dell, the video had been filmed in early 1988. As Lords wrote in her autobiography, she was unsatisfied with the final version of the video. An extended version was reissued in 1993 under the title Traci Lords: Advanced Jazzthetics. In 1991, Lords starred in the thriller Raw Nerve and the action crime film A Time to Die. Lords appeared in such popular TV shows as Roseanne, Married... with Children, MacGyver and Hercules. She continued modeling and walked the runway for fashion designers such as Janet Howard and Thierry Mugler. 1992–1996: Breakthrough, 1000 Fires and Melrose Place During 1992, Lords decided to emphasize her career as a recording artist. She first got signed to a development deal with Capitol Records. After meeting with Rodney Bingenheimer at a birthday party, she was recommended to Jeff Jacklin, who hired her to record the song "Love Never Dies" for the movie Pet Sematary Two (1992). The producer of the soundtrack, Gary Kurfirst, signed Lords to his company Radioactive Records. She was later featured on the songs "Little Baby Nothing" by Manic Street Preachers and "Somebody to Love" by Ramones. During 1993, Lords was cast in the television adaptation of Stephen King's novel The Tommyknockers. During the spring of 1994, Lords began working on her debut album. The company arranged her to fly to London and meet with producer Tom Bailey. After finishing her recording with Bailey, Lords was introduced to producer Ben Watkins of Juno Reactor with whom she recorded more techno-influenced songs. She later met Mike Edwards, the main singer of the band Jesus Jones. Around the same time, Lords was cast in the television series Roseanne, appearing in three episodes. During January 1995, Lords appeared in four episodes of the television series Melrose Place, where she played the part of Rikki Abbott. Her debut studio album, 1000 Fires, was released on February 28, 1995. It received generally positive reviews and the lead single "Control" peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs. An instrumental version of "Control" was remixed and released on the soundtrack to Mortal Kombat (1995), which was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album's second single, "Fallen Angel", was also successful in charts, peaking at number eleven on Hot Dance Club Songs. The Paul Oakenfold remix of the song was included on the soundtrack of the movie Virtuosity (1995), in which Lords had a cameo appearance. After the release of the album, Lords embarked on a small tour performing as a DJ, mostly in Miami nightclubs. On August 12, 1995, she was the opening act of the Lollapalooza after-party, Enit Festival, alongside Moby, Sven Väth, DJ Keoki and Single Cell Orchestra. By the end of 1995, Lords divorced her husband of five years, Brook Yeaton. In 1996, she appeared in a commercial for GUESS with Juliette Lewis. 1997–2002: Profiler, Blade and First Wave In 1997, Lords appeared in a small part in the Gregg Araki film Nowhere, and starred in the drama thriller Stir. She also guest starred on television series Nash Bridges and Viper. In November, she became a recurring cast member in the second season of the crime television series Profiler. She played a felon, Sharon Lesher, who is manipulated by a serial killer Jack-of-All-Trades and eventually becomes his partner in crime Jill-of-All-Trades. In 1998, Lords had a supporting role in the crime thriller Boogie Boy and starred in the drama Extramarital. She also appeared in the action horror film Blade (1998) in which she played the vampire seductress Racquel. Lords was eventually approached to appear in the sequel Blade II (2002) portraying Racquel's twin sister Valerine in seeking of vengeance upon Blade. However, she turned down the offer because of her contradictory schedule. At the premiere of the film, Lords announced she was finishing her sophomore album on Radioactive Records that would be released in the spring of 1999. However, it was later neglected after she left the record label. In August, Lords ended her two-year relationship with John Enos after they reportedly got into an argument because her cat was killed by one of Enos' dogs. In 2000, Lords had lead roles in the films Epicenter and Chump Change. Her role of Sam in the romantic comedy Chump Change earned her the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Actress at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival. In September, she became a regular cast member in the third season of the Sci-fi Channel television series First Wave, becoming the first recurring female character to be featured on the series. She played Jordan Radcliffe, an heiress and leader of the Human Resistance Group "The Raven Nation" after the aliens used her brother to murder her parents. 2003–2006: Underneath It All Her autobiography, Traci Lords: Underneath It All, was published during July 2003 by HarperCollins. In the book, Lords chronicled her childhood, career, and two-year stint in the x-rated industry. The book received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success, making The New York Times Best Seller list. It was criticized by pornographers, who claim they were the victims. In the book, Lords revealed that she received about $35,000 as total compensation for all her porno movies, including the $5,000 for her underage appearance in Penthouse. Lords continued to use the now-famous stage name that she had given herself as a minor and ultimately made it her legal name. She explained, "I chose to stop running from it. Instead, I won it, legally changing my name to Traci Elizabeth Lords. That's who I was, and that's who I was going to be." In her interview with Oprah Winfrey she stated: "I found you can run, but you cannot hide." During 2003, it was announced that Lords was working on new music and had recorded a cover version of Missing Persons' song "Walking In L.A.". Directed by Mike Ruiz, the music video was premiered during her interview on The Oprah Winfrey Show. On December 28, 2004, she independently released two songs, "Sunshine" and "You Burn Inside of Me", via online music store CD Baby. Both of the songs along with "What Cha Gonna Do" was featured in the television series Joan of Arcadia. "You Burn Inside of Me" was also used in the commercial for Duprey Cosmetics, in which Lords appeared. She signed to Sea To Sun records the following year, and released the chart-topping single "Last Drag". Lords is currently recording new music in Los Angeles. 2007–2009: Motherhood and Zack and Miri Make a Porno By the beginning of 2007, Lords became unexpectedly pregnant. She first announced her pregnancy in June: "I kind of thought the children thing was off the table. Now I'm expecting a boy! We're stunned and thrilled. I just want you to know, these 36-Ds are mine. I haven't had a boob job, she laughed! I am 5 months pregnant! But now I'm starting to show. And my husband is happy with the changes in my figure." On October 7, 2007, at the age of 39, she gave birth to a son, Gunnar Lords Lee, her first child with her husband of five years, Jeff Lee. In January 2008, it was announced that Lords had been cast in Kevin Smith's comedy Zack and Miri Make a Porno (2008). She said that at first she wanted to refuse but changed her mind after reading the script. "It was really great that in taking the movie because I didn't plan on going back to work right away, but I was dying to work with Kevin. I never thought it would be on something called Zack and Miri Make a Porno. What? So I went and I read the script at his house and I was prepared to say no. I thought I have the perfect out. I just had a kid. No one is going to blame me if I say I just can't do this right now. But it made me laugh out loud and it made me just literally cry. It was just funny." Initially, the character had a topless scene in the movie, but Lords refused. I'm done with all that, she said. Lords chose to breastfeed her son in between takes instead. Katie Morgan, a pornographic actress, also appeared in the film. In 2009, Lords appeared in the direct-to-DVD science fiction movie, Princess of Mars, alongside Antonio Sabàto Jr. She was disappointed by the final project. "Somewhere in my heart of hearts, I was worried that it might be a crummy movie. The production was just too careless. But I believed the voices of those around me who said 'No, it'll be artistic, no, it'll be creative. You'll look beautiful. We have a very limited budget but honest, you'll be proud.' They were wrong, it was very bad. At least that was what I was told. After watching the first two minutes I had to turn it off and hide under the covers." 2010–2014: Return to music and Excision In March 2010, Lords announced she began working on her new album with "Pretty" being the lead single. However, the project was later shelved and "Pretty" was released as a promotional single only. Lords starred in the drama comedy Au Pair, Kansas which premiered in April 2011 at the Kansas City FilmFest. In July, Lords officially signed to independent record label Sea To Sun Recordings and in October made her musical comeback with the song "Last Drag". The single was successful in dance charts debuting at number forty-five and eventually peaking at number four on the Billboard Dance Club Songs. Lords starred alongside AnnaLynne McCord and Ariel Winter in the horror film Excision (2012), which premiered in January 2012 at the Sundance Film Festival. Her portrayal of the controlling mother Phyllis earned Lords Fangoria Chainsaw Award for Best Supporting Actress as well as Fright Meter Award and CinEuphoria Award. In September, Lords released a compilation of dance music Traci Lords Presents: M2F2 (2012). It featured three of her own remixed tracks as well as songs by other artists. The song "He's My Bitch" managed to chart on the Billboard Dance Club Songs peaking at number twenty-five. Lords also voiced the character of Layla Stockton in the 2012 video game Hitman: Absolution. Following the Steubenville High School rape case, Lords spoke up on the topic and subsequently released the song "Stupidville" as a response to the case. "I was born in Steubenville, Ohio and I was raped in there. So was my mother. I think there's a sickness in that city," Lords said. In 2013, Lords appeared in the horror movie Devil May Call (2013) and an episode of the web series EastSiders. She was nominated for the Best Guest Star – Drama at the 2014 Indie Series Awards. 2015–present: Fashion career and upcoming directorial debut In May 2015, Lords appeared in an episode of the fourth season of the reality television series Celebrity Wife Swap, where she swapped lives with Jackée Harry. Lords co-starred in Jim Wynorski's television horror Sharkansas Women's Prison Massacre (2015) and made her second appearance as Val on the series EastSiders. In March 2016, Lords co-starred in the television thriller Nightmare Nurse (2016) in which she played a psychopathic nurse looking for revenge for her dead husband. Lords voiced several characters in the action-adventure video game Hitman (2016) after having had previously voiced the character of Layla Stockton in Hitman: Absolution (2012). In June, Lords announced her collaboration with Pinup Girl Clothing. The first pieces from her collection were inspired by the character of Wanda Woodward from Cry-Baby (1990) as well as 1950s fashion; the clothing line is available exclusively through the Pinup Girl Clothing website. She commented on her inspiration behind the line: "John [Waters] wrote such strong characters in Cry-Baby. And in that rockabilly, punk rock, vintage pin-up girl kind of world, Wanda Woodward is pretty much a queen." In 2016, Lords co-starred in the Viaplay original comedy series Swedish Dicks. She played Jane McKinney, a private investigator and competitor of the show's protagonist. In October, the series was renewed for a second season with Lords as a confirmed cast member. In the United States, the first season premiered in August 2017. Later that month, Lords confirmed she would direct her first feature film called The Unquiet Grave. Filming was scheduled to commence in 2017. In November, it was announced that Lords voiced the character of Jackal Z in the upcoming video game Let It Die (2016), and will appear on the third season of EastSiders. In July 2017, Helmut Lang's fashion campaign for the Fall 2017 collection featuring Lords was unveiled. In May 2018, Lords released the single "Come Alive" as a gift for her fans in celebration of her 50th birthday. Following the release it was announced that she began working on an EP with Adam Barta and Jordan Von Haslow. In July 2018, the second season of Swedish Dicks premiered in the United States. As of 2020, Lords continues to act, and has had a number of films released over the last couple of years. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the release date for her 2020 film Nicole, her Ex & the Killer is still in limbo. Activism Lords has publicly stated her support of the LGBT community. She has also done work to encourage runaways and homeless teens get off the streets such as her promos for Children of the Night. Filmography Discography 1000 Fires (1995) Bibliography Traci Lords: Underneath It All (2003) See also Golden Age of Porn References Footnotes Sources Nicolas Barbano: Verdens 25 hotteste pornostjerner (Rosinante, Denmark 1999) Steve Rag (= Tim Greaves): Norma K. nr. 1-2 and Nora K. nr. 3-6 (England 1990–1992): Traci Lords-fanzine Steve Rag (= Tim Greaves): The Nora K. Kompendium (Media Publications, England 1996): The best from Norma K./Nora K. Brad Linaweaver (pub): Traci Lords – Incomparable (Mondo Cult, 2009) Suzanne Somers (ed): Wednesday's Children: Adult Survivors of Abuse Speak Out (Putnam Adult, 1992) Frank C. Naylor El cine X underground. Llevándolo al límite, 2009 Ed.: Lulu External links 1968 births 20th-century American actresses 20th-century American singers 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American singers 21st-century American writers 21st-century American women writers Actors from Redondo Beach, California Actresses from Ohio Age controversies American child actresses American female adult models American pornographic film actresses American film actresses American film producers American people of Irish descent American people of Ukrainian descent American television actresses American video game actresses American voice actresses Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni LGBT rights activists from the United States Living people Penthouse Pets People from Steubenville, Ohio Pornographic film actors from Ohio Writers from Ohio American women film producers 20th-century American women singers 21st-century American women singers	6,147
doc-en-10600_0	The Portuguese local election of 2005 took place on 9 October 2005. The election consisted of three separate elections in the 308 Portuguese municipalities, the election for the Municipal Chambers, whose winner is elected mayor, another election for the Municipal Assembly and a last one for the lower-level Parish Assembly, whose winner is elected parish president. This last was held separately in the more than 4,000 parishes around the country. The Socialist Party may be considered the major defeated party of this election due to a slight loss of mandates. The Socialists did, however, achieve a better percentage of the vote in relation to the election of 2001. On the right, the Social Democratic Party stole some municipalities from the Socialists, some of them in coalition with the People's Party that was reduced to only one municipality in stand-alone candidacies, Ponte de Lima, continuing its decline in comparison, for example, with the 36 mayors achieved in 1976. On the left, the Unitarian Democratic Coalition, led by the Communist Party, regained some of its former influence, taking 4 municipalities and several parishes from the Socialists in the districts of Beja, Évora and Setúbal and Leiria achieving a total of 32 mayors, and winning, for the first time, the election in Peniche. The Leftwing Bloc kept the presidency of its single municipality, Salvaterra de Magos. The election was also remarkable for the several victories of independent candidates, most of them former Socialist, Social Democratic and People's Party candidates who were expelled or given no confidence by their respective parties and, even so, became mayors. The best known were Valentim Loureiro in Gondomar, Fátima Felgueiras in Felgueiras and Isaltino Morais in Oeiras. Parties The main political forces involved in the election were: Left Bloc (BE) People's Party (CDS–PP) Democratic Unity Coalition (CDU) Socialist Party (PS) Social Democratic Party (PSD) Results Municipal Councils National summary of votes and seats \|- ! rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left\|Parties ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Votes ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|% ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|±pp swing ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Candidacies ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Councillors ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Mayors \|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Total ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|± ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Total ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|± \|- \| \|1,933,041\|\|35.87\|\|1.8\|\|307\|\|853\|\|24\|\|109\|\|4 \|- \| \|1,523,526\|\|28.27\|\|0.1\|\|245\|\|742\|\|32\|\|138\|\|4 \|- \| \|589,384\|\|10.94\|\|0.3\|\|301\|\|203\|\|4\|\|32\|\|4 \|- \|style="width: 10px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|Social Democratic / People's \|462,199\|\|8.58\|\|0.4\|\|42\|\|131\|\|17\|\|18\|\|3 \|- \| \|165,192\|\|3.07\|\|0.6\|\|185\|\|30\|\|9\|\|1\|\|2 \|- \| \|158,953\|\|2.95\|\|1.8\|\|111\|\|7\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=gray align="center" \| \|align=left\|Independents \|133,380\|\|2.47\|\|0.9\|\|27\|\|45\|\|14\|\|7\|\|4 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM \|91,455\|\|1.70\|\|0.4\|\|12\|\|20\|\|10\|\|1\|\|0 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM / MPT \|71,153\|\|1.32\|\|—\|\|3\|\|11\|\|—\|\|1\|\|— \|- \| \|15,421\|\|0.29\|\|0.0\|\|19\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0 \|- \| \|5,096\|\|0.09\|\|0.0\|\|13\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0 \|- \| \|2,045\|\|0.04\|\|—\|\|4\|\|0\|\|—\|\|0\|\|— \|- \| \|1,759\|\|0.03\|\|0.0\|\|5\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / MPT \|1,670\|\|0.03\|\|—\|\|1\|\|2\|\|—\|\|0\|\|— \|- \| \|1,582\|\|0.03\|\|0.2\|\|4\|\|0\|\|4\|\|0\|\|1 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / PPM \|707\|\|0.01\|\|2.5\|\|1\|\|0\|\|8\|\|0\|\|1 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#1F468B align="center" \| \|align=left\|PND / PPM \|439\|\|0.01\|\|—\|\|1\|\|0\|\|—\|\|0\|\|— \|- \|style="width: 10px" bgcolor=#000080 align="center" \| \|align=left\|National Solidarity \|244\|\|0.00\|\|—\|\|1\|\|0\|\|—\|\|0\|\|— \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#0093DD align="center" \| \|align=left\|People's / Social Democratic \|109\|\|0.00\|\|0.2\|\|1\|\|0\|\|6\|\|0\|\|0 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#0093DD align="center" \| \|align=left\|CDS–PP / PSD / PPM \|11\|\|0.00\|\|—\|\|1\|\|0\|\|—\|\|0\|\|— \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total valid \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,159,104 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|95.73 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|0.6 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|— \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|2,046 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|2 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|308 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|0 \|- \|colspan=2\|Blank ballots \|139,012\|\|2.58\|\|0.4\|\|colspan=6 rowspan=4\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Invalid ballots \|90,919\|\|1.69\|\|0.2 \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,389,035 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|100.00 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Registered voters/turnout \|\|8,843,875\|\|60.94\|\|0.8 \|} City control The following table lists party control in all district capitals, as well as in municipalities above 100,000 inhabitants. Population estimates from the 2001 Census. Municipal Assemblies National summary of votes and seats \|- ! rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left\|Parties ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Votes ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|% ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|±pp swing ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Candidacies ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Mandates \|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Total ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|± \|- \| \|align=right\| 1,923,468 \|align=right\|35.68 \|align=right\|1.7 \|align=right\|307 \|align=right\|2,794 \|align=right\|73 \|- \| \|align=right\|1,454,256 \|align=right\|26.98 \|align=right\|0.2 \|align=right\| 245 \|align=right\|2,416 \|align=right\|52 \|- \| \|align=right\|628,881 \|align=right\|11.67 \|align=right\|0.6 \|align=right\|301 \|align=right\|722 \|align=right\|13 \|- \|style="width: 10px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|Social Democratic / People's \|align=right\|454,972 \|align=right\|8.44 \|align=right\|0.9 \|align=right\|41 \|align=right\|407 \|align=right\|20 \|- \| \|align=right\|212,652 \|align=right\|3.95 \|align=right\|2.4 \|align=right\|115 \|align=right\|114 \|align=right\|86 \|- \| \|align=right\|175,927 \|align=right\|3.26 \|align=right\|1.0 \|align=right\|162 \|align=right\|190 \|align=right\|63 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=gray align="center" \| \|align=left\|Independents \|align=right\| 115,999 \|align=right\| 2.15 \|align=right\|1.0 \|align=right\| 25 \|align=right\| 121 \|align=right\|28 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM \|align=right\| 90,670 \|align=right\| 1.68 \|align=right\|0.5 \|align=right\|13 \|align=right\| 73 \|align=right\|33 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM / MPT \|align=right\|66,190 \|align=right\|1.23 \|align=right\|— \|align=right\|3 \|align=right\|27 \|align=right\|— \|- \| \|align=right\| 8,620 \|align=right\|0.16 \|align=right\|0.0 \|align=right\|9 \|align=right\|1 \|align=right\|0 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#0093DD align="center" \| \|align=left\|People's / Social Democratic \|align=right\| 2,768 \|align=right\| 0.05 \|align=right\|0.0 \|align=right\| 2 \|align=right\| 6 \|align=right\| 13 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / MPT \|align=right\| 1,641 \|align=right\| 0.03 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 6 \|align=right\| — \|- \| \|align=right\|1,590 \|align=right\|0.03 \|align=right\|0.2 \|align=right\|1 \|align=right\|0 \|align=right\|18 \|- \| \|align=right\|1,590 \|align=right\| 0.03 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 2 \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| — \|- \| \|align=right\| 1,011 \|align=right\| 0.02 \|align=right\| 0.0 \|align=right\| 6 \|align=right\| 5 \|align=right\| 5 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#1F468B align="center" \| \|align=left\|PND / PPM \|align=right\| 831 \|align=right\| 0.02 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / PPM \|align=right\| 760 \|align=right\| 0.01 \|align=right\| 2.4 \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 2 \|align=right\| 21 \|- \| \|align=right\| 200 \|align=right\| 0.00 \|align=right\| 0.0 \|align=right\| 2 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 0 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#0093DD align="center" \| \|align=left\|CDS–PP / PSD / PPM \|align=right\| 8 \|align=right\| 0.00 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total valid \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,161,181 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|95.72 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|0.3 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|— \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|6,885 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|9 \|- \|colspan=2\|Blank ballots \|138,424\|\|2.57\|\|0.1\|\|colspan=6 rowspan=4\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Invalid ballots \|92,140\|\|1.71\|\|0.2 \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,391,745 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|100.00 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Registered voters/turnout \|\|8,847,385\|\|60.94\|\|0.8 \|} Parish Assemblies National summary of votes and seats \|- ! rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left\|Parties ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Votes ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|% ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|±pp swing ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right\|Candidacies ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Mandates ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Presidents \|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Total ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|± ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|Total ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align="center"\|± \|- \| \|align=right\| 1,903,166 \|align=right\| 35.37 \|align=right\| 1.5 \|align=right\| 3,711 \|align=right\| 13,460 \|align=right\| 265 \|align=right\|1,518 \|align=right\| 5 \|- \| \|align=right\| 1,433,256 \|align=right\| 26.64 \|align=right\| 0.1 \|align=right\| 3,065 \|align=right\| 12,447 \|align=right\|299 \|align=right\| 1,723 \|align=right\| 74 \|- \| \|align=right\| 648,622 \|align=right\| 12.05 \|align=right\| 0.9 \|align=right\| 2,239 \|align=right\| 2,576 \|align=right\| 110 \|align=right\| 244 \|align=right\| 12 \|- \|style="width: 10px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|Social Democratic / People's \|align=right\| 411,633 \|align=right\| 7.65 \|align=right\| 0.6 \|align=right\| 529 \|align=right\| 2,065 \|align=right\| 59 \|align=right\| 219 \|align=right\| 4 \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=gray align="center" \| \|align=left\|Independents \|align=right\| 245,659 \|align=right\| 4.57 \|align=right\| 0.2 \|align=right\| 568 \|align=right\| 2,201 \|align=right\| 206 \|align=right\| 292 \|align=right\| 19 \|- \| \|align=right\| 146,898 \|align=right\| 2.73 \|align=right\| 1.6 \|align=right\| 448 \|align=right\| 229 \|align=right\| 183 \|align=right\| 3 \|align=right\| 3 \|- \| \|align=right\| 144,575 \|align=right\| 2.69 \|align=right\| 0.9 \|align=right\| 1,043 \|align=right\| 826 \|align=right\| 144 \|align=right\| 65 \|align=right\| 14 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM / MPT \|align=right\|95,175 \|align=right\| 1.77 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 45 \|align=right\| 216 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 19 \|align=right\| — \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / PPM \|align=right\| 84,398 \|align=right\| 1.57 \|align=right\| 0.7 \|align=right\| 125 \|align=right\| 400 \|align=right\| 98 \|align=right\| 34 \|align=right\| 2 \|- \| \|align=right\| 3,635 \|align=right\| 0.07 \|align=right\| 0.0 \|align=right\| 28 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\|0 \|- \| \|align=right\|3,184 \|align=right\|0.06 \|align=right\|— \|align=right\|16 \|align=right\|7 \|align=right\|— \|align=right\|0 \|align=right\|— \|- \| \|align=right\|3,100 \|align=right\|0.06 \|align=right\|0.1 \|align=right\|7 \|align=right\|23 \|align=right\|97 \|align=right\|3 \|align=right\|15 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / CDS–PP / MPT \|align=right\| 1,756 \|align=right\| 0.03 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 12 \|align=right\| 32 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 3 \|align=right\| — \|- \|style="width: 8px" bgcolor=#0093DD align="center" \| \|align=left\|People's / Social Democratic \|align=right\|1,448 \|align=right\|0.03 \|align=right\|0.1 \|align=right\|2 \|align=right\|10 \|align=right\|57 \|align=right\|2 \|align=right\|6 \|- \| \|align=right\| 824 \|align=right\| 0.02 \|align=right\|0.0 \|align=right\| 10 \|align=right\|0 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 0 \|- \|style="width: 9px" bgcolor=#FF9900 align="center" \| \|align=left\|PSD / PPM \|align=right\| 807 \|align=right\| 0.02 \|align=right\|2.3 \|align=right\| 5 \|align=right\| 6 \|align=right\| 259 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 18 \|- \|style="width: 10px" bgcolor=#000080 align="center" \| \|align=left\|National Solidarity \|align=right\| 72 \|align=right\| 0.00 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 5 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|- \| \|align=right\| 38 \|align=right\| 0.00 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| — \|- \| \|align=right\| 27 \|align=right\| 0.00 \|align=right\| 0.0 \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 1 \|align=right\| 0 \|align=right\| 0 \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total valid \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,130,086 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|95.31 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|0.7 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|— \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|34,498 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|— \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|4,125 \|width="45" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|— \|- \|colspan=2\|Blank ballots \|151,527\|\|2.82\|\|0.5\|\|colspan=6 rowspan=4\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Invalid ballots \|101,067\|\|1.88\|\|0.2 \|- \|colspan=2 align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|Total \|width="65" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|5,382,680 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\|100.00 \|width="40" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"\| \|- \|colspan=2\|Registered voters/turnout \|\|8,832,693\|\|60.94\|\|0.9 \|} End notes The source of the voting data is the Portuguese Electoral Commission Further Notes: Democratic Unity Coalition (CDU) is composed of the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), "The Greens" (PEV) and the Democratic Intervention (ID). The different coalitions between the Social Democratic Party (PSD), the People's Party (CDS–PP), the People's Monarchist Party (PPM) or the Earth Party (MPT) appear because each municipality has its own election. The number of candidacies expresses the number of municipalities or parishes in which the party or coalition presented lists. The number of mandates expresses the number of municipal deputies in the Municipal Assembly election and the number of parish deputies in the Parish Assembly election. The turnout varies because one may choose not to vote for all the organs. References Portuguese local elections 2005 October 2005 events in Europe	6,394
doc-en-5109_0	The Corps of Discovery was a specially-established unit of the United States Army which formed the nucleus of the Lewis and Clark Expedition that took place between May 1804 and September 1806. The Corps was led jointly by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark. Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, the Corps' objectives were scientific and commercial – to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to learn how the Louisiana Purchase could be exploited economically. An additional group of scouts, boatmen, and civilians aided the Corps. History The foundations for the Corps of Discovery were laid when Thomas Jefferson met John Ledyard to discuss a proposed expedition to the Pacific Northwest in the 1780s. In 1802, Jefferson read Alexander Mackenzie's 1801 book about his 1792–1793 overland expedition across Canada to the Pacific Ocean; these exploratory journals influenced his decision to create an American body capable of reaching the Pacific as well. Two years after taking the presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana Purchase. In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named as its leader his personal secretary and U.S. Army Captain, Meriwether Lewis, who selected William Clark as his partner. The goals of the Corps of Discovery, whose cadre would be raised primarily from the U.S. military, was to explore the Louisiana Purchase, and establish trade and U.S. sovereignty over the native peoples along the Missouri River. Jefferson also wanted to establish a U.S. claim to the Pacific Northwest and Oregon territory by documenting an American presence there before other European nations could lay title to the land. The U.S. mint prepared special silver medals with a portrait of Jefferson and had a message of friendship and peace, called Indian Peace Medals or peace medals. The soldiers were to distribute them to the nations they met. But the Corps would be prepared for any acts of hostility because it would be equipped with the most advanced weapons available, such as rifles and a .46 caliber Girandoni Air Rifle. The Corps of Discovery was equipped with sufficient black powder and lead for their flintlock firearms, knives, blacksmithing supplies, and cartography equipment. They also carried flags, gift bundles, medicine and other items they would need for their journey. Much time went into ensuring a sufficient supply of these items. To create the Corps of Discovery, and to ensure any chance of success, Lewis wanted to find the best possible men he could and recruit them to join his expedition. Men were expected to be excellent hunters and possess skills that would ensure their survival in the wilderness. He also wanted men who were brave, unmarried, and healthy. Lewis entrusted recruitment to Clark. He first went to Louisville, Kentucky where he found his first recruits in then Clarksville, Indiana. This group eventually became known as the "Nine Young Men from Kentucky": William Bratton, John Colter, Joseph Field, Reubin Field, Charles Floyd, George Gibson, Nathaniel Pryor, George Shannon, and John Shields. In total almost a third of the party's permanent members – forming the heart of the Corps – were from Louisville, Clarksville or their surrounding areas. Lewis conducted interviews and recruited at Fort Massac, and at the old French Mississippi River village of Kaskaskia. At Kaskakia, he recruited the expedition's chief non-commissioned officer, John Ordway. A total of 33 volunteers, including 29 in training, spent the 1803–1804 winter at Camp Dubois in Indiana Territory. On May 14, 1804, the Corps left Dubois by canoe in order to meet up with Lewis at St. Charles, Missouri. The expedition then set off west following the Missouri River on 21 May. Three days later, they passed La Charrette, the westernmost Euro-American settlement on the Missouri. The expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He would be the party's only death on the expedition over the next two years. Floyd was buried at Floyd's Bluff in what is now Sioux City, Iowa. During the coming weeks, the expedition would reach the Great Plains. They would be among a select group of white people to see the area abounding with elk, deer, bison, and beavers before the large-scale encroachment of European settlement. Over the next two years, the Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with more than two dozen indigenous nations between Missouri and the Pacific Ocean. Researchers now acknowledge that without such contact or help, the Corps of Discovery would have undoubtedly starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains. Members of the Corps Officers Captain Meriwether Lewis Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809) was born in Ivy, Virginia. He joined the First American Regiment in 1794 and served in the Ohio Valley and the Northwest Territory, where he became friends with William Clark. In 1801, President Thomas Jefferson appointed Lewis as his private secretary. Two years later, Jefferson chose Lewis as commander of the expedition to cross the American continent to the Pacific Ocean. Following the return of the expedition in 1806, Lewis became governor of the Louisiana Territory. However political and personal problems caused him to suffer severe emotional difficulties. Lewis died at an inn on the Natchez Trace, Tennessee. Second Lieutenant William Clark William Clark (1770–1838) was born in Caroline County, Virginia. He was the younger brother of General George Rogers Clark. In 1792 he joined the army and served in the Northwest Indian War under General Anthony Wayne. In 1796 he resigned his commission to work in the family business. On accepting Lewis' offer to join the expedition, Clark received a second lieutenant's commission instead of a captaincy because of the Army seniority system. However he and Lewis concealed this from the members of the expedition, who always referred to him as Captain Clark. After returning in 1806, Clark embarked on a distinguished political career, including the governorship of the Missouri Territory. Non-commissioned officers Sergeant John Ordway John Ordway (1775–1817) was born in New Hampshire. He was the only expedition member who was a sergeant in the U.S. Army before the expedition. Ordway was recruited out of the 1st Infantry Regiment at Fort Kaskaskia. He was well educated and became the senior sergeant of the expedition. Ordway took care of the daily administration and, in the absence of the captain and lieutenant, was left in charge. Ordway was the only member of the Corps to keep a journal throughout the entire expedition. His accounts of Indian life are considered invaluable by modern scholars. Sergeant Charles Floyd Charles Floyd (1782–1804) was from Kentucky. He received his promotion to sergeant before the start of the expedition. Floyd died on August 20, 1804, near present-day Sioux City, Iowa, from what is now believed to have been ruptured appendix. He would be the only member of the Corps of Discovery who died on the journey. Floyd kept a journal until a few days before his death. Lewis regarded him as "a young man of much merit". A large monument is located at his burial site. Sergeant Patrick Gass Patrick Gass (1771–1870) was born in Pennsylvania. He joined the U.S. Army in 1799 where he served in a volunteer Ranger unit. Gass was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from a company of the 1st Infantry Regiment led by Captain Russell Bissell. His skill as a carpenter was of great value to the expedition. Gass was promoted from private to sergeant in August 1804 following the death of Sgt. Floyd. In 1807, Gass was the first to publish his journal. He stayed in the Army and served in the War of 1812 but was discharged after losing an eye in an accident. Gass was the last known survivor of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Sergeant Nathaniel Pryor Pryor (1772–1831) was born in Virginia. He was a widower and the cousin of Charles Floyd. Both Lewis and Clark considered him to be "a man of character and ability". On return in 1806, the expedition helped him secure an officer's commission in the U.S. Army. Pryor rose to the rank of captain and participated in the Battle of New Orleans in 1814. He later served as a government agent for the Osage Indians between 1830–31. Corporal Richard Warfington Warfington (b. 1777) was born in North Carolina. He was already a corporal in the 2nd Infantry Regiment when he volunteered to join the expedition. Warfington was considered to be a reliable and efficient NCO. When his enlistment expired during the expedition, Lewis and Clark asked him to stay and command the smaller mid-expedition return party to St. Louis in April 1805. Warfington accepted the command which included sending dispatches, journals, and specimens back to President Jefferson. He completed his mission so successfully he even managed to keep alive a prairie dog and four magpies. On the recommendation of Lewis, Warfington would receive a bonus beyond his regular pay. Corporal John Robertson John Robertson (b. 1780) was born in New Hampshire. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from an artillery company. Although initially a corporal, Clark eventually demoted him to private after admonishing him for having "no authority" over his men and for failing to break up a fight at Camp Dubois. Robertson was most likely the first man to leave the expedition. On June 12, 1804, Pvt. Joseph Whitehouse recorded in his journal that a private "belonging to Captain Stoddard's company of Artillery" was sent back to St. Louis with a trading party encountered coming down river. Presumably Robertson returned to his artillery company because there is no further record of him. Privates Private John Boley John Boley was born in Pennsylvania. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the 1st Infantry Regiment. After Boley caused disciplinary problems at Camp Dubois, he was sent back with the return party in 1805. In the same year, he joined Zebulon Pike's expedition which explored the upper Mississippi. Boley continued with Pike to the southwest and the Rockies in 1806. Private William Bratton William Bratton (1778–1841) was born in Kentucky. He was one of the first volunteers. Bratton served the expedition as a hunter, blacksmith, and gunsmith. In Spring 1806, he became incapacitated with a back ailment until an Indian sweat bath finally cured him. After the expedition, he served in the War of 1812. Private John Collins John Collins (d. 1823) was born in Maryland. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the 1st Infantry Regiment. Although he was a good hunter, he was often drunk and disobedient. He was court-martialed and received 100 lashes for stealing whiskey from the official supply when supposedly guarding it. Private John Colter John Colter (1775–1813) was born in Kentucky. During the expedition he proved himself to be an excellent hunter and woodsman. On the return trip to St Louis in 1806, he received permission from the two captains to leave the expedition so he could join a trapping party heading back up the Missouri River. While escaping an attack by Blackfoot Indians, Colter became the first European white man to see the region of steam vents and boiling mud pots nicknamed "Colter's Hell": the future site of Yellowstone National Park. Private Pierre Cruzatte Pierre Cruzatte was half French and Omaha Indian. He was both a master boatman and fiddle player. Blind in one eye and nearsighted in the other, Cruzatte accidentally shot Lewis while the two were hunting in August 1806. Lewis later paid tribute to Cruzatte's experience as a riverman and to his integrity. His fiddle playing often entertained the Corps of Discovery and the Native Americans who they encountered. Private John Dame John Dame (b. 1784) was born in New Hampshire. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from an artillery company from the Regiment of Artillery led by Captain Amos Stoddard. Dame is mentioned only once in Clark's journal. He was a member of the party that returned to St Louis in 1805. Private Joseph Field Joseph Field (1772–1807) was born in Kentucky. Like his brother, Reubin, they were considered to be among the best shots and hunters in the Corps of Discovery. Along with his brother and George Drouillard, they often accompanied the captains on special reconnaissance missions. Both brothers were present with Lewis in the fight with the Blackfeet on July 27, 1806. Private Reubin Field Reubin Field (1772–1823) was born in Kentucky. He fatally stabbed a Blackfoot through the heart during the fight on July 27, 1806. Private Robert Frazer Robert Frazer (d. 1837) was born in Virginia. No information survives on when Frazer joined the expedition or if he had previously been in the U.S. Army. When the party left St Louis in 1805, he was not part of the Corps of Discovery. Frazer only became part of the Corps on October 8, 1804, after Moses Reed was expelled. He kept a journal and received special permission from the captains to publish. But the publication never took place and the journal is apparently lost. However, Frazer's map of the expedition has survived. Private George Gibson George Gibson (d. 1809) was from Kentucky. He was a good hunter and on occasion played the fiddle for the Corps of Discovery. He served as an interpreter with Native Americans using sign language. Private Silas Goodrich Silas Goodrich was from Massachusetts. It is unclear whether he had any prior military experience. He was one of the finest fishermen of the Corps of Discovery. After the expedition, Goodrich re-enlisted in the U.S. Army. Private Hugh Hall Hugh Hall (b. 1772) was born in Massachusetts. He was recruited at Fort Southwest Point from a company of the 2nd Infantry Regiment. Hall was court-martialed and flogged along with Collins for stealing from the official whiskey ration and getting drunk. Private Thomas Howard Thomas Howard (b. 1779) was from Massachusetts. He too was recruited from the 2nd Infantry Regiment at Fort Southwest Point. Howard would become the last member of the Corps to be court-martialed. A Native American had followed his example when he climbed over the walls at Fort Mandan after the gate had been closed. He was found guilty of "pernicious example" to the Indians, by showing them that the fort wall was scalable. Private François Labiche. François Labiche was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia. As an enlisted member of the Corps like Cruzatte, he was not hired as a civilian boatman. Labiche was an experienced boatman and Indian trader. He also spoke English, French, and several Indian languages. Lewis was so impressed with his interpreter skills, he recommended him for a bonus. Later Labiche accompanied Lewis to Washington to interpret for the Native American chiefs who went to meet President Jefferson. Private John Baptiste Lepage John Lepage was a French-Canadian fur trader who was recruited at Fort Mandan in 1805. Private Hugh McNeal Hugh McNeal was from Pennsylvania. He may or may not have been in the Army prior to joining the Corps on April 1, 1804. A man with the same name was on the Army rolls as late as 1811. Private John Newman John Newman (1785–1838) was born in Pennsylvania. He was recruited at Fort Massac from a company of the 1st Infantry Regiment. Newman was expelled from the expedition following his court-martial for "having uttered repeated expressions of a highly criminal and mutinous nature". He remained with the expedition doing hard labor until sent back with the return party to St. Louis in April 1805. Private John Potts John Potts (1776–1808) was from Germany. Before joining the U.S. Army he had been a miller. Potts was recruited at South West Point from a company of the 2nd Infantry Regiment. Following the expedition in 1806, he joined St. Louis businessman Manuel Lisa on a fur-trading venture to the upper Missouri. In 1808 he and his friend John Colter were ambushed by Blackfeet near Three Forks, Montana on the Missouri River. Potts was killed and Colter narrowly escaped. Private Moses Reed Moses Reed's origin and background are largely unknown. In August 1804, he attempted to desert the Corp but was apprehended, court-martialed, and expelled from the expedition. However he remained with the expedition as a boatsman until being sent back with the return party to St. Louis in April 1805. Private George Shannon George Shannon (1785–1836) from Pennsylvania was the youngest member of the Corps of Discovery. He joined Lewis at Maysville, Kentucky. During the Fall of 1804, he was lost for more than two weeks and nearly starved to death. After the expedition, Shannon became a lawyer and later served as a senator from Missouri. Private John Shields John Shields (1769–1809) was from Virginia. He was also the oldest member of the Corps of Discovery and one of the few who were married. Throughout the expedition, Shields' skills as a blacksmith, gunsmith, and carpenter were highly appreciated. "Nothing was more peculiarly useful to us, in various situations," wrote Lewis, "than the skill of this man as an artist, in repairing our guns, accoutrements, &c." In 1806, Lewis recommended that Congress give Shields a bonus for his services. Private John Thompson Very little information is known about John Thompson, other than Clark praising him as "a valuable member of our party". He may have been a surveyor before joining the expedition. Private Ebenezer Tuttle Ebenezer Tuttle (b. 1773) was born in Connecticut. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the Regiment of Artillery. Tuttle was a member of the return party to St Louis in April 1805. The only mention of him in Clark's journals is in a Detachment Order of May 26, 1804. Private Peter Weiser Peter Weiser (b. 1781) was from Pennsylvania. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the 1st Infantry Regiment. Weiser was related to the notable frontier diplomat Conrad Weiser. After the expedition he joined Manuel Lisa's fur-trading venture up the Missouri. Private William Werner Scant information is known about William Werner. Records show he had a fight with John Potts at Camp Dubois and was also convicted of being AWOL at St. Charles, Missouri. Other than these incidents, the journals reveal little about him. Private Isaac White Isaac White (b. 1774) was from Massachusetts. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from its artillery company. White was a member of the return party to St. Louis in April 1805. The only mention of him in the journals is in a Detachment Order of May 26, 1804. Private Joseph Whitehouse Joseph Whitehouse (b. 1775) was from Virginia / Kentucky. He was recruited at Fort Massac from the 1st Infantry Regiment. Whitehouse was initially expelled from the Corps for deserting but was allowed to return after repenting. He kept a journal and often acted as a tailor for the other men. Whitehouse later served during the War of 1812 but deserted from the U.S. Army in 1817. Private Alexander Willard Alexander Willard (1778–1865) was born in New Hampshire. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the artillery company. Willard worked with Shields as a blacksmith for the Corps, but after he was convicted of sleeping while on guard duty (a crime punishable by death), he was given 100 lashes and sent back with the return party in April 1805. Willard later served during the War of 1812. Private Richard Windsor Only a small amount of information is known about Richard Windsor. He was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia from the 1st Infantry Regiment. During the expedition he served the Corps an experienced woodsman and productive hunter. Attached party Permanent Toussaint Charbonneau and Sacagawea Charbonneau was either sold or given Sacagawea, who was born around 1788, near Lemhi, Idaho. The daughter of a Shoshone chief, she was kidnapped by the Hidatsa and sold into slavery to the Mandan, who passed her on to Charbonneau, who made her his wife. On February 11, 1805, she gave birth to a son named John Baptiste. Lewis described Charbonneau as a man "of no particular merit", while both captains acknowledged the indispensable service Sacagawea provided the Corps of Discovery. As Clark wrote, "a woman with a party of men is a token of peace". George Drouillard Drouillard (d. 1810) was from Canada. The son of a French-Canadian and a Shawnee mother, Drouillard first met Lewis at Fort Massac. Captain Daniel Bissell was probably employing Drouillard when Lewis recruited him for the expedition. Drouillard was known for his general skill as a scout, woodsman, and interpreter. He was one of the best hunters of the expedition and often conducted special missions for Lewis and Clark. After the expedition, Drouillard became a partner in Manuel Lisa's fur-trading ventures on the upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers. York York (b. 1770) was a slave from Virginia who had been Clark's companion from childhood. In 1799 Clark legally inherited York. Journals indicated he was large, strong, and perhaps overweight. He carried a rifle during the expedition and performed his full share of duties like the other members of the Corps of Discovery. After the expedition, York asked Clark for his freedom but Clark refused. He then asked if he could live and work in Louisville and send money back to Clark. York wanted to do this to be near his wife, who was enslaved by another man. Clark said no to this too. Clark wrote to his brother about this request and his denial of it. He stated: "“[I will] permit [York] to Stay a fiew weeks with his wife ... [but] he is Serviceable to me at this place, and I am determined not ... to gratify him, and have directed him to return,” Clark (whose spelling was abysmal) wrote in an 1808 letter to his brother. “If any attempt is made by York to run off, or refuse to proform his duty as a Slave, I wish him Sent to New Orleands and sold, or hired out to Some Sevare Master until he thinks better of Such Conduct.” Seaman (dog) A newfoundland dog that Lewis purchased in Pittsburgh while waiting for the completion of boats for the expedition, Seaman made the entire trip with the Corps. Engagés (contract boatmen) E. Cann Cann (1775–1836) was born Alexander Carson but had lived among the French for so long he was thought of as French. Cann returned to St. Louis with Corporal Warfington in April 1805. Charles Caugee Caugee was one of the original nine boatmen hired by the Corps. Joseph Collin Collin is mentioned in the journal of Sgt. Gass who described him as "a young man who formerly belonged to the North West Company". It appears he accompanied the corps only as far as the Arikara Indian villages and was still living there when Lewis and Clark passed through again on their return in 1806. Jean-Baptiste Deschamps Deschamps was a private in the U.S. Army at Fort Kaskaskia who was recruited to be the foreman of the French contract boatmen. He returned to St. Louis with Corporal Warfington in 1805. Charles Herbert Herbert was married to Julie Hebert Dit La Croix in 1792. He had 11 baptized children. Herbert was enlisted by Lewis before the Corps left Camp Dubois. He was voluntarily discharged at the Mandan village in the winter of 1804. Jean-Baptiste La Jeunesse La Jeunesse, who was enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army, served as a boatman with the expedition. Although there is no record of his service or discharge from the military, he may have remained at the Mandan village when the expedition continued west in April 1805 or returned to St. Louis with Corporal Warfington. La Liberté La Liberté, who was also known as Joseph Barter, was a private in the U.S. Army at Fort Kaskaskia before he was assigned duties as a boatman. However, he deserted soon afterwards and did not accompany the expedition westward when it departed Camp Dubois in May 1804. Étienne Malboeuf Malboeuf (b. 1775) was recruited at Fort Kaskaskia as a contract boatman. His sister was married to Jean Baptiste La Jeunesse. Peter (Pierre) Pinaut Pinaut (b. 1776) was the son of a French-Canadian trader and a Missouri Indian woman. He is listed as a member of the corps as of May 1804. He probably returned to St. Louis in 1805. Paul Primeau Primeau was hired as a boatman at Fort Kaskaskia and listed as a member of the corps in May 1804. It is unclear if he returned to St. Louis with Corporal Warfington or remained on the upper Missouri. François Rivet Rivet (1757–1852) was hired at Fort Kaskaskia in 1804 as a contract boatman. Rivet, along with three other boatmen (Deschamps, Malboeuf, and Carson) remained at the Mandan village over the winter after they were discharged from the expedition. Rivet had originally departed with Corporal Warfington, but returned to the Mandan village and was living there when Lewis and Clark passed through on their way east in 1806. Peter Roi Due to the commonality of the family name of Roi (usually spelled Roy) among the French living in and around St. Louis in the early 19th century, surviving records give little information. References Citations Bibliography Natanson,Hannah "An enslaved man was crucial to the Lewis and Clark expedition’s success. Clark refused to free him afterward." Washington Post, January 12, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/01/12/york-slave-lewis-clark-expedition/ External links Corps of Discovery (United States Army) A Photographic Journey up the Missouri River in North Dakota – Fort Mandan (U.S. Geological Survey) The expedition of the Corps of Discovery Portage Route Chapter affiliated with the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation Corps of Discovery Online Atlas by Watzek Library, Lewis & Clark College History of the United States Army Lewis and Clark Expedition people History of Louisville, Kentucky 1803 establishments in the United States	5,896
doc-en-7969_0	Jakarta Enterprise Beans (EJB; formerly Enterprise JavaBeans) is one of several Java APIs for modular construction of enterprise software. EJB is a server-side software component that encapsulates business logic of an application. An EJB web container provides a runtime environment for web related software components, including computer security, Java servlet lifecycle management, transaction processing, and other web services. The EJB specification is a subset of the Java EE specification. Specification The EJB specification was originally developed in 1997 by IBM and later adopted by Sun Microsystems (EJB 1.0 and 1.1) in 1999 and enhanced under the Java Community Process as JSR 19 (EJB 2.0), JSR 153 (EJB 2.1), JSR 220 (EJB 3.0), JSR 318 (EJB 3.1) and JSR 345 (EJB 3.2). The EJB specification provides a standard way to implement the server-side (also called "back-end") 'business' software typically found in enterprise applications (as opposed to 'front-end' user interface software). Such software addresses the same types of problem, and solutions to these problems are often repeatedly re-implemented by programmers. Jakarta Enterprise Beans is intended to handle such common concerns as persistence, transactional integrity and security in a standard way, leaving programmers free to concentrate on the particular parts of the enterprise software at hand. General responsibilities The EJB specification details how an application server provides the following responsibilities: Transaction processing Integration with the persistence services offered by the Jakarta Persistence (JPA) Concurrency control Event-driven programming using Jakarta Messaging (JMS) and Jakarta Connectors (JCA) Asynchronous method invocation Job scheduling Naming and directory services via Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) Interprocess Communication using RMI-IIOP and Web services Security (JCE and JAAS) Deployment of software components in an application server Additionally, the Jakarta Enterprise Beans specification defines the roles played by the EJB container and the EJBs as well as how to deploy the EJBs in a container. Note that the EJB specification does not detail how an application server provides persistence (a task delegated to the JPA specification), but instead details how business logic can easily integrate with the persistence services offered by the application server. History Businesses found that using EJBs to encapsulate business logic brought a performance penalty. This is because the original specification allowed only for remote method invocation through CORBA (and optionally other protocols), even though the large majority of business applications actually do not require this distributed computing functionality. The EJB 2.0 specification addressed this concern by adding the concept of local interfaces which could be called directly without performance penalties by applications that were not distributed over multiple servers. The EJB 3.0 specification (JSR 220) was a departure from its predecessors, following a new light-weight paradigm. EJB 3.0 shows an influence from Spring in its use of plain Java objects, and its support for dependency injection to simplify configuration and integration of heterogeneous systems. EJB 3.0 along with the other version of the EJB can be integrated with MuleSoft-v4 using MuleSoft certified PlektonLabs EJB Connector. Gavin King, the creator of Hibernate, participated in the EJB 3.0 process and is an outspoken advocate of the technology. Many features originally in Hibernate were incorporated in the Java Persistence API, the replacement for entity beans in EJB 3.0. The EJB 3.0 specification relies heavily on the use of annotations (a feature added to the Java language with its 5.0 release) and convention over configuration to enable a much less verbose coding style. Accordingly, in practical terms EJB 3.0 is much more lightweight and nearly a completely new API, bearing little resemblance to the previous EJB specifications. Example The following shows a basic example of what an EJB looks like in code: @Stateless public class CustomerService { private EntityManager entityManager; public void addCustomer(Customer customer) { entityManager.persist(customer); } } The above defines a service class for persisting a Customer object (via O/R mapping). The EJB takes care of managing the persistence context and the addCustomer() method is transactional and thread-safe by default. As demonstrated, the EJB focuses only on business logic and persistence and knows nothing about any particular presentation. Such an EJB can be used by a class in e.g. the web layer as follows: @Named @RequestScoped public class CustomerBacking { @EJB private CustomerService customerService; public String addCustomer(Customer customer) { customerService.addCustomer(customer); context.addMessage(...); // abbreviated for brevity return "customer_overview"; } } The above defines a JavaServer Faces (JSF) backing bean in which the EJB is injected by means of the @EJB annotation. Its addCustomer method is typically bound to some UI component, such as a button. Contrary to the EJB, the backing bean does not contain any business logic or persistence code, but delegates such concerns to the EJB. The backing bean does know about a particular presentation, of which the EJB had no knowledge. Types of Enterprise Beans An EJB container holds two major types of beans: Session Beans that can be either "Stateful", "Stateless" or "Singleton" and can be accessed via either a Local (same JVM) or Remote (different JVM) interface or directly without an interface, in which case local semantics apply. All session beans support asynchronous execution for all views (local/remote/no-interface). Message Driven Beans (MDBs, also known as Message Beans). MDBs also support asynchronous execution, but via a messaging paradigm. Session beans Stateful Session Beans Stateful Session Beans are business objects having state: that is, they keep track of which calling client they are dealing with throughout a session and thus access to the bean instance is strictly limited to only one client at a time. If concurrent access to a single bean is attempted anyway the container serializes those requests, but via the @AccessTimeout annotation the container can instead throw an exception. Stateful session beans' state may be persisted (passivated) automatically by the container to free up memory after the client hasn't accessed the bean for some time. The JPA extended persistence context is explicitly supported by Stateful Session Beans. Examples Checking out in a web store might be handled by a stateful session bean that would use its state to keep track of where the customer is in the checkout process, possibly holding locks on the items the customer is purchasing (from a system architecture's point of view, it would be less ideal to have the client manage those locks). Stateless Session Beans Stateless Session Beans are business objects that do not have state associated with them. However, access to a single bean instance is still limited to only one client at a time, concurrent access to the bean is prohibited. If concurrent access to a single bean is attempted, the container simply routes each request to a different instance. This makes a stateless session bean automatically thread-safe. Instance variables can be used during a single method call from a client to the bean, but the contents of those instance variables are not guaranteed to be preserved across different client method calls. Instances of Stateless Session beans are typically pooled. If a second client accesses a specific bean right after a method call on it made by a first client has finished, it might get the same instance. The lack of overhead to maintain a conversation with the calling client makes them less resource-intensive than stateful beans. Examples Sending an e-mail to customer support might be handled by a stateless bean, since this is a one-off operation and not part of a multi-step process. A user of a website clicking on a "keep me informed of future updates" box may trigger a call to an asynchronous method of the session bean to add the user to a list in the company's database (this call is asynchronous because the user does not need to wait to be informed of its success or failure). Fetching multiple independent pieces of data for a website, like a list of products and the history of the current user might be handled by asynchronous methods of a session bean as well (these calls are asynchronous because they can execute in parallel that way, which potentially increases performance). In this case, the asynchronous method will return a Future instance. Singleton Session Beans Singleton Session Beans are business objects having a global shared state within a JVM. Concurrent access to the one and only bean instance can be controlled by the container (Container-managed concurrency, CMC) or by the bean itself (Bean-managed concurrency, BMC). CMC can be tuned using the @Lock annotation, that designates whether a read lock or a write lock will be used for a method call. Additionally, Singleton Session Beans can explicitly request to be instantiated when the EJB container starts up, using the @Startup annotation. Examples Loading a global daily price list that will be the same for every user might be done with a singleton session bean, since this will prevent the application having to do the same query to a database over and over again... Message driven beans Message Driven Beans are business objects whose execution is triggered by messages instead of by method calls. The Message Driven Bean is used among others to provide a high level ease-of-use abstraction for the lower level JMS (Java Message Service) specification. It may subscribe to JMS message queues or message topics, which typically happens via the activationConfig attribute of the @MessageDriven annotation. They were added in EJB to allow event-driven processing. Unlike session beans, an MDB does not have a client view (Local/Remote/No-interface), i. e. clients cannot look-up an MDB instance. An MDB just listens for any incoming message on, for example, a JMS queue or topic and processes them automatically. Only JMS support is required by the Java EE spec, but Message Driven Beans can support other messaging protocols. Such protocols may be asynchronous but can also be synchronous. Since session beans can also be synchronous or asynchronous, the prime difference between session- and message driven beans is not the synchronicity, but the difference between (object oriented) method calling and messaging. Examples Sending a configuration update to multiple nodes might be done by sending a JMS message to a 'message topic' and could be handled by a Message Driven Bean listening to this topic (the message paradigm is used here since the sender does not need to know the number of consumers, their location, or even their exact type). Submitting a job to a work cluster might be done by sending a JMS message to a 'message queue' and could also be handled by a Message Driven Bean, but this time listening to a queue (the message paradigm and the queue is used, since the sender doesn't have to care which worker executes the job, but it does need assurance that a job is only executed once). Processing timing events from the Quartz scheduler can be handled by a Message Driven Bean; when a Quartz trigger fires, the MDB is automatically invoked. Since Java EE doesn't know about Quartz by default, a JCA resource adapter would be needed and the MDB would be annotated with a reference to this. Execution EJBs are deployed in an EJB container, typically within an application server. The specification describes how an EJB interacts with its container and how client code interacts with the container/EJB combination. The EJB classes used by applications are included in the package. (The package is a service provider interface used only by EJB container implementations.) Clients of EJBs do not instantiate those beans directly via Java's new operator, but instead have to obtain a reference via the EJB container. This reference is usually not a reference to the implementation bean itself, but to a proxy, which either dynamically implements the local or remote business interface that the client requested or dynamically implements a sub-type of the actual bean. The proxy can then be directly cast to the interface or bean. A client is said to have a 'view' on the EJB, and the local interface, remote interface and bean type itself respectively correspond with the local view, remote view and no-interface view. This proxy is needed in order to give the EJB container the opportunity to transparently provide cross-cutting (AOP-like) services to a bean like transactions, security, interceptions, injections, and remoting. As an example, a client invokes a method on a proxy, which will first start a transaction with the help of the EJB container and then call the actual bean method. When the bean method returns, the proxy ends the transaction (i.e. by committing it or doing a rollback) and transfers control back to the client. The EJB Container is responsible for ensuring the client code has sufficient access rights to an EJB. Security aspects can be declaratively applied to an EJB via annotations. Transactions EJB containers must support both container managed ACID transactions and bean managed transactions. Container-managed transactions (CMT) are by default active for calls to session beans. That is, no explicit configuration is needed. This behavior may be declaratively tuned by the bean via annotations and if needed such configuration can later be overridden in the deployment descriptor. Tuning includes switching off transactions for the whole bean or specific methods, or requesting alternative strategies for transaction propagation and starting or joining a transaction. Such strategies mainly deal with what should happen if a transaction is or isn't already in progress at the time the bean is called. The following variations are supported: Alternatively, the bean can also declare via an annotation that it wants to handle transactions programmatically via the JTA API. This mode of operation is called Bean Managed Transactions (BMT), since the bean itself handles the transaction instead of the container. Events JMS (Java Message Service) is used to send messages from beans to clients, to let clients receive asynchronous messages from these beans. MDBs can be used to receive messages from clients asynchronously using either a JMS Queue or a Topic. Naming and directory services As an alternative to injection, clients of an EJB can obtain a reference to the session bean's proxy object (the EJB stub) using Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI). This alternative can be used in cases where injection is not available, such as in non-managed code or standalone remote Java SE clients, or when it's necessary to programmatically determine which bean to obtain. JNDI names for EJB session beans are assigned by the EJB container via the following scheme: (entries in square brackets denote optional parts) A single bean can be obtained by any name matching the above patterns, depending on the 'location' of the client. Clients in the same module as the required bean can use the module scope and larger scopes, clients in the same application as the required bean can use the app scope and higher, etc. E.g. code running in the same module as the CustomerService bean (as given by the example shown earlier in this article) could use the following code to obtain a (local) reference to it: CustomerServiceLocal customerService = (CustomerServiceLocal) new InitialContext().lookup("java:module/CustomerService"); Remoting/distributed execution For communication with a client that's written in the Java programming language a session bean can expose a remote-view via an @Remote annotated interface. This allows those beans to be called from clients in other JVMs which themselves may be located on other (remote) systems. From the point of view of the EJB container, any code in another JVM is remote. Stateless- and Singleton session beans may also expose a "web service client view" for remote communication via WSDL and SOAP or plain XML. This follows the JAX-RPC and JAX-WS specifications. JAX-RPC support however is proposed for future removal. To support JAX-WS, the session bean is annotated with the @WebService annotation, and methods that are to be exposed remotely with the @WebMethod annotation.. Although the EJB specification does not mention exposure as RESTful web services in any way and has no explicit support for this form of communication, the JAX-RS specification does explicitly support EJB. Following the JAX-RS spec, Stateless- and Singleton session beans can be root resources via the @Path annotation and EJB business methods can be mapped to resource methods via the @GET, @PUT, @POST and @DELETE annotations. This however does not count as a "web service client view", which is used exclusively for JAX-WS and JAX-RPC. Communication via web services is typical for clients not written in the Java programming language, but is also convenient for Java clients who have trouble reaching the EJB server via a firewall. Additionally, web service based communication can be used by Java clients to circumvent the arcane and ill-defined requirements for the so-called "client-libraries"; a set of jar files that a Java client must have on its class-path in order to communicate with the remote EJB server. These client-libraries potentially conflict with libraries the client may already have (for instance, if the client itself is also a full Java EE server) and such a conflict is deemed to be very hard or impossible to resolve. Legacy Home interfaces and required business interface With EJB 2.1 and earlier, each EJB had to provide a Java implementation class and two Java interfaces. The EJB container created instances of the Java implementation class to provide the EJB implementation. The Java interfaces were used by client code of the EJB. Required deployment descriptor With EJB 2.1 and earlier, the EJB specification required a deployment descriptor to be present. This was needed to implement a mechanism that allowed EJBs to be deployed in a consistent manner regardless of the specific EJB platform that was chosen. Information about how the bean should be deployed (such as the name of the home or remote interfaces, whether and how to store the bean in a database, etc.) had to be specified in the deployment descriptor. The deployment descriptor is an XML document having an entry for each EJB to be deployed. This XML document specifies the following information for each EJB: Name of the Home interface Java class for the Bean (business object) Java interface for the Home interface Java interface for the business object Persistent store (only for Entity Beans) Security roles and permissions Stateful or Stateless (for Session Beans) Old EJB containers from many vendors required more deployment information than that in the EJB specification. They would require the additional information as separate XML files, or some other configuration file format. An EJB platform vendor generally provided their own tools that would read this deployment descriptor, and possibly generated a set of classes that would implement the now deprecated Home and Remote interfaces. Since EJB 3.0 (JSR 220), the XML descriptor is replaced by Java annotations set in the Enterprise Bean implementation (at source level), although it is still possible to use an XML descriptor instead of (or in addition to) the annotations. If an XML descriptor and annotations are both applied to the same attribute within an Enterprise Bean, the XML definition overrides the corresponding source-level annotation, although some XML elements can also be additive (e.g., an activation-config-property in XML with a different name than already defined via an @ActivationConfigProperty annotation will be added instead of replacing all existing properties). Container variations Starting with EJB 3.1, the EJB specification defines two variants of the EJB container; a full version and a limited version. The limited version adheres to a proper subset of the specification called EJB 3.1 Lite and is part of Java EE 6's web profile (which is itself a subset of the full Java EE 6 specification). EJB 3.1 Lite excludes support for the following features: Remote interfaces RMI-IIOP Interoperability JAX-WS Web Service Endpoints EJB Timer Service (@Schedule, @Timeout) Asynchronous session bean invocations (@Asynchronous) Message-driven beans EJB 3.2 Lite excludes less features. Particularly it no longer excludes @Asynchronous and @Schedule/@Timeout, but for @Schedule it does not support the "persistent" attribute that full EJB 3.2 does support. The complete excluded list for EJB 3.2 Lite is: Remote interfaces RMI-IIOP Interoperability JAX-WS Web Service Endpoints Persistent timers ("persistent" attribute on @Schedule) Message-driven beans Version history EJB 4.0, final release (2020-05-22) Jakarta Enterprise Beans 4.0, as a part of Jakarta EE 9, was a tooling release that mainly moved API package names from the top level package to the top level package. Other changes included removal of deprecated APIs that were pointless to move to the new top level package and the removal of features that depended on features that were removed from Java or elsewhere in Jakarta EE 9. The following APIs were removed: methods relying on which has been removed from the Java 14. methods relying on Jakarta XML RPC to reflect the removal of XML RPC from the Jakarta EE 9 Platform. deprecated method. "Support for Distributed Interoperability" to reflect the removal of CORBA from Java 11 and the Jakarta EE 9 Platform. Other minor changes include marking the Enterprise Beans 2.x API Group as "Optional" and making the annotation repeatable. EJB 3.2.6, final release (2019-08-23) Jakarta Enterprise Beans 3.2, as a part of Jakarta EE 8, and despite still using "EJB" abbreviation, this set of APIs has been officially renamed to "Jakarta Enterprise Beans" by the Eclipse Foundation so as not to tread on the Oracle "Java" trademark. EJB 3.2, final release (2013-05-28) JSR 345. Enterprise JavaBeans 3.2 was a relatively minor release that mainly contained specification clarifications and lifted some restrictions that were imposed by the spec but over time appeared to serve no real purpose. A few existing full EJB features were also demanded to be in EJB 3 lite and functionality that was proposed to be pruned in EJB 3.1 was indeed pruned (made optional). The following features were added: Passivation of a stateful session bean can be deactivated via attribute on @Stateful annotation (passivationCapable = false) TimerService can retrieve all active timers in the same EJB module (could previously only retrieve timers for the bean in which the TimerService was called) Lifecycle methods (e.g. @PostConstruct) can be transactional for stateful session beans using the existing @TransactionAttribute annotation Autocloseable interface implemented by embeddable container EJB 3.1, final release (2009-12-10) JSR 318. The purpose of the Enterprise JavaBeans 3.1 specification is to further simplify the EJB architecture by reducing its complexity from the developer's point of view, while also adding new functionality in response to the needs of the community: Local view without interface (No-interface view) .war packaging of EJB components EJB Lite: definition of a subset of EJB Portable EJB Global JNDI Names Singletons (Singleton Session Beans) Application Initialization and Shutdown Events EJB Timer Service Enhancements Simple Asynchrony (@Asynchronous for session beans) EJB 3.0, final release (2006-05-11) JSR 220 - Major changes: This release made it much easier to write EJBs, using 'annotations' rather than the complex 'deployment descriptors' used in version 2.x. The use of home and remote interfaces and the ejb-jar.xml file were also no longer required in this release, having been replaced with a business interface and a bean that implements the interface. EJB 2.1, final release (2003-11-24) JSR 153 - Major changes: Web service support (new): stateless session beans can be invoked over SOAP/HTTP. Also, an EJB can easily access a Web service using the new service reference. EJB timer service (new): Event-based mechanism for invoking EJBs at specific times. Message-driven beans accepts messages from sources other than JMS. Message destinations (the same idea as EJB references, resource references, etc.) has been added. EJB query language (EJB-QL) additions: ORDER BY, AVG, MIN, MAX, SUM, COUNT, and MOD. XML schema is used to specify deployment descriptors, replaces DTDs EJB 2.0, final release (2001-08-22) JSR 19 - Major changes: Overall goals: The standard component architecture for building distributed object-oriented business applications in Java. Make it possible to build distributed applications by combining components developed using tools from different vendors. Make it easy to write (enterprise) applications: Application developers will not have to understand low-level transaction and state management details, multi-threading, connection pooling, and other complex low-level APIs. Will follow the "Write Once, Run Anywhere" philosophy of Java. An enterprise Bean can be developed once, and then deployed on multiple platforms without recompilation or source code modification. Address the development, deployment, and runtime aspects of an enterprise application’s life cycle. Define the contracts that enable tools from multiple vendors to develop and deploy components that can interoperate at runtime. Be compatible with existing server platforms. Vendors will be able to extend their existing products to support EJBs. Be compatible with other Java APIs. Provide interoperability between enterprise Beans and Java EE components as well as non-Java programming language applications. Be compatible with the CORBA protocols (RMI-IIOP). EJB 1.1, final release (1999-12-17) Major changes: XML deployment descriptors Default JNDI contexts RMI over IIOP Security - role driven, not method driven Entity Bean support - mandatory, not optional Goals for Release 1.1: Provide better support for application assembly and deployment. Specify in greater detail the responsibilities of the individual EJB roles. EJB 1.0 (1998-03-24) Announced at JavaOne 1998, Sun's third Java developers conference (March 24 through 27) Goals for Release 1.0: Defined the distinct "EJB Roles" that are assumed by the component architecture. Defined the client view of enterprise Beans. Defined the enterprise Bean developer’s view. Defined the responsibilities of an EJB Container provider and server provider; together these make up a system that supports the deployment and execution of enterprise Beans. References External links EJB 3.0 API Javadocs The EJB 3.0 Specification Sun's EJB 3.0 Tutorial EJB (3.0) Glossary EJB FAQ JSR 345 (EJB 3.2) JSR 318 (EJB 3.1) JSR 220 (EJB 3.0) JSR 153 (EJB 2.1) JSR 19 (EJB 2.0) "Working with Message-Driven Beans" from EJB3 in Action, Second Edition Client invokes an EJB Java enterprise platform Java specification requests Java platform software	6,080
doc-en-10661_0	The East Region () occupies the southeastern portion of the Republic of Cameroon. It is bordered to the east by the Central African Republic, to the south by Congo, to the north by the Adamawa Region, and to the west by the Centre and South Regions. With 109,002 km2 of territory, it is the largest region in the nation as well as the most sparsely populated. Historically, the peoples of the East have been settled in Cameroonian territory for longer than any other of the country's many ethnic groups, the first inhabitants being the Baka (or Babinga) pygmies. The East Region has very little industry, its main commerce consisting of logging, timber, and mining. Instead, the bulk of its inhabitants are subsistence farmers. The region is thus of little political import and is often ignored by Cameroonian politicians. This coupled with the low level of development in the province have led to its being dubbed "the forgotten province". Geography Land The soil of the East is predominantly ferrallitic, rich with iron and red in colour. The southern three quarters of the region consists of metamorphic rock such as gneiss, schist, mica, and migmatite. Starting at about the level of Bertoua and going north, however, granite becomes the dominate soil component. While the region supports an abundance of plant life, it is not particularly fertile due to leaching caused by the humid environment. Eastern dirt hardens quickly in the sun, and it is often used as a building material by poorer inhabitants. Drainage The region contains several river systems: the Nyong, which drains the central-western area, the Dja in the southwest, the Lom in the northeast, the Kadéï, which drains the northwest, the Boumba in the centre and southeast, and the Sangha and Ngoko, which drain portions of the southeast and form the border with the Central African Republic and Congo respectively. Many of these rivers have carved out valleys that surround them. The rivers of the territory have only slight gradients, and floods can occur along them during the rainy season. The Lom and Nyong rivers eventually empty into the Atlantic Ocean. All other rivers in the East form part of the Congo River basin. Relief Almost the entire territory of the East Region lies on the South Cameroon Plateau that forms the southeastern half of the country. The elevation thus varies between 500 and 1000 metres above sea level except for lower-lying plains of 200 to 500 metres in the extreme southeast centered on the Dja, Boumba, Sangha, and Ngoko Rivers. The land consists largely of monotonous, gently undulating hills known as "half-oranges" due to their resemblance to that fruit. Climate The East has a Type A wet equatorial climate (also known as a Guinea type climate), meaning that it experiences high temperatures (24˚ C on average) and a lack of traditional seasons. Instead, there is a long dry season from December to May, a light wet season from May to June, a short dry season from July to October, and a heavy wet season from October to November. Humidity and cloud cover are relatively high, and precipitation averages 1500–2000 mm per year except in the extreme eastern and northern portions, where it is slightly less. Plant and animal life Approximately the lower two thirds of the region is covered in rain forest, which grows progressively thicker as one travels south. The forests are composed of hardwood evergreens of species such as dibetu, ebony, iroko, mahogany, obeche, and sapelli, some of which grow to heights of 70 metres or more. There are also numerous ferns and orchids. This forest is stratified into several levels. The first is composed of straight, thick-rooted trees averaging about 40-metres tall. After this grow shorter, thinner trees with highly placed clusters of leaves. Sparse grasses and other plants make up the ground layer. In areas closer to settlements and roads, human groups have harvested the larger trees, thus exposing the forest floor to more direct sunlight and allowing thick vegetation to thrive. The upper third of the province (beginning at about the latitude of Bertoua and Batouri) is dominated by humid, wooded savanna. Trees here are sparser, but still may grow to be as tall as 20 metres. The government of Cameroon has established four forest and game reserves in the East: the Dja Reserve (Réserve du Biosphère de Dja) in the southwest of the province and extending into the South Province, Lobéké Park (Parc National de la Lobéké), the Boumba-Bek Reserve (Réserve de Boumba-Bek) and the Nki Reserve (Réserve de Nki) in the southeast. The Pangar Djérem Reserve (Réserve Pangar Djerem) protects one of the more heavily wooded parts of the Guinean savanna in the region's northwest and extends into the Adamawa Region. Animal life is abundant and diverse. The forests are inhabited by numerous species of monkey, as well as some of the last populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in Cameroon. Bats and birds of various species are also common, as are various rodents. A few forest elephants still live in the region, as well. Many of these animals are currently under threat of extinction due to deforestation and the bushmeat trade. Demographics Settlement patterns The East had 517,198 inhabitants in 1987, and it remains the most sparsely populated of Cameroon's ten regions. The bulk of the territory has a population density of less than five persons/km2. This is mostly a result of the area's thick forests, which inhibit settlement and support disease-carrying insects such as mosquitoes and blackflies. These factors also make the East an unattractive target for development by both non-governmental organisations and the Cameroonian government, a fact that has only further prevented larger numbers of people from settling in the region. The majority of the population is thus primarily situated in villages and towns along the few major roads that traverse the region. Along these routes, population density jumps to as high as 20/km2 and to 20-60/km2 on the Bertoua-Batouri corridor. The traditional Bantu dwelling is a rectangular house made of sun-dried bricks placed in a wooden frame. Raffia palm fronds are a common covering, though metal roofing has become more common. People The majority of the inhabitants of the South are members of fulbe/fulani and various Bantu tribes that are collectively known as the Beti-Pahuin (Béti-Pahouin), the Fang-Beti, or simply the Fang. All of these groups speak various dialects of the Beti language. Most East Region peoples are considered Bantu in origin. The second most numerous are the various Adamawa–Ubangi tribes that inhabit much of the northern portions of the territory. Finally, the pygmies comprise another significant population. Most eastern peoples speak their own distinctive languages, though educated individuals usually also know French. Minor languages spoken include Bomwali, Bulu, Kol, Mbonga, and Vute. The people of the East are predominantly Christian, and Presbyterianism and Catholicism claim the most members. Animist beliefs are also followed by much of the population, often in conjunction with Christianity. The East also has a significant percentage of Muslims, particularly in the areas closer to the Adamawa Province. Bantu The speakers of Makaa–Njem languages are the largest group of Bantu peoples in the region. The Maka form the majority of this group and occupy much of the western territories on the border with the Centre Region, including the towns of Abong-Mbang, Nguelemendouka, and Doumé. The Bajwe inhabit the territory immediately south of this, centred at Messaména. The Nzime live at Mindourou and its surroundings on the road that runs south from Abong-Mbang. Further south on this road are the Njem, whose territory includes the settlements of Lomié, Zoulabot, Zwadiba, and Ngoila. The Mpo occupy most of the territory surrounding the Ndélélé-Yokadouma road and the side-roads off of it, as well as much of the border with the Congo. The Mpoman have a small enclave at Lokomo south of Yokadouma, and the Kunbabeeg live west of this Mpo-Mpoman territory. All of these groups speak distinct, but closely related, languages. Though the capital, Bertoua, is a traditional Gbaya settlement, the region is today a melange of several tribes, including the Baki, Pori, Bajem, and Kwa. The southwestern portion of the Lom and Djerem division, just west of this, is peopled by the Eki, who have more extensive territories in the Centre Region. Small areas on the road from Doumé to Gonga belong to the Kwakum and Pori. The Kaka live to the south and the west of the Kadey River and have high centres at Batouri and Ndélélé. The Bageto have lands south of Ndélélé. Adamawa–Ubangi The Gbaya are the most populous Ubangi group in the East, and they inhabit most of the Lom and Djerem division (including Bertoua) and the northernmost third of the Kadey division along the Kadey River. They also have smaller population centres, including the village of Gari-Gombo and Djampiel. The Kuo occupy the extreme northeastern corner of the region, including Wendoka. The Gbete (Kepere) live northwest of Bertoua, including the territory from Bélabo west to Yangamo. The Bangantu people live east of the Yokadouma-Moloundou road in the region's southeastern corner. Baka pygmies The rest of the region, that which is covered by thick forests and not serviced by roads, is inhabited by the Baka, Babaya, or Babinga pygmies. Though traditionally hunter-gatherers, in recent times, the Baka have established trade with their Bantu neighbours, exchanging wild game for crops or metal tools. This relationship is not always equal, however, and Bantu sometimes take advantage of the Baka, exploiting them for labour or ceding their territory to logging companies without compensation. The Cameroonian government has tried to encourage the Baka to establish permanent settlements, and some pygmy villages exist in the territory. Most of the Baka remain nomadic, however, living in temporary shelters of leaves and sticks. A much greater force acting to end the Baka's traditional lifestyle is intermarriage and assimilation into neighbouring tribes. Economy Agriculture The vast majority of the inhabitants of the region are subsistence farmers. Major crops are plantains south of Bertoua and Batouri and maize north of there. Farmers also raise many other crops in smaller quantities, including bananas, groundnuts, cocoyams, manioc, pineapples, oranges, mangoes, and yams. The dense forest and presence of the tsetse fly prohibits much cattle raising, but various livestock are raised for subsistence purposes, including pigs, sheep, goats, ducks, and chickens, as well as horses and donkeys in the extreme northeast. The Livestock Development Exploitation Organisation also runs a modern cattle ranch at Ndokayo in the province's northeast. Farms are mostly small-scale affairs planted in clearings in the forest. Farmers clear an area during the dry season using traditional implements such as axes and machetes. The area is then burned, with care taken to preserve fruit trees such as mangoes or plums. At the start of the wet season, spices and common vegetables are planted close to the home and tubers, such as cocoyams and manioc, are placed with plantains in larger plots farther afield. Farmyard manure is used as fertiliser. Crops are then harvested at the beginning of the next dry season. This method of slash-and-burn agriculture allows for high yields in the short term, but quickly exhausts the soil. Farms are thus moved every two to three years, and land must remain fallow for up to ten years once it has been drained in this way. With the East's low population density, however, this generally presents little problem. Commercial crops also exist. Cocoa and coffee are raised for profit in the areas of Abong-Mbang, Bertoua, and Yokadouma, as well as in the heavy forests south of these areas. Tobacco is grown in the plains north of Batouri. No large-scale commercial livestock exists in the East, though cattle from the northern regions of Cameroon are herded through the province on their way to market in Yaoundé. Hunting and gathering Crop growing is often supplemented by hunting and gathering, particularly in more rural areas. In fact, among the province's pygmies, these activities are carried out almost exclusively. While gathering of various wild plant species is primarily a female occupation, hunting is conducted by men with traditional implements such as bows and arrows, spears, blowguns, and traps. In addition, firearms are becoming much more common in modern times. Though most hunting is done on a small scale, larger-scale techniques are sometimes employed. In these bigger hunts, people set fire to areas of forest or grassland in order to flush out prey. Other hunters or dogs frighten the animals into running toward armed men who then kill them. Industry The major industry of the East is forestry. The region has vast tracts of forest, and African and European companies have exploited these heavily. Because of the rapid rate of exploitation, however, lumber companies have been forced to push further and further into Central Africa to find suitable trees. As a result, much of the logging that once took place in Cameroon has been relocated to neighbouring countries such as Congo and the Central African Republic. The massive logging vehicles still travel through the East on their way to Cameroon's ports, and it is possible that without the logging industry, the East might never have got the little transportation network that exists there now. The East is also the home of several timber processing centres with major operations located around Bélabo, Dimako, and Mindourou. In recent years, speculators have found deposits of gold near Bataré-Oya, cobalt near Lomié, and iron and aluminium in other areas. Companies have since moved in to exploit these resources as well. Other industries have a much smaller presence, such as a groundnut-oil mill located in Bertoua. Transportation For its vast size, the East has very little transportation infrastructure. With the exception of a few private logging roads, travel through the province is only feasible along the three main roads that cover the territory. The first of these, National Road #10, heads east from Yaoundé, passes through Ayos on the border with the Centre Province, then continues on through the towns of Abong-Mbang, Doumé, Dimako, Bertoua, and Batouri before turning south at Ndélélé near the Central African Republic border to pass through Gari-Goumbo and Yokadouma before terminating at Moloundou on the Congo border. Another major road begins in Abong-Mbang and heads south through Mindourou to Lomié. Neither of these roads is paved, causing travel conditions in most of the province to fluctuate with the seasons. The third major route through the province is a road from Bertoua to Garoua-Boulaï on the border with Central African Republic. This road was paved in 1997 with funds from the European Union. The only public transport that covers these routes is privately owned bush taxis or mini-buses run by private groups known as GICs (French acronym meaning "group d'initiative commune"). The East is accessible via railroad, as well, through Camrail, the state-owned train system. The train comes from Douala and Yaoundé and passes through Bélabo in East Region before heading north to Ngaoundéré in the Adamawa Region. There is a regional airport in Bertoua that is officially part of state-owned Camair's network, but it has been out of service since 2003. In addition, the Nyong River is navigable from Abong-Mbang to the Centre Province town of Mbalmayo during the rainy season. Tourism Due to the remoteness of the region and the difficulty of travel within it, the East sees very few tourists. The area boasts huge tracts of relatively untouched rain forest, however, and non-governmental organisations such as Ecofac and the World Wildlife Fund have in recent years endeavored to make the area a viable destination for eco-tourism. Their efforts have centered on the East's national parks and forest reserves, particularly the Dja Reserve. In 2003, for example, CIAD and other NGOs began a gorilla habituation project to pave the way for camera-toting tourists to come within a few metres of the animals to see them in their natural environment. However, government corruption led to the cancellation of the initiative. Hunters may also pursue game through these reserves. Administration and social conditions Government A presidentially appointed governor heads the administration of the province from the capital city of Bertoua. The East is divided into four departments (departements), each headed by a presidentially appointed senior divisional officer or prefect (prefet): Boumba-et-Ngoko (Boumba and Ngoko) takes up the southeast and has its centre in Yokadouma. Haut-Nyong (Upper Nyong) occupies the southwestern portion and is centred on Abong-Mbang. Kadey (also spelled Kadéï or Kadei) forms the central-eastern portion of the territory and is governed from Batouri. Lom-et-Djérem (Lom and Djérem) consists of the north of the province and has its capital in Bertoua. Each of these divisions is further divided into sub-divisions, each headed by a sub-divisional officer or sub-prefect (sous-prefet). Individual towns usually have a mayor, and some villages have a traditional chief, though this person usually holds little actual authority. Cameroonian politicians have traditionally ignored the East. The region is simply too underpopulated to have much influence in countrywide elections. Eastern residents have in recent years called for more infrastructure improvements from the government, especially the paving of roads. Candidates for office and government officials do occasionally make stops in the region to address such issues, but their message is often simply an excuse for why such improvements would be detrimental to the region. For example, they often argue that paved roads would only allow the forests upon which the region depends to be cut down at an even faster rate. Education School attendance rates are difficult to determine for the East, but are generally higher in the towns than in the villages. Primary schools are fairly widely distributed, but most of the region's secondary schools are located in larger villages or in towns, meaning that students from more remote areas must walk long distances, stay with relatives, or rent rooms during the school year. In addition, school fees keep many families from sending their children for an education. Health Due to its thick forests and equatorial climate, the East is home to a host of tropical diseases. Chief among these is malaria, which remains a major cause of death in the region. Dengue fever, filariasis, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis are also endemic. In 1997 and 1998, health professionals recorded outbreaks of what may have been the Ebola virus in the southwest near Ngoila. The World Health Organization today doubts that this "bloody diarrhea" was in fact that virus, however. As with most of sub-Saharan Africa, poor sanitation is a major source of illness for people in the East. Diseases spread this way include schistosomiasis, brucellosis, hepatitis A, amoebic dysentery, bacterial dysentery, and giardia. In recent years, the East has come into focus for its role in the AIDS epidemic. This largely stems from the region's position as a transportation network for logging vehicles. In addition to the transportation network, the construction of the Chad/Cameroon pipeline has fueled the increase of Prostitution along these routes, with professional sex workers operating in virtually every town and village along the province's roads. Government estimates report the HIV rate among operators of these logging vehicles to be about 18% and that of the sex workers to be as high as 30%. Government efforts in the 1980s to improve the number and quality of hospitals in Cameroon have made healthcare more available in the region. Most hospitals and clinics are located in the larger towns, however, meaning that the seriously ill have little chance of getting to treatment in many cases. Traditional medicine is still largely practiced in the East, as well, and many people ascribe various maladies to the workings of witches or sorcerers. History Early population movements Archaeological finds around Batouri, Bertoua, and Bétaré-Oya attest to human presence in the territory of the East Province since prehistoric times. The earliest inhabitants of the region are commonly assumed to have been the Bambenga pygmies, part of the larger Twa group who may be descendants of the pygmies mentioned in Egyptian and Classical sources. The pygmies were followed by waves of migrating Bantus in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Maka stayed to occupy the territories surrounding what is now Massaména and Abong-Mbang, and the Njem settled around present-day Mindourou and Lomié. The Kaka settled in the territory that is now Ndélélé. A later wave of immigration came in the 19th century when the Beti-Pahuin pushed in from the west to escape pressures from the Babouti. This second Bantu invasion did not get far, however, as the Fang-Beti soon encountered the Maka and Njem and were unable to press on further. Of these, the Maka-Njem moved into the territory first, after being forced from their home north of the Lom River by migrating Beti-Pahuin peoples, themselves fleeing the Vute, Mbum, Gbaya, and, ultimately, the Fulani. The Maka stayed to occupy the territories surrounding what is now Massaména and Abong-Mbang, and the Njem settled around present-day Mindourou and Lomié. The Kaka settled in the territory that is now Ndélélé. The Adama-Ubangi peoples came into the territory as part of this same general migration, though they were usually the ones pushing the Bantu peoples further south. Gbaya tradition says that they moved into the region of Bertoua under a leader named Ndiba. His son, Mbartoua, was in power when the Germans arrived. The coming of the Europeans For the five centuries or so since the Portuguese first reached the coast of present Cameroon, European explorers made little attempt to push into the intererior. The region was a source of slaves, which were shipped out via the port at Douala or via the Congo River, though the numbers of natives taken were much smaller than in areas closer to the coast. The French were the first Europeans to enter the region when they began exploring the Congo Basin in the mid-19th century. It was the Germans, however, who first gained formal control over the area, establishing the eastern border through negotiations with France between 1885 and 1908. Ironically, the earliest German colonists to the eastern forests were largely entering unknown territory. The Germans set to work building roads and establishing plantations, both endeavors requiring forced labor by the natives. This often led to violence, such as when the Gbaya under Mbartoua led a rebellion in the Bertoua region in 1903. Another revolt occurred when the Kaka protested their loss of lucrative trade opportunities that they had enjoyed in pre-colonial days. At the end of World War I in 1916, Germany was forced to cede its colony to France. The French divided Cameroon into nine administrative areas, and most of what is now the East Province fell into the Doumé-Loume-Yokadouma district with its capital in Doumé. The French largely continued the colonial practices of the Germans, with forced labor continuing into the early 20th century. They made further infrastructure improvements, as well, such as improving the road from Yaoundé to Bertoua and on to Garoua-Boulaï. Post-independence The boundaries of the East Province were finalised after Cameroon gained independence in 1961. The capital was moved from Doumé to Bertoua in 1972. The region has largely been ignored since independence. One of the few developments of note include the extension of the railroad from Yaoundé to Bélabo under the presidency of Ahmadou Ahidjo. In the first months of 2014, thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in the Central African Republic arrived in Cameroon via the border towns of the East Region, Adamawa Region, and North Region. Culture Traditional dance accessories Traditional Dances Traditional musical instruments References Chrispin, Dr. Pettang, directeur, Cameroun: Guide touristique. Paris: Les Éditions Wala. Fanso, V.G. (1989) Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd. Fitzpatrick, Mary (2002) "Cameroon," Lonely Planet West Africa, 5th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd. Fomensky, R., M. Gwanfogbe, and F. Tsala, editorial advisers (1985) Macmillan School Atlas for Cameroon. Malaysia: Macmillan Education Ltd. Gwanfogbe, Mathew, Ambrose Meligui, Jean Moukam, and Jeanette Nguoghia (1983) Geography of Cameroon. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd. Neba, Aaron, Ph.D. (1999) Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon, 3rd ed. Bamenda: Neba Publishers. Ngoh, Victor Julius (1996) History of Cameroon Since 1800. Limbé: Presbook. Regions of Cameroon States and territories established in 1961	5,822
doc-en-10668_0	The IND Culver Line (formerly BMT Culver Line) is a rapid transit line of the B Division of the New York City Subway, extending from Downtown Brooklyn south to Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City, United States. The local tracks of the Culver Line are served by the F service, as well as the G between Bergen Street and Church Avenue. The express tracks north of Church Avenue are used by the <F> train during rush hours in the peak direction. The peak-direction express track between Ditmas Avenue and Avenue X has not seen regular service since 1987. The line is named after Andrew Culver, who built the original Culver Line that preceded the current subway line. The present-day line was built as two unconnected segments operated by the Independent Subway System (IND) and Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT). The northern section of the line, between Jay Street–MetroTech and Church Avenue, is a four-track line that was built for the IND in 1933, running primarily underground except for a short elevated section over the Gowanus Canal. The southern section, between Ditmas Avenue and Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue, was originally built for the BMT in 1919–1920 as a three-track elevated structure between Ninth Avenue in Sunset Park and Avenue X, and as a two-track elevated structure south of Avenue X. A ramp in the neighborhood of Kensington, which opened in 1954, connects the segments between the Church and Ditmas Avenues stations. The segment of the BMT line between Ninth and Ditmas Avenues remained as the Culver Shuttle until it was closed in 1975 and later demolished. The elevated part of the Culver Line south of Church Avenue, which operated as part of the BMT until 1954, now carries only the F, a former IND service, and is chained and signaled as part of the IND. However, BMT radio frequency B1 is used on the elevated portion south of Church Avenue. Extent and service The following services use part or all of the IND Culver Line: The Culver Line is served by the as a local for its entire length, though <F> trains run express between Jay Street and Church Avenue in the peak direction. The portion of the route from Bergen Street south to Church Avenue is also served by the Brooklyn–Queens Crosstown service. Both routes run at all times. There are two express tracks on the northern part of the route and one on the southern, with express stations distributed along the line. However, express service has only operated once on the line from 1968 to 1987. Restoration of express service has been thwarted by budget shortages, passenger opposition, and a serious signal fire at Bergen Street in 1999. The issue came to a head in June 2007, when a petition for express service reached 2,600 signatures and gained media attention. The Culver Line underwent repairs from 2009 until early 2013, during which the express tracks were replaced and rehabilitated which may facilitate future express service. Jay Street to Church Avenue The subway portion of the IND Culver Line was originally designated the Brooklyn Line but has also been called the Smith Street Line, Church Avenue Line, South Brooklyn Line, and various other names. The express tracks beneath Prospect Park are sometimes referred to as the Prospect Park Line. The line begins at the four-tracked Jay Street–MetroTech station, where the IND Sixth Avenue and Eighth Avenue lines interchange and continue as the Culver and Fulton Street lines respectively. Running under Smith Street south of the station, the Culver tracks split into local and express tracks, with the two express tracks ramping down to the lower level of Bergen Street, while the local tracks merge with the IND Crosstown Line tracks from Hoyt-Schermerhorn Street before entering the upper level. Between Jay Street and Bergen Street, the line passes under both the IRT Eastern Parkway Line and the Fulton Line tracks curving east into Hoyt-Schermerhorn Street, requiring a deeper tunnel and extensive ventilation systems. At Carroll Street, the express tracks ramp up to rejoin the local tracks, and all four tracks rise onto the Culver Viaduct, curving onto Ninth Street. East of Fourth Avenue station towards Park Slope, the tracks become a subway once again. Past 7th Avenue, the local tracks diverge, curving south to 15th Street and Prospect Park West, while the express tracks take a direct route beneath Prospect Park. This is one of two places in the subway where the express tracks diverge from the local tracks, the other being on the IND Queens Boulevard Line between 65th Street and 36th Street. The express tracks rejoin the right-of-way at approximately Terrace Place and Prospect Avenue, running on a lower level under Prospect Avenue and Fort Hamilton Parkway near the Prospect Park Parade Grounds, then rise up as the line curves onto McDonald Avenue. The line then parallels the route of the original Culver Line surface railroad into Church Avenue station, the last stop of the original IND service. A single track in both directions, connecting from the local and express tracks in each direction, ramps down to the four-track Church Avenue Yard, used as a relay and storage facility for trains. The four mainline tracks ascend to the Culver Ramp on McDonald Avenue between Cortelyou Road and Avenue C, which connects the subway portion of the IND Culver Line with the former BMT Culver Line elevated structure. Despite being a part of the IND Division, the Culver elevated portion is controlled by BMT radio dispatch, so train operators change between the IND (B-2) and BMT (B-1) radio frequencies at this point. Culver Viaduct The northern section of the Culver Line is a four-track line, entirely underground except for Smith–Ninth Streets and Fourth Avenue stations. The two stations sit on a massive one-mile long steel and concrete viaduct which spans the Gowanus Canal between 9th and 10th Streets. This structure is now referred to as the Culver Viaduct or Culver Line Viaduct, the only portion of the original IND subway to be elevated, and the only section other than the now-demolished World's Fair Railroad to be outdoors. The viaduct was constructed due to the depth of the canal (15 feet at its deepest point), due to the topography of the Park Slope neighborhood, and to avoid local stores in the area. Otherwise, a tunnel carrying the line would have to have been built below both the canal and the BMT Fourth Avenue Line (necessitating stations deep below the ground); or Ninth Street would be raised above grade level to pass over the canal and BMT subway. Both underground options were considered expensive and impractical, and the viaduct was estimated to save $12 million in construction costs when it was selected in 1927. During planning, the viaduct's height was later increased from to around , due to now-defunct navigation regulations for tall-mast shipping. Because of this, Smith–Ninth Streets was built at an elevation of , the highest subway station above ground level in the world. Fourth Avenue, meanwhile, is actually at a lower elevation and altitude than the Seventh Avenue underground station. For most of its history, G service has terminated at Smith–Ninth Streets, relaying using the express tracks and switches at Fourth Avenue. This occasionally caused delays to F service, and prevented express service from being operated. In 2009, the G's terminus was moved to Church Avenue in order to complete renovations on the viaduct. In July 2012, this extension was made permanent. Ditmas Avenue to Coney Island At Ditmas Avenue, the Culver Ramp ends and the underground line becomes elevated. This is a three-track Dual Contracts elevated on the former BMT line over McDonald (formerly Gravesend) Avenue. Just before the station, the southbound local track merges into the southbound express track, while the northbound express track becomes the El's bidirectional center express track. During the 1990s and 2000s, the center express track in this section was occasionally used for non-revenue testing. After Avenue X station, a ramp diverges to the surface for access to the Culver Yard of the Coney Island Yards complex. At this point the Culver Line narrows to a two-track structure bearing one more station–Neptune Avenue–before curving into West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium station on Coney Island. Formally, the Culver Line ends as the track curve enters the lower level of the double-decked station along the BMT Brighton Line's right-of-way, and the chaining track designation changes from IND tracks B1 and B2 to BMT tracks A1 and A2 of the Brighton Line. However, there is no longer a connection to the Brighton Line at this point, and for all practical purposes the Culver Line continues into tracks 5 and 6 of the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue Terminal. History Early years as two separate lines BMT Culver Line (1875–1954) The original Culver Line was opened by the Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad and was named after the railroad's builder, Andrew N. Culver. The line ran along the surface of McDonald Avenue (then Gravesend Avenue) from Greenwood Cemetery (where it connected with horse car lines including the Vanderbilt Avenue Line, operated by the PP&CI until 1886) to the Culver Depot in Coney Island, on June 25, 1875. The PP&CI began serving the Union Depot at 36th Street, where transfer could be made to the Fifth Avenue Elevated, on June 7, 1890, by using the Prospect Park and South Brooklyn Railroad from a junction at Parkville. During a period of Long Island Rail Road control, from 1893 to 1899, a ramp at 36th Street was opened in 1895, allowing Brooklyn Elevated Railroad trains to operate over the Culver Line to Coney Island. The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT), by then the owner of the Brooklyn Elevated, leased the Culver Line (to the Brooklyn Heights Railroad) on June 18, 1899, and began using it to take not only elevated trains but also trolleys to Coney Island. As part of Contract 4 of the Dual Contracts, between the city and the BRT, a three-track elevated railway was built above the Culver Line. The line, formally known as Route 49, or the Gravesend Avenue Line, was to run from the Fifth Avenue Elevated at Tenth Avenue and 37th Street, above private property south of 37th Street, and then south over Gravesend Avenue to Coney Island. At Ninth Avenue, the elevated replacements for the Culver Line and West End Line met, with access from both lines to the Fifth Avenue Elevated and Fourth Avenue Subway to the northwest. Construction of the route was done in four sections: Section 1, 1-A, 2, and 3. Section 1-A extended from a location on the west building line of Tenth Avenue between 38th Street and 37th Street to a location east of the building line on Tenth Avenue, running in an open cut and then a fill over Tenth Avenue. Section 1 extended from a point east of the building line on Tenth Avenue to, over private property and 37th Street, and Gravesend Avenue to a location south of the intersection of Gravesend Avenue and the southern building line of 22nd Avenue. Section 2 stretched from here along Gravesend Avenue to Avenue X, and Section 3 continued from here south along Shell Road and West 6th Street to a point near the southern line of Sheepshead Bay Road, where it would connect with the Brighton Line for access to Coney Island. The contract to construct Section 2 was awarded to Oscar Daniels Company for $863,775 on July 10, 1915. Work was to be completed in eighteen months. On September 8, 1915, the contract to construct Section 1 was awarded to Post & McCord for $877,859. Work on the section was to be completed in fifteen months. On January 23, 1917, a contract to construct Section 1-in four months A of the line was awarded to Thomas Dwyer for $42,268. At 3:00 a.m. on March 16, 1919, the first portion of the new elevated structure opened from Ninth Avenue southeast and south to Kings Highway. Except for the omission of a station at 15th Avenue, all of the station locations from the surface line were preserved as elevated stations. The Culver Line was operated as a branch of the Fifth Avenue Elevated, with a free transfer at Ninth Avenue to the West End Line into the Fourth Avenue Subway. An extension to Avenue X was opened at noon on May 10, 1919. The line, the last of the four to Coney Island, was completed on May 1, 1920, at which time the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT) was forced to cut the fare from ten to five cents. This construction tied into the existing lower level of the BMT Brighton Line east of West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium. Some Culver Line (5) trains began using the Fourth Avenue Subway to the Nassau Street Loop in Lower Manhattan when that line opened on May 30, 1931; the Fifth Avenue Elevated was closed on May 31, 1940, in conjunction with the unification of the transit system under city operations. Trolleys continued to use the surface tracks on McDonald Avenue until October 30, 1956. IND Brooklyn Line (1933–1954) One of the goals of Mayor John Hylan's Independent Subway System (IND), proposed in the 1920s was a line to Coney Island, reached by a recapture of the BMT Culver Line. To connect this line to the Eighth Avenue Line–the main trunk of the IND–a subway line was to run from Brooklyn Borough Hall south under Jay Street, Smith Street, Ninth Street, and several other streets to Cortelyou Road (later Church Avenue) and McDonald Avenue, just north of the Ditmas Avenue elevated station. A ramp would then lead onto the elevated BMT Culver Line. This line was variously known as the Culver Line Extension, Culver−Smith Street Line, Smith Street Line, Smith Street–Prospect Park Line, Smith–Ninth Street Line, Jay–Smith–Ninth Street Line, Church Avenue Line, Prospect Park–Church Avenue Line, Prospect Park–Coney Island Line, Brooklyn Line, or South Brooklyn Line, though it was often simply referred to as the Brooklyn portion of the IND. As originally designed, service to and from Manhattan would have been exclusively provided by Culver express trains, while all local service would have fed into the IND Crosstown Line. By 1927, it was decided to build a truss bridge over the Gowanus Canal and a viaduct over Ninth Street due to cost considerations, replacing earlier plans for a deep river tunnel. This resulted in the only above-ground section of the original IND. The first short section of the line opened on March 20, 1933, taking Eighth Avenue Express trains (and for about a month from July to August trains) south from Jay Street to Bergen Street. The rest of the line opened on October 7, 1933 to the "temporary" terminal at Church Avenue, three blocks away from the Culver elevated at Ditmas Avenue. In 1936, the A was rerouted to the IND Fulton Street Line and trains from the Queens Boulevard line replaced them. On July 1, 1937, the connection to the IND Crosstown Line opened and trains were extended to Smith-Ninth Streets. E trains were replaced by the on December 15, 1940 after the IND Sixth Avenue Line opened. As part of the various proposed extensions of the IND Second System, the IND Culver subway was planned to facilitate a spur line to Bay Ridge, with a connection to the incomplete Staten Island Tunnel intended for the BMT Fourth Avenue Line. A 1931 proposal had the line travel south from Smith–Ninth Streets station through Red Hook and Gowanus to Saint George Terminal. A 1933 plan would have branched off between Smith–Ninth Streets and Fourth Avenue, then run down Second Avenue in Bay Ridge to the tunnel. Like other IND lines, this route would have been in direct competition with the then-privately operated Fourth Avenue Subway. The final proposal from the 1939 Second System plan proposed an extension down Fort Hamilton Parkway and/or Tenth Avenue towards the tunnel, with continued service to 86th Street in Bay Ridge near the BMT Fourth Avenue Line station. This route would have diverged near the Fort Hamilton Parkway and Church Avenue stations. In 1940, proposals emerged to connect the IND with the BMT West End Line near its Fort Hamilton Parkway station; the 1946 Board of Transportation plans featured both the West End connection and the extension to 86th Street. None of these proposals were ever constructed. Culver Ramp Taking over operations, or "recapturing", the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) Culver Line elevated structure in order to institute IND service to Coney Island was a high priority of New York City planners. Recapture proved unnecessary since the Culver Line and the rest of the BMT and Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) passed into City hands in 1940 as a result of the unification of the three companies. The new connection would create a one-fare ride for IND passengers to Coney Island, and eliminate congestion on the BMT's Fourth Avenue Subway. At the time, the IND had no direct connections to the rest of the subway system. Around 1940, a temporary ramp was installed to connect the underground IND Culver Line to the street-level South Brooklyn Railway, underneath the BMT Culver Line; this connection was used to deliver some IND rolling stock. The proposed Culver Ramp, also referred to as the Culver Line Connection, would allow passenger service between the underground Church Avenue and elevated Ditmas Avenue stations. Construction began in June 1941, and was expected to be completed by the end of the year. The ramp was expected to cost $2 million, and along with new signals, and rehabilitation of the Culver elevated and lengthening of its stations to IND standards, the total cost of the project was estimated at over $11 million. 170 subway cars were purchased for $8.5 million for the extension of IND service. Two substations, a signal tower, a fourth track at Ditmas Avenue, and an additional stairway at Ditmas Avenue were all completed as part of the project. McDonald Avenue was also widened between Avenue C and Cortelyou Road to facilitate the ramp. Though the ramp was nearly complete, including rails and signal work, construction was halted later that year because of America's entrance into World War II. When the project was restarted in 1946, completion was delayed further due to continued material shortages and a lack of rolling stock to facilitate the new service. On October 30, 1954, the connection between the IND Brooklyn Line at Church Avenue and the BMT Culver Line at Ditmas Avenue opened. This allowed IND trains to operate all the way to the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue terminal. IND Culver Line (1954–present) Following the completion of Culver Ramp, Concourse Express trains (which formerly terminated in Manhattan) replaced service, and were sent over the new connection as the first IND service to reach Coney Island. The service was announced as Concourse–Culver and advertised as direct Bronx–Coney Island service. BMT Culver Line (5) trains were truncated to Ditmas Avenue, the south end of the connection, operating through to Manhattan via the Nassau Street Loop during the day, and terminating at Ninth Avenue at other times. This Culver Shuttle became full-time on May 28, 1959, and was closed on May 13, 1975, replaced by a transfer to the B35 bus route. The elevated portion has been re-chained as part of the B2 (IND) division, but still uses B1 (BMT) division radio frequencies. On November 26, 1967, the Chrystie Street Connection opened and D trains were rerouted via the Manhattan Bridge and the BMT Brighton Line to Coney Island. F trains were extended once again via the Culver Line. From June 1968 to 1987, the Culver Line featured express service during rush hours. F trains ran express in both directions between Bergen Street and Church Avenue, while G trains were extended from Smith–Ninth Streets to Church Avenue to provide local service. Express service on the elevated portion of the line to Kings Highway operated in the peak direction (to Manhattan AM; to Brooklyn PM), with some F trains running local and some running express. Express service between Bergen and Church ended in 1976, and between Church and Kings Highway on April 27, 1987, largely due to budget constraints and complaints from passengers at local stations. Express service on the elevated Culver Line was ended due to necessary structural work, and was supposed to be restored after the $50 million project's completion in 1990, but never restored. With the end of express service, Bergen Street's lower level was taken out of service. Following renovations to the station in the 1990s, the lower level was converted into storage space and is not usable for passenger service in its current state. Rehabilitation and express service In 2007, the MTA announced that several portions of the Culver Line would be undergoing extensive rehabilitation. The first renovation involved repairs of the elevated Culver Viaduct (including the Smith–Ninth Streets and Fourth Avenue stations) and modernization of the interlockings at Bergen Street, 4th Avenue, and Church Avenue. The B5 layup track was removed as part of the project. This also allowed the G train to be extended from its longtime terminus at Smith–Ninth Streets to a more efficient terminus at Church Avenue beginning in July 2009. The project was completed in 2013. Around the time the rehabilitation project was announced, a petition to restore express service along the line gained attention, due to increasing ridership on both the F and G services in Brooklyn. The petition, which gained over 2,500 signatures by June 2007 and nearly 4,000 by September, proposed to restore express service by making the Church Avenue extension of the G permanent and extending the (eliminated in 2010) from its Manhattan terminus to Brooklyn, sharing the Rutgers Street Tunnel with the F. The G extension was made permanent in July 2012, freeing up the express tracks formerly used to relay trains. In 2015, some rush-hour peak-direction F trains started skipping local stops between Jay Street and Fourth Avenue, and the MTA used expanded rush-hour express service (from Jay Street to Church Avenue) in both directions in the summers of 2016 and 2017. In May 2016, the MTA announced that half of all rush-hour F trains may start running express in both directions in fall 2017; however, because of rolling stock and track capacity limitations, the train frequency on the rest of the F route would remain the same. However, with the introduction of the R179s, one more train per hour could be run on the F. The operation of half of the F trains as express would result in operational improvements, with faster service, as southbound F trains would no longer be delayed by terminating G trains discharging at Church Avenue. Overall, the F express will result in an overall reduction of 27,000 minutes during the AM rush hour and 13,000 minutes during the PM rush hour. The change in service will decrease service at local stations, reducing in longer wait times, but it will help riders in South Brooklyn with the longest commutes. F express trains would be slightly more crowded than current F trains, but the F locals would be less crowded. PM rush hour express service would lead to much larger exit surges from less frequent F local trains at Bergen Street and Carroll Street, leading to significant congestion at one staircase at Bergen Street, and moderate congestion at one staircase at Carroll Street. Relieving the congestion, would entail widening the staircases and installing ADA-required elevators that would cost approximately $10 million per station. Stations along the three-tracked stretch of the Culver Line were renovated until July 30, 2018 (excluding Ditmas Avenue and the northbound platform of Avenue X, which were rehabilitated in 2015–2016), with the center track being used to bypass closed stations. The Coney Island-bound platforms were rehabilitated between June 7, 2016 and May 1, 2017 (May 8 for Avenue U and Avenue X). During the second phase of the project, beginning on May 22, 2017, the Manhattan-bound platforms were closed between Avenue U and 18th Avenue until July 30, 2018. Even after the rehabilitation, though, peak-direction express service between Church Avenue and Kings Highway will not be restored due to limitations caused by current track configurations, as the switches at Kings Highway previously used were removed in the 1990s. The interlocking at Kings Highway is scheduled to be modernized as part of the 2020–2024 MTA Capital Program, and the modernization could include the reinstallation of the necessary track switches. A switch will be added between the express track and the northbound local track south of Avenue P. The possibility of reopening the Bergen Street lower level was looked at as part of the study for the reintroduction of F express service as it could reduce the impact of less local service at the busy station. The station, if reopened, would require significant and expensive reconstruction, including making the station ADA accessible, the reconstruction of platform stairs, improved lighting and communications, waterproofing and concrete repairs, among other things. The rehabilitation would cost $75 million, and therefore the lower level is not currently planned to be reopened. In July 2019, online newspaper The City discovered that the MTA had allocated $660,000 in its 2015–2019 Capital Program for a design study to make patches to the Culver Viaduct, whose renovation was completed in 2016. The study would determine how to fix the premature deterioration of structural braces, unsatisfactory drainage, and leaking expansion joints. Funding will be provided in a future capital program. In July 2019, the MTA announced that it planned to run four rush-hour express F trains per day, two in each direction, starting in September 2019. The trains would run in the peak direction, toward Manhattan in the morning and toward Brooklyn in the evening. The trains would make an intermediate stop at Seventh Avenue between Jay Street–MetroTech and Church Avenue and bypass a total of six stations. This service is represented with a diamond <F>, similar to the symbol used on other peak-direction express services. Automation In order to test the interoperability of the communications-based train control (CBTC) systems of different suppliers, CBTC equipment was installed on the southbound express track between Fourth Avenue and Church Avenue, as part of the automation of the New York City Subway. The total cost was $99.6 million, with $15 million coming from the 2005–2009 Capital Program and $84.6 million from the 2010–2014 Capital Program. The installation was a joint venture between Siemens and Thales Group, and was used to test the track's new signaling on R143s and R160s that were already equipped with CBTC. Though the estimated completion date was scheduled for March 2015, it was completed in December 2015. The installation was expected to be permanent. Test trains on the track were able to successfully operate using the interoperable Siemens/Thales CBTC system. That system became the standard for all future CBTC installations on New York City Transit tracks . A third supplier, Mitsubishi Electric Power Products Inc., was given permission to demonstrate that its technology could be interoperable with the Siemens/Thales technology. The $1.2 million Mitsubishi contract was approved in July 2015. If Culver Line express service was implemented in 2017 as it was proposed, the express service would not initially have used CBTC, and testing of CBTC on the express track would be limited to off-peak hours. In 2017, the MTA started testing ultra-wideband radio-enabled train signaling on the IND Culver Line. The ultra-wideband train signals would be able to transmit more data wirelessly in a manner similar to CBTC, but can be installed faster than CBTC systems. The ultra-wideband signals would have the added benefit of allowing passengers to use cellphones while between stations, instead of the current setup where passengers could only get cellphone signals within the stations themselves. As part of the MTA's 2015–2019 Capital Program, CBTC is being installed on the section of the line between Church Avenue and West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium, replacing 70-year old signals. The contract for the installation of CBTC and the modernization of the Ditmas Avenue and Avenue X interlockings, was awarded in February 2019 to Tutor Perini for $253 million. Substantial completion of the project was expected in August 2022. As part of the project, switches north of Ditmas Avenue will be removed, and will be replaced by two new interlockings directly south of Church Avenue and a new interlocking north of 18th Avenue. In addition, Avenue X interlocking will be reconfigured. , 80% of wayside signaling equipment had been installed, a relay room was completed, steel and concrete floors at the Ditmas Avenue signal facility were installed, all signal cables were installed, and piling and grade beam installation at the Avenue X signal facility were completed. To allow the CBTC project to enter its next phase, F service was suspended south of Church Avenue during most weekends starting in early 2020. Work to install CBTC continued into 2021. Station listing References External links NYCsubway.org – IND Crosstown Line NYCsubway.org – BMT Culver Line The Prospect Park and South Brooklyn Railroad Company and The Culver Shuttle (Arrt's Arrchives) Brooklyn F Express Study and Culver Line Track Diagram G Line Track Diagram: Court Square to Church Avenue Track Diagram: Bergen Street to Church Avenue New York City Subway lines Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation Independent Subway System Railway lines opened in 1919	6,418
doc-en-10674_0	Russian federal highways (; lit. Highways of federal importance of the Russian Federation) are the most important highways in Russia that are federal property. The following motorways are designated as federal. All highways that connect Moscow with the capitals of the neighbouring countries and with the administrative centres of the subjects of the Russian Federation. They are identified by the prefix "M" in the national route signs; that are parts of the international road networks: European and Asian, identified by prefixes "E" and "AH" in the international route signs used simultaneously with the national route signs. Some highways that connect administrative centers of the subjects of the Russian Federation with each other (national route sign prefix "P," which is the Cyrillic "R") that are branching and bridging roads (national prefix "A"): access roads that lead to major transportation nodes and special objects access roads from the administrative centers of the subjects of the Russian Federation which has no highway connection with Moscow to the nearest sea and river ports and to the international borders. which interlink other federal highways. The federal highways are classified in Russia into two categories: "motorways/Avtomagistral" (), not the same as the English term motorway "other". Roads of regional importance The local importance roads in Russia are designated with a letter prefix and a number as well as the OKATO (Общероссийский классификатор объектов административно-территориального деления, Russian classification on objects of administrative division) code for the region. These roads use the following prefixes: P: Highways of federal or regional significance connecting the administrative centers of the Russian Federation A: Highways that are branching and bridging roads: access roads that lead to major transportation nodes and special objects access roads from the administrative centers of the subjects of the Russian Federation which has no highway connection with Moscow to the nearest sea and river ports and to the international borders which interlink other federal highways K: for other roads of regional importance N: for roads of intermunicipal significance Network map International highways National routes Cyrillic Р is used on signs. R-1: Brin-Navolok - Mirnyy - Kargopol' - Pesok - Prokshino; redesignated as 11P-001 R-2: Dolmatovo - Nyandoma - Kargopol' R-5: Vologda - Vitegra - Pudozh - Medvezhyegorsk, redesignated as A119 R-6: Cherepovets - Belozyorsk - Lipin Bor R-7: Chekshino - Tot'ma - Nikolsk R-8: Ustyuzhna - Valdai R-10: R-12 "Lotta": Murmansk to the border with Finland; redesignated as 47A-059 R-18: Byelomorsk to route R21 "Kola" R-19: Petrozavodsk - Voznesen'ye R-20: Route A17 - Dzhankoy to the border with Ukraine R-21 "Kola": Saint Petersburg - Petrozavodsk - Murmansk - Pechenga - border with Norway, entrances to Murmansk Airport, Petrozavodsk and Petrozavodsk Airport; former M18 R-22 "Caspian": Kashira - Tambov - Volgograd - Astrakhan, entrance to the cities of Tambov, Saratov and Elista; former M6 R-23: Saint Petersburg - Pskov - Pustoshka - Nevel to the border with Belarus; former M20 R-25: Syktyvkar - Yemva - Ukhta R-37: Lodeynoye Pole - Vytegra; redesignated as 41K-001 and 19K-013 R-56: Veliky Novgorod - Pskov - Soltsy - Porkhov; former A116/1R-56 R-72: Vladimir - Murom - Arzamas R-81: Kineshma - Elnat - Yuryevets - Puchezh - Tchkalovsk R-84: Tver - Bezhetsk - Krasnyy Kholm - Vesegonsk - Ustyuzhna R-85: Vishny Volochek - Maksatikha - Bezhetsk - Sonkovo R-87: Rzhev - Selizharovo - Ostashkov R-89: Ostashkov - Volgoverkhovye P-90: Route M1 "Belarus" - Tver R-92: Kaluga - Peremyshl’ - Belev - Orel R-93: Medyn - Kondrovo - Kaluga R-96: R-98: Kostroma - Sudislavl' - Makar'yev - Manturovo - Georgiyevskoye - Verkhnespasskoye R-100: Sudislavl - Galich - Chuhloma - Soligalich R-104: Sergiev Posad - Kalyazin - Uglich - Myshkin - Poshekhon'ye - Rybinsk - Cherepovets R-105 "Kasimovskoye Highway": Moscow - Kasimovo R-119: Orel - Livny - Elets - Lipetsk - Tambov R-120: Orel - Bryansk - Smolensk to the border with Belarus, entrance to the city of Smolensk; former A141 R-124: Shatsk - Sasovo - Pitelino - Kasimov; redesignated as 61K-012 R-125: Nizhny Novgorod - Ryazhsk R-132 "Golden Ring": Yaroslavl - Kostroma - Ivanovo - Vladimir - Gus-Khrustalny - Ryazan - Mikhailov - Tula - Kaluga - Vyazma - Rzhev - Tver - Uglich - Yaroslavl; bypass for M3 "Ukraine" R-134: Smolensk - Vyaz'ma - Zubtsov R-137: R-139: Belyov - Odoyev - Tula R-152: Rostov - Ivanovo - Shuya - Nizhny Novgorod R-156: Nizhny Novgorod, Arzamas-Saransk R-157: Uren - Shar'ya - Nikolsk - Veliky Ustyug - Kotlas R-158: Nizhny Novgorod - Saransk - Saratov R-159: Nizhny Novgorod - Krasnyye Baki - Shakhun'ya - Yaransk R-162: Rabotki - Poretskoe R-175: Yoshkar-Ola - Zelenodolsk to route M7 "Volga"; redesignated as A295 R-176 "Vyatka": Cheboksary - Yoshkar-Ola - Kirov - Syktyvkar, entrance to the city of Kirov; former A119 R-177 "Povetluzhie": Nizhny Novgorod - Yoshkar-Ola R-178: Saransk - Sura - Ulyanovsk to route M5 "Ural"; continues to Samara as 73R-178 and 36P-170 R-179: R-180: Saransk to route M5 "Ural" R-193: Voronezh - Tambov R-194: Route A144 to Ostrogozhsk - Rossosh - Kantemirovka R-196: Route R194 to Podgorensky to route M4 R-200: Ukrainian border near Gogolivka - Sudzha - Semenikhivka; extra unregistered portion from Semenikhivka to Kursk at European route E105 and European route E38 R-207: Penza - Balashov - Mikhailovka to route A260 R-208: Tambov - Penza R-209: Kirsanov - Penza; became a portion of R208 R-215: Astrakhan - Kochubey - Kizlyar - Makhachkala, entrance to Grozny R-216: Astrakhan - Liman; became a portion of R215 R-216 "Kalmychka": Astrakhan - Elista - Stavropol; former A154 R-217 "Kavkaz": Route M4 "Don" - Pavlovskaya - Vladikavkaz - Grozny - Makhachkala to the border with Azerbaijan (on to Baku), entrances to Maikop, Stavropol, Cherkessk, Vladikavkaz, Grozny, Makhachkala and Magas; former M29 R-221: Volgograd - Elista R-224: Samara - Busuluk - Orenburg R-225: Samara - Buguruslan R-226: Samara - Engels - Volzhskiy R-226: Samara - Saratov - Volgograd R-227: Syzran - Shigony - Usolye R-228: Syzran - Saratov - Volgograd, entrance to the Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant R-229: Samara - Pugachev - Engels - Volgograd, Samara bypass, entrances to Balakovo and Gorny R-231: R-234: R-239: Kazan - Orenburg - Akbulak to the border with Kazakhstan, entrance to Kazan Airport R-240: Ufa - Orenburg, Ufa west bypass; former R314 R-241: Kazan - Ulyanovsk - Buinsk R-242: Perm - Ekaterinburg R-243: Kostroma - Sharya - Kirov - Perm R-246: Bugul'ma - Buguruslan - Busuluk to the border with Kazakhstan R-253: Maikop - Labinsk - Korenovsk; redesignated as A160 R-254 "Irtysh": Chelyabinsk - Kurgan - Omsk - Novosibirsk; former M51 R-254: Maikop - Guzeripl’ - Caucasian state Biosphere Reserve; redesignated as A159 R-255 "Siberia": Novosibirsk - Kemerovo - Krasnoyarsk - Irkutsk, entrance to the city of Tomsk; former M53 R-256 "Chuysky Trakt": Novosibirsk - Barnaul - Gorno-Altaysk to the border with Mongolia, entrances to Barnaul and Gorno-Altaysk; former M52 R-257 "Yenisei": Krasnoyarsk - Abakan - Kyzyl to the border with Mongolia; former M54 R-258 "Baikal": Irkutsk - Ulan-Ude - Chita, entrances to Podkamennaya and Ulan-Ude Airport; former M55 R-263: Neftekumsk - Zelenokumsk - Mineral’nye Vody; became a portion of A167 R-285: Kochubey - Neftekumsk; became a portion of A167 R-289: Prokhladnyy - Baksan; became a portion of A158 R-285: Kotchoubey - Neftekumsk - Zelenokumsk - Mineralnye Vody R-291: Kizlyar - Makhachkala; became a portion of R215 R-291: Route M29 (Urvan’) - Verkhnyaya Balkariya - Ushtulu; redesignated as A154 R-297: Alagir - Nizhniy Zaramag - South Ossetia; became a portion of A164 in 2018 R-297: Vladikavkaz - Alagir; redesignated as A162 R-297 "Amur": Chita - Never - Svobodnyy - Arkhara - Birobidzhan - Khabarovsk, entrance to Blagoveshchensk; former M58 R-298: Kardzhin - Alagir; became a portion of A164 R-298: Kursk - Voronezh to route R22 "Caspian"; former A144 R-301: Vladikavkaz - Nizhniy Lars to the border with Georgia, redesignated as A161 R-301: Entrance to Vladikavkaz Airport R-314: Ufa - Orenburg (including Ufa bypass); redesignated as R240 in 2010 R-316: Sterlitamak - Beloretsk - Magnitogorsk R-317: Birsk - Tastuba - Satka R-322: Izhevsk - Sarapul R-330: Shadrinsk to route P254 "Irytsh" R-335: Orenburg - Ilek to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Uralsk); redesignated as A305 R-336: Orenburg - Orsk R-337: Sara - Yuldybaevo R-344: Nyvta - Kudymkar, redesignated as A153 R-351: Yekaterinburg - Tyumen R-352: Ekaterinburg - Serov R-354: Yekaterinburg - Shadrinsk - Kurgan R-380: Novosibirsk - Kamen-na-Obi - Barnaul R-384: Novosibirsk - Zhuravlyovo - Leninsk-Kuznetsk - Kemerovo - Yurga R-384-1: Leninsk-Kuznetsk - Novokuznetsk R-400: Tomsk - Mariinsk R-401: Tyumen - Roshino Airport R-402: Tyumen - Yalutorovsk - Ishim - Omsk R-404: Tyumen - Tobol’sk - Khanty-Mansiysk, entrance to Surgut R-409 "Yeniseyskiy trakt": Krasnoyarsk - Eniseisk; redesignated as 04K-044 R-418: Irkutsk - Ust-Ordynskiy; redesignated as A332 R-419: Route M53 "Baikal" - Bratsk - Ust’-Kut - Mirnyy - Yakutsk; redesignated as A331 R-436: Ulan-Ude - Romanivka - Chita R-437: Romanovka - Bagdarin R-438 "Barguzinskiy trakt": Ulan-Ude - Kurumkan R-440 "Dzhidinskiy trakt": Gusinoozyorsk - Zakamensk R-441: Mukhorshibir - Bichura - Kyakhta R-447: Nakhodka - Lazo - Kavalerovo R-448: Lazo - Preobrazheniye R-449: Route A370 to Lesozavodsk - Gornyye Klyuchi to route A370 R-454: Khabarovsk - Komsomolsk-on-Amur R-455: Birobidzhan - Leninskoye - Dezhnevo R-456: Birofeld - Amurzet R-487: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Okha R-488: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Korsakov; redesignated as A391 R-495: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Kholmsk; redesignated as A392 R-504 "Kolyma": Yakutsk - Magadan; former M56 "Kolyma" R-600: Kostroma - Ivanovo; former A113 -: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Kholmsk Regional routes A-17: Kerch - Feodosia - Dzhankoy - Simferopol - Alushta - Yalta A-18: Dzhankoy - Armiansk to the border with Ukraine (on to Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa) A-100 "Mozhayskoe Road": Moscow to route R90 A-101: Moscow - Maloyaroslavets - Roslavl to the border with Belarus (on to Bobruisk, Slutsk); redesignated as A130 in 2018 A-102: Moscow - Lyubertsy - Zhukovsky - Ramenskoye A-103 "Shchëlkovskoe shosse": Moscow - Shchëlkovo to route A107, entrances to Shchëlkovo and Star City A-104: Moscow - Dmitrov - Dubna A-105: Moscow - Domodedovo Airport; former portion of route M4 "Don" A-105: "Rublevo-Uspenskoe shosse"; redesignated as A106 A-106 "Novorizhskoe Highway": Rublevo-Uspenskoe shosse A-107: Route A104 to route A104 (Moscow Small Ring Road) A-108: Dmitrov - Dmitrov (Moscow Large Ring Road) A-109: Ilinskoe shosse (with special access roads) A-110: Semenovskoe to route A108 A-111: State complex "Zavidovo" to route M10 "Russia" A-112: Chepelëvo - Velyaminovo A-113: Kostroma - Ivanovo; redesignated as R600 A-113: Circular roadway in Moscow Oblast and Moscow A-114: Vologda - Tikhvin to route P21 "Kola", entrance to Pikalevo A-115: Route M10 "Scandinavia" to Novaya Ladoga A-116: Novgorod-Pskov (in Soltsy, Porkhov); redesignated as R56 A-117: Opochka to the border with Belarus A-118: Beltway around St. Petersburg A-119 "Vyatka": Cheboksary - Syktyvkar, entrance of the city of Kirov; redesignated as P176 in 2018 A-119: Medvezhyegorsk - Pudozh - Vitegra - Vologda; former R5 A-120: Kirovsk - Mga - Gatchina - Bol’shaya Izhora (Saint Petersburg Southern Half Ring Road) A-121 "Sortavala": Saint Petersburg - Sortavala to route R21 "Kola"; former A129 A-122 "Vyborg Highway": Saint Petersburg to route A181 A-122: Route A114 – Ustyuzhna - Kresttsy - Yazhelbitsy - Velikiye Luki - Nevel A-123: Zelenogorsk - Primorsk - Vyborg; redesignated as 41A-082 A-128: Saint Petersburg - Vsevolozhsk - Mor'ye; redesignated as 41K-064 A-129: Saint Petersburg - Sortavala A-129: Saint Petersburg - Priozersk - Sortavala - Petrozavodsk; redesignated as A121 A-130: Moscow - Maloyaroslavets - Roslavl to the border with Belarus; former A101 A-131: Access roads from route A130 to holiday resort "Arkhangelsk"; to household plot "Voskresenskoe"; to the sanatorium and holiday resort "Desna"; designation cancelled in 2013 and transferred to state ownership A-132: Smolensk to route M1 "Belarus" A-133: Lipetsk to route M4 "Don" A-134: Voronezh to route M4 "Don" A-135: Rostov-on-Don to route M4 "Don" A-136: Krasnodar to route M4 "Don" A-137: Route R21 - Tiksha - Ledmozero - Kostomuksha to the border with Finland A-138: Murmansk - Sputnik - Pechenga; now part of R22 A-141: Orel-Bryansk highway to route M3 "Ukraine"; redesignated as R120 A-141: Bryansk - Smolensk to the border with Belarus (on to Rudnev, Vitebsk), entrance to the city of Smolensk A-142: Trosna - Kalinovka A-143: Tambov - Morshansk - Shatsk A-144: Kursk - Voronezh - Borisoglebsk to route M6 "Caspian"; redesignated as R298 in 2018 A-146: Krasnodar - Verkhnebakansky A-147: Dzhubga - Sochi - border with Georgia (Abkhazia); former M27 A-148 "Understudy Resort Prospect": Route A147 - Sochi, a motorway under construction A-148: Route M27 (Adler) - Krasnaya Polyana; redesignated as A149 A-149: Adler - Krasnaya Polyana; former A148 A-151: Tsivilsk - Ulyanovsk A-153: Nytva - Kudymkar; former 1R-344 A-154: Urvan - Verkhnyaya Balkariya - Ushtulu; former R291 A-154: Astrakhan - Elista - Stavropol; redesignated as R216 in 2018 A-155 "Sukhumi Military Road": Vladikavkaz - Karachaevsk - Dombay - border with Georgia (on to Abkhazia) A-156: Lermontov - Cherkessk; redesignated as A165 A-156: Access roads from A155 to international holiday resort "Arkhyz" and the specialized Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences; former portion of A155 A-157: Mineralnye Vody Airport - Kislovodsk A-158: Prokhladnyy - Baksan - Elbrus A-159: Maikop - Guzeripl’ - Caucasian state Biosphere Reserve; former R254 A-160: Maikop - Ust-Labinsk - Korenovsk; former 1R-253 A-161: Vladikavkaz - Nizhniy Lars to the border with Georgia; former R301 A-162: Vladikavkaz - Alagir; former R297 A-163: Vladikavkaz Airport to route R217 "Kavkaz" A-164: Kultuk - Mondy to the border with Mongolia; redesignated as A333 in 2010 A-164 "Transkam": Kardzhin - Alagir - Nizhniy Zaramag - South Ossetia; former R297 and R298 A-165: Route R297 "Baikal" (Ulan-Ude) - Kyakhta to the border with Mongolia; redesignated as A340 in 2010 A-165: Lermontov - Cherkessk; former A156 A-166: Chita-Zabaikalsk to the border with the People's Republic of China; redesignated as A350 A-167: Kochubey - Neftekumsk - Zelenokumsk - Mineralnye Vody; former R263 and R285 A-180 "Narva": Saint Petersburg - Ivangorod to the border with Estonia, entrance to Ust-Luga Multimodal Complex; former M11 "Narva" A-181 "Scandinavia": Saint Petersburg - Vyborg to the border with Finland; former portion of M10 A-181: Route A370 "Ussuri" – Rudnaya Pristan; redesignated as 05N-100 in 2018 A-182: Route A370 "Ussuri" - Khorol' - Kamen'-Rybolov - Turiy Rog A-183: Route A370 "Ussuri" - Yaroslavsky - Zharikovo - Kommissarovo A-184: Ussuriysk - Galenki - Lipovtsy to the border with the People's Republic of China A-188: Uglovoye - Artem - Fokino - Nakhodka A-189: Razdolnoe - Barabash - Kraskino - Hasan, border crossing into North Korea A-212: Pskov - Izborsk to the border with Estonia (on to Riga) A-215: Lodeynoe Pole - Vytegra - Prokshino - Plesetsk - Bryn-Navolok, entrances to Petrozavodsk (within Karelia) and Kargopol A-216: Gvardeisk - Neman to the border with Lithuania (on to Siauliai, Jelgava, Rigu) A-217: Kaliningrad - Zelenogorsk - Pionersky - Svetlogorsk - Baltiysk - Svetly - Kaliningrad (Primorsk Ring Road), entrances to Khrabrovo Airport, Zelenogradsk, Pionersky and Svetlogorsk A-229: Kaliningrad - Chernyakhovsk - Nesterov to the border with Lithuania (on to Vilnius, Minsk, route M1 "Belarus") A-240: Bryansk - Novozybkov to the border with Belarus (on to Homel, Pinsk, Kobrin); former M13 A-260: Volgograd - Kamensk-Shakhtinskiy to the border with Ukraine (on to Dnipropetrovsk, Kishinev); former M21 A-270: Route M4 "Don" - Novoshakhtinsk to the border with Ukraine (on to Poltava, Kyiv); former M19 A-280: Rostov-on-Don - Taganrog to the border with Ukraine (on to Kharkiv, Odessa); former M23 A-289: Krasnodar - Slavyansk-na-Kubani - Temryuk to route A290 A-290: Novorossiysk - Kerch to the border with Ukraine (on to Simferopol), entrances to Port Kavkaz and Port Taman; former M25 A-291 "Tavrida": Kerch - Simferopol - Sevastopol A-295: Yoshkar-Ola - Zelenodolsk to route M7 "Volga"; former 1R-175 A-298: Route R208 - Saratov - Pristannoe - Ershov - Ozinki to the border with Kazakhstan A-300: Samara - Bolshaya Chernigovka to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Uralsk, Aktyubinsk, Kzyl-Orda, Shymkent); former M32 A-301 "Georgian Military Road": Beslan - Vladikavkaz - Nizhniy Lars to the border with Georgia (on to Tbilisi) A-305: Orenburg - Ilek to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Uralsk); former 1R-335 A-310: Chelyabinsk - Troitsk to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Kostanay, Karaganda, Balkhash, Almaty); former M36 A-320: Omsk - Cherlak to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Pavlodar, Semipalatinsk, Maykapchigay); former M38 A-321: Barnaul - Pavlovsk to the border with Kazakhstan, entrance to Barnaul Airport A-322: Barnaul - Rubtsovsk to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Semipalatinsk); former A349 A-331 "Vilyuy": Tulun - Bratsk - Ust’-Kut - Mirnyy - Yakutsk; former R419 A-332: Irkutsk - Ust-Ordynskiy; designation cancelled in 2012 A-333: Kultuk - Mondy to the border with Mongolia; former A164 A-340: Ulan-Ude - Kyakhta to the border with Mongolia; former A165 A-349: Barnaul - Rubtsovsk to the border with Kazakhstan (on to Semipalatinsk); redesignated as A322 A-350: Chita - Zabaykalsk to the border with China; former A166 A-360 "Lena": Never - Yakutsk; former M56 "Lena" A-361: Route A360 "Lena" to the border with China A-370 "Ussuri": Khabarovsk - Vladivostok, former M60 A-371: Vladivostok - Ostrov A-375 "Vostok": Khabarovsk - Krasnyy Yar - Ariadnoe - Chuguevka - Nakhodka, a motorway under construction A-376: Khabarovsk - Lidoga - Vanino - Komsomolsk-on-Amur, former 08A-1 A-381: Naryan-Mar - Naryan-Mar Airport A-382: Dudinka - Norilsk (Alykel Airport) A-383: Tura - Tura Airport (Gornyy) A-384: Anadyr - Anadyr Airport A-385: Ust'-Palana - Palana Airport; designation cancelled in 2011 and transferred to state ownership A-391: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Korsakov; former 1R-488 A-392: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Kholmsk; former R495 A-393: Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Okha A-401: Port of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy - Elisovo Airport Access roads to ports, airports and railroad stations from cities Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Anadyr, Dudinka, Naryan-Mar, Salekhard, Khanty-Mansiysk and from the urban-type settlements of Palana and Tura. Recent additions Ufa–Orenburg and the Ufa western bypass (published December 24, 2008, to be in force since January 1, 2010) References Roads in Russia	6,968
doc-en-10688_0	Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (8 February 1845 – 13 February 1926) was an Anglo-Irish philosopher and political economist who made significant contributions to the methods of statistics during the 1880s. From 1891 onward, he was appointed the founding editor of The Economic Journal. Life Edgeworth was born in Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland. He did not attend school, but was educated by private tutors at the Edgeworthstown estate until he reached the age to enter university. His father, Francis Beaufort Edgeworth, was descended from French Huguenots and "was a restless philosophy student at Cambridge on his way to Germany when he decided to elope with a teenage Spanish refugee Rosa Florentina Eroles he met on the steps of the British Museum. One of the outcomes of their marriage was Ysidro Francis Edgeworth (the name order was reversed later)...." Richard Lovell Edgeworth was his grandfather, and the writer, Maria Edgeworth, was his aunt. His maternal grandfather was the Catalan general Antonio Eroles. As a student at Trinity College Dublin he studied classics getting a scholarship in 1863 and graduating in 1865, and at Balliol College, Oxford, Edgeworth studied ancient and modern languages. A voracious autodidact, he studied mathematics and economics only after he had completed university. He qualified as a barrister in London in 1877 but did not practise. On the basis of his publications in economics and mathematical statistics in the 1880s, Edgeworth was appointed to a chair in economics at King's College London in 1888, and in 1891, he was appointed Drummond Professor of Political Economy at Oxford University. In 1891, he was also appointed the founding editor of The Economic Journal. He continued as editor or joint-editor until his death 35 years later. Edgeworth was a highly influential figure in the development of neo-classical economics. He was the first to apply certain formal mathematical techniques to individual decision making in economics. He developed utility theory, introducing the indifference curve and the famous Edgeworth box, which is now familiar to undergraduate students of microeconomics. He is also known for the Edgeworth conjecture, which states that the core of an economy shrinks to the set of competitive equilibria as the number of agents in the economy gets larger. In statistics, Edgeworth is most prominently remembered by having his name on the Edgeworth series. His most original and creative book on economics was Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences, published in 1881 at the beginning of his long career in the subject. The book was notoriously difficult to read. He frequently referenced literary sources and interspersed the writing with passages in a number of languages, including Latin, French and Ancient Greek. The mathematics was similarly difficult, and a number of his creative applications of mathematics to economic or moral issues were judged as incomprehensible. However, one of the most influential economists of the time, Alfred Marshall, commented in his review of Mathematical Psychics: This book shows clear signs of genius, and is a promise of great things to come... His readers may sometimes wish that he had kept his work by him a little longer till he had worked it out a little more fully, and obtained that simplicity which comes only through long labour. But taking it as what it claims to be, 'a tentative study', we can only admire its brilliancy, force, and originality. Edgeworth's close friend, William Stanley Jevons, said of Mathematical Psychics: Whatever else readers of this book may think about it, they would probably all agree that it is a very remarkable one.... There can be no doubt that in the style of his composition Mr. Edgeworth does not do justice to his matter. His style, if not obscure, is implicit, so that the reader is left to puzzle out every important sentence like an enigma. The Royal Statistical Society awarded him the Guy Medal in Gold in 1907. Edgeworth served as the president of the Royal Statistical Society, 1912–14. In 1928, Arthur Lyon Bowley published a book entitled and devoted to F. Y. Edgeworth's Contributions to Mathematical Statistics. Contributions to economics In Mathematical Psychics (1881), his most famous and original book, he criticised Jevons's theory of barter exchange, showing that under a system of "recontracting" there will be, in fact, many solutions, an "indeterminacy of contract". Edgeworth's "range of final settlements" was later resurrected by Martin Shubik (1959) to be the game-theoretic concept of "the core". Edgeworth's conjecture When the number of agents in an economy increases, the degree of indeterminacy is reduced. In the limit case of an infinite number of agents (perfect competition), contract becomes fully determinate and identical to the 'equilibrium' of economists. The only way of resolving this indeterminacy of contract would be to appeal to the utilitarian principle of maximising the sum of the utilities of traders over the range of final settlements. Incidentally, it was in this 1881 book that Edgeworth introduced into economics the generalised utility function, U(x, y, z, ...), and drew the first 'indifference curve'. International trade He was the first one to use offer curves and community indifference curves to illustrate its main propositions, including the "optimal tariff". Taxation paradox Taxation of a good may actually result in a decrease in price. He set the utilitarian foundations for highly progressive taxation, arguing that the optimal distribution of taxes should be such that 'the marginal disutility incurred by each taxpayer should be the same' (Edgeworth, 1897). Monopoly pricing In 1897, in an article on monopoly pricing, Edgeworth criticised Cournot's exact solution to the duopoly problem with quantity adjustments as well as Bertrand's "instantly competitive" result in a duopoly model with price adjustment. At the same time, Edgeworth showed how price competition between two firms with capacity constraints and/or rising marginal cost curves resulted in indeterminacy. This gave rise to the Bertrand–Edgeworth model of oligopoly. Marginal productivity theory Edgeworth criticised the marginal productivity theory in several articles (1904, 1911), and tried to refine the neo-classical theory of distribution on a more solid basis. Although his work in questions of war finance during World War I was original, they were a bit too theoretical and did not achieve the practical influence he had hoped. Edgeworth's limit theorem Edgeworth's limit theorem relates to equilibrium of supply and demand in a free market. See Edgeworth's limit theorem. Though Edgeworth's economic ideas were original and in depth, his contemporaries frequently complained of his manner of expression for lack of clarity. He was prone to verbosity and coining obscure words without providing definition for the reader. Publications Collections/selections F. Y. Edgeworth (1925) Papers relating to political economy 3 vols. Available online at Gallica Charles R. McCann Jr. (ed.) (1966) F.Y. Edgeworth: Writings in Probability, Statistics and Economics, 3 vols. Cheltenham, Glos.: Elgar. Individual works "Mr. Matthew Arnold on Bishop Butler's Doctrine of Self-Love", 1876, Mind New and Old Methods of Ethics, 1877. "The Hedonical Calculus", 1879, Mind, pp. 394–408 "Mr. Leslie Stephen on Utilitarianism", 1882, Mind "The Law of Error", 1883, Phil Mag, pp. 300–309 "The Method of Least Squares", 1883, Phil Mag "The Physical Basis of Probability", 1883, Phil Mag "On the Method of Ascertaining a Change in the Value of Gold", 1883, JRSS "Review of Jevons's Investigations", 1884, Academy "The Rationale of Exchange", 1884, JRSS "The Philosophy of Chance", 1884, Mind "On the Reduction of Observations", 1884, Phil Mag, pp. 135–141 "A Priori Probabilities", 1884, Phil Mag "Chance and Law", 1884, Hermathena, pp. 154–163 "Methods of Statistics", 1885, Jubilee Volume of RSS. "The Calculus of Probabilities Applied to Psychic Research, I & II", 1885, 1886, Proceedings of Society for Psychic Research "On Methods of Ascertaining Variations in the Rate of Births, Deaths and Marriages", 1885, JRSS "Progressive Means", 1886, JRSS "The Law of Error and the Elimination of Chance", 1886 Phil Mag "On the Determination of the Modulus of Errors", 1886, Phil Mag "Problems in Probabilities", 1886, Phil Mag "Review of Sidgwick's Scope and Method", 1886, Academy "Review of Jevons's Journals", 1886, Academy "Four Reports by the committee investigating best method of ascertaining and measuring variations in the monetary standard", 1887, Reports of the BAAS (Parts I & 3; Part 2) "Observations and Statistics: An essay on the theory of errors of observation and the first principles of statistics", 1887, Transactions of Cambridge Society. Metretike, or the method of measuring probability and utility, 1887. "On Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1887, Hermathena "The Law of Error", 1887, Nature "The Choice of Means", 1887, Phil Mag "On Discordant Observations", 1887, Phil Mag "The Empirical Proof of the Law of Error", 1887, Phil Mag "On a New Method of Reducing Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1888, Phil Mag "New Methods of Measuring Variation in General Prices, 1888, JRSS "The Statistics of Examinations", 1888, JRSS "The Value of Authority Tested by Experiment", 1888, Mind "Mathematical Theory of Banking", 1888, JRSS "On the Application of Mathematics to Political Economy: Address of the President of Section F of the British Association for the Advancement of Science", 1889, JRSS "The Mathematical Theory of Political Economy: Review of Walras's Elements", 1889, Nature "Review of Wicksteed's Alphabet", 1889, Academy "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Kapital und Kapitalismus", 1889, Academy "Review of Bertrand's Calcul des Probabilites", 1889, J of Education "Points at which Mathematical Reasoning is Applicable to Political Economy", 1889, Nature "Appreciation of Gold", 1889, QJE "The Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations", 1890, JRSS "Economic Science and Statistics", 1889, Nature "Review of Marshall's Principles", 1890, Nature "Review of Jevons's Pure Logic", 1890, Academy "Review of Walras's Elements", 1890, Academy "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Capital and Interest", 1890, Academy "La Théorie mathématique de l'offre et de la demande et le côut de production", 1891, Revue d'Economie Politique "Osservazioni sulla teoria matematica dell' economica politica", 1891, GdE (trans. "On the Determinateness of Economic Equilibrium") "Ancora a proposito della teoria del baratto", 1891, GdE "Review of Ricardo's Principles", 1891, J of Education "The British Economic Association", 1891, In: The Economic Journal (EJ), Vol. 1, pp. 1–14 (in Wikisource) "Review of Keynes's Scope and Method", 1891, EJ "An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy", 1891, EJ "Review of Sidgwick's Elements of Politics", 1891, EJ "Review of Second Edition of Marshall's Principles", 1891, EJ "Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices," Connecticut Academy, 1892. "Correlated Averages", 1892, Phil Mag "The Law of Error and Correlated Averages", 1892, Phil Mag. "Recent Attempts to Evaluate the Amount of Coin Circulating in a Country", 1892, EJ "Review of Marshall's Economics of Industry", 1892, Nature "Review of Cantillon's Essai", 1892, EJ "Review of Palgrave's Dictionary", 1892, EJ "Review of Bohm-Bawerk's Positive Theory of Capital", 1892, EJ "Review of Smart's Introduction to the Theory of Value", 1892, EJ "Review of Dusing's Das Geschlechtverhaltniss", 1892, EJ "Review of Benson's Capital, Labor and Trade", 1892, EJ "Review of Smart's Women's Wages", 1893 "Review of Bonar's Philosophy", 1893, Mind "Review of Walsh's Bimetallism", 1893, EJ "Review of Fisher's Mathematical Investigations", 1893, EJ "Professor Böhm-Bawerk on the Ultimate Standard of Value", 1894, EJ "One More Word on the Ultimate Standard of Value", 1894, EJ "Review of Wiser's Natural Value", 1894, EJ "Theory of International Values: Parts I, II and III", 1894, EJ "Recent Writings on Index Numbers", 1894, EJ "The Measurement of Utility by Money", 1894, EJ "Asymmetric Correlation between Social Phenomenon", 1894, JRSS Entries: "Average", "Census", "Cournot", "Curves", "Demand Curves", Difficulty of Attainment", "Distance in Time", "Error", 1894, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 1. "Review of the Webbs' History of Trade Unionism", 1894, EJ "Review of Third Edition of Marshall's Principles", 1895, EJ "Mr. Pierson on the Scarcity of Gold", 1895, EJ "Thoughts on Monetary Reform", 1895, EJ "The Stationary State in Japan", 1895, EJ "A Defense of Index-Numbers", 1896, EJ "Statistics on Unprogressive Communities", 1896, JRSS "The Asymmetrical Probability Curve (Abstract)", 1894, Proceedings of the Royal Society "The Asymmetrical Probability Curve", 1896, Phil Mag "The Compound law of Error", 1896, Phil Mag Entries: "Gossen", "Index Numbers", "Intrinsic Value", "Jenkin", "Jennings", "Least Squares" and "Mathematical Method", 1896, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 2. "Review of Price's Money", 1896, EJ "Review of Nicholson's Strikes and Social Problems", 1896, EJ "Review of Pierson's Leerboek, Vol. 1", 1896, EJ "Review of Pierson's Leerkook, Vol. 2", 1897, EJ "Review of Bastable, Theory of International Trade", 1897, EJ "Review of Grazani's Istituzioni", 1897, EJ "La teoria pura del monopolio", 1897, GdE, (trans."The Pure Theory of Monopoly") "The Pure Theory of Taxation: Parts I, II and III", 1897, EJ "Miscellaneous Applications of the Calculus of Probabilities", Parts 1, 2, 3, 1897, 1898, JRSS "Review of Cournot's Recherches", 1898, EJ "Professor Graziani on the Mathematical Theory of Monopoly", 1898, EJ "Review of Darwin's Bimetallism", 1898, EJ "On the Representation of Statistics by Mathematical Formulae", Part 1 (1898), Parts 2, 3, 4 (1899) "On a Point in the Theory of International Trade", 1899, EJ "Review of Davidson, Bargain Theory of Wages", 1899, EJ "Professor Seligman on the Mathematical Method in Political Economy", 1899, EJ Entries: "Pareto", "Pareto's Law", "Probability", Supply Curve" and "Utility", 1899, in Palgrave, editor, Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. 3 "Answers to Questions by Local Taxation Commission", 1899, Reprint of Royal Commission for Local Taxation "The Incidence of Urban Rates, Parts I, II and III" 1900, EJ "Defence of Mr. Harrison's Calculation of the Rupee Circulation", 1900, EJ "Review of J.B. Clark's Theory of Distribution", 1900, EJ "Review of Smart's Taxation of Land-Values", 1900, EJ "Review of Bastable, Theory of International Trade (3rd edition)", 1897, EJ "Review of Bonar and Hollander, Letters of Ricardo", 1900, EJ "Mr. Walsh on the Measurement of General Exchange Value", 1901, EJ "Disputed Points in the Theory of International Trade", 1901, EJ "Review of Gide's Cooperation", 1902, EJ "Review of Wells's Anticipations", 1902, EJ "Methods of Representing Statistics of Wages and Other Groups Not *"Fulfilling the Normal Law of Error", with A.L. Bowley, 1902, JRSS "The Law of Error", 1902, Encycl Britannica "Review of Cannan's History of Theories of Production", 1903, EJ "Review of Bortkiewicz's Anwendungen and Pareto's Anwendungen", 1903, EJ "Review of Bastable's Public Finance", 1903, EJ "Review of Bastable's Cartels et Trusts", 1903, EJ "Review of Pigou's Riddle of the Tariff", 1904, EJ "Review of Nicholson's Elements", 1904, EJ "Review of Bowley's National Progress", 1904, EJ "Review of Plunkett's Ireland", 1904, EJ "Review of Northon's Loan Credit", 1904, EJ "Review of Graziani's Istituzione", 1904, EJ "Review of Dietzel's Vergeltungzolle", 1904, EJ "Preface", 1904, in J.R. MacDonald, editor, Women in the Printing Trades. "The Theory of Distribution", 1904, QJE "The Law of Error", 1905, Transactions of Cambridge Society "Review of Nicholson's History of English Corn Laws", 1905, EJ "Review of Cunynghame's Geometrical Political Economy", 1905, EJ "Review of Carver's Theory of Distribution", 1905, EJ "Review of Taussig's Present Position", 1905, EJ "Review of Henry Sidgwick: A memoir", 1906, EJ "The Generalised Law of Error, or Law of Great Numbers", 1906, JRSS "Recent Schemes for Rating Urban Land Values", 1906, EJ "On the Representation of Statistical Frequency by a Series", 1907, JRSS "Statistical Observations on Wasps and Bees", 1907, Biometrika "Review of de Foville's Monnaie and Guyot's Science economique", 1907, EJ "Appreciations of Mathematical Theories", Parts I & II (1907), Parts III & IV (1908), EJ "On the Probable Errors of Frequency Constants", I, II & III (1908), Add. (1909), JRSS "Review of Andreades's Lecture on the Census", 1908, EJ "Review of Rea's Free Trade", 1908, EJ "Review of Withers's Meaning of Money", 1909, EJ "Review of Mitchell's Gold Prices", 1909, EJ "Review of Jevons's Investigations", 1909, EJ "Application du calcul des probabilités à la Statistique", 1909, Bulletin de l'Institut international de statistique "On the Use of the Differential Calculus in Economics to Determine Conditions of Maximum Advantage", 1909, Scientia "Applications of Probabilities to Economics, Parts I & II", 1910, EJ. "The Subjective Element in the First Principles of Taxation", 1910, QJE "Review of John Stuart Mill's Principles", 1910, EJ "Review of Colson's Cours", 1910, EJ "Review of J. Maurice Clark's Local Freight Discriminations", 1910, EJ "Review of Hammond's Railway Rate Theories", 1911, EJ "Probability and Expectation", 1911, Encycl Britannica "Monopoly and Differential Prices", 1911, EJ "Contributions to the Theory of Railway Rates", Part I & II (1911), Part III (1912), Part IV (1913), EJ "Review of Moore's Laws of Wages", 1912, EJ "Review of Pigou's Wealth and Welfare", 1913, EJ "On the Use of the Theory of Probabilities in Statistics Relating to Society", 1913, J of RSS "A Variant Proof of the Distribution of Velocities in a Molecular Chaos", 1913, PhilMag "On the Use of Analytical Geometry to Represent Certain Kinds of Statistics", Parts I–V, 1914, J of RSS "Recent Contributions to Mathematical Economics, I & II", 1915, EJ On the Relations of Political Economy to War, 1915. The Cost of War and ways of reducing it suggested by economic theory, 1915. "Economists on War: Review of Sombart, etc.", 1915, EJ "Review of Pigou's Economy and Finance of War", 1916, EJ "Review of Preziosi's La Germania alla Conquista dell' Italia", 1916, EJ "British Incomes and Property", 1916, EJ "On the Mathematical Representation of Statistical Data", Part I (1916), Parts II–IV (1917), J of RSS "Review of Gill's National Power and Prosperity", 1917, EJ "Review of Lehfeldt's Economics in Light of War", 1917, EJ "Some German Economic Writings about the War", 1917, EJ "After-War Problems: Review of Dawson at al.", 1917, EJ "Review of Westergaard's Scope and Methods of Statistics", 1917, JRSS "Review of Anderson's Value of Money", 1918, EJ "Review of Moulton and Phillips on Money and Banking", 1918, EJ "Review of Loria's Economic Causes of War", 1918, EJ "Review of Arias's Principii", 1918, EJ "Review of Smith-Gordon, Rural Reconstruction of Ireland and Russell's National Being", 1918, EJ "On the Value of a Mean as Calculated from a Sample", 1918, EJ "An Astronomer on the Law of Error", 1918, PhilMag Currency and Finance in Time of War, 1918. "The Doctrine of Index-Numbers According to Prof. Wesley Mitchell", 1918, EJ "Psychical Research and Statistical Method", 1919, JRSS "Methods of Graduating Taxes on Income and Capital", 1919, EJ "Review of Cannan's Money", 1919, EJ "Review of Andreades's Historia", 1919, EJ "Review of Lehfeldt's Gold Prices", 1919, EJ A Levy on Capital for the Discharge of the Debt, 1919. "Mathematical Formulae and the National Commission on Income Tax", 1920, EJ "On the Application of Probabilities to the Movement of Gas Molecules", Part I (1920), Part II (1922), Phil Mag "Entomological Statistics", 1920, Metron, pp. 75–80 "Review of Gustav Cassel's Theory of Social Economy", 1920, EJ "Review of Bowley's Change in Distribution of National Income", 1920, JRSS "Review of the Webbs' History of Trade Unionism", 1920, EJ "Molecular Statistics", Part I (1921), Part II (1922), JRSS "On the Genesis of the Law of Eror", 1921, PhilMag "The Philosophy of Chance", 1922, Mind "The Mathematical Economics of Professor Amoroso", 1922, EJ "Equal Pay to Men and Women for Equal Work", 1922, EJ "Review of Keynes's Treatise on Probability", 1922, JRSS "Review of Pigou's Political Economy of War", 1922, EJ "Statistics of Examinations", 1923, JRSS "On the Use of Medians for Reducing Observations Relating to Several Quantities", 1923, Phil Mag "Mr. Correa Walsh on the Calculation of Index Numbers", 1923, JRSS "Index Numbers According to Mr. Walsh", 1923, EJ "Women's Wages in Relation to Economic Welfare", 1923, EJ Also available as: "Review of Marshall's Money, Credit and Commerce", 1923, EJ "Review of The Labour Party's Aim", 1923, EJ "Review of Bowley's Mathematical Groundwork", 1924, EJ "Review of Fisher's Economic Position of the Married Woman", 1924, EJ "Untried Methods of Representing Frequency", 1924, JRSS Papers Relating to Political Economy, 3 volumes, 1925. "The Plurality of Index-Numbers", 1925, EJ "The Element of Probability in Index-Numbers", 1925, JRSS "The Revised Doctrine of Marginal Social Product", 1925, EJ "Review of J.M. Clark's Overhead Costs", 1925, EJ. "mathematical method in political economy," 1926, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, reprinted in 1987, The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3. "Mr Rhode's Curve and the Method of Adjustment", 1926, JRSS References External links Further reading P J FitzPatrick, "Leading British statisticians of the nineteenth century, Journal of the American Statistical Association 55 (1960), 38–70. M G Kendall, "Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, 1845–1926," Biometrika 55 (1968), 269–275. Newman, Peter (1987). "Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 84–98. _. (2001). "Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro (1845–1926)," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 4170–4175. Abstract. Spiegel, Henry William. The Growth of Economic Thought. Ed. Durham & London. Duke University Press, 1991. Stigler, Stephen M. (1987). "Edgeworth as statistician," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 98–98. 1845 births 1926 deaths Academics of King's College London Alumni of Trinity College Dublin Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford British people of Catalan descent Drummond Professors of Political Economy Economics journal editors Fellows of the British Academy General equilibrium theorists Irish economists Irish statisticians Neoclassical economists People from County Longford Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society Scholars of Trinity College Dublin 19th-century Irish people Burials at Holywell Cemetery	6,008
doc-en-10705_0	Real-time strategy (RTS) is a subgenre of strategy video games that do not progress incrementally in turns, but allow all players to play simultaneously, in "real time". By contrast, in turn-based strategy (TBS) games, players take turns to play. The term "real-time strategy" was coined by Brett Sperry to market Dune II in the early 1990s. In a real-time strategy game, each participant positions structures and maneuvers multiple units under their indirect control to secure areas of the map and/or destroy their opponents' assets. In a typical RTS game, it is possible to create additional units and structures, generally limited by a requirement to expend accumulated resources. These resources are in turn garnered by controlling special points on the map and/or possessing certain types of units and structures devoted to this purpose. More specifically, the typical game in the RTS genre features resource-gathering, base-building, in-game technological development, and indirect control of units. The tasks a player must perform to win an RTS game can be very demanding, and complex user interfaces have evolved for them. Some features have been borrowed from desktop environments; for example, the technique of "clicking and dragging" to create a box that selects all units under a given area. Though some video game genres share conceptual and gameplay similarities with the RTS template, recognized genres are generally not subsumed as RTS games. For instance, city-building games, construction and management simulations, and games of real-time tactics are generally not considered real-time strategy per se. This would only apply to anything considered a god game, where the player assumes a god-like role of creation. History Origins The genre recognized today as "real-time strategy" emerged from an extended period of evolution and refinement. Games sometimes perceived as ancestors of the real-time strategy genre were never marketed or designed as such. As a result, designating "early real-time strategy" titles is problematic because such games are being held up to modern standards. The genre initially evolved separately in the United Kingdom, Japan, and North America, afterward gradually merging into a unified worldwide tradition. Tim Barry in May 1981 described in InfoWorld a multiplayer, real-time strategy space game that ran ("and probably still is") on an IBM System/370 Model 168 at a large San Francisco Bay area company. He stated that it had "far better support than many of the application programs used in the business", with a published manual and regular schedule. Comparing its complexity to Dallas, Barry recalled that "when the game was restored at 5 P.M., a lot of regular work stopped". Ars Technica traces the genre's roots back to Utopia (1981), citing it as the "birth of a genre", with a "real-time element" that was "virtually unheard of", thus making it "arguably the earliest ancestor of the real-time strategy genre". According to Ars Technica, Utopia was a turn-based strategy game with hybrid elements that ran "in real-time but events happened on a regular turn-based cycle." According to Brett Weiss, Utopia is often cited as "the first real-time strategy game." According to Matt Barton and Bill Loguidice, Utopia "helped set the template" for the genre, but has "more in common with SimCity than it does with Dune II and later RTS games." Allgame listed War of Nerves as the oldest "2D Real-Time Strategy". Barton also cites Cytron Masters (1982), saying it was "one of the first (if not the first) real-time strategy games." On the other hand, Scott Sharkey of 1UP argues that, while Cytron Masters "attempted real time strategy", it was "much more tactical than strategic" due to "the inability to construct units or manage resources". BYTE in December 1982 published as an Apple II type-in program Cosmic Conquest. The winner of the magazine's annual Game Contest, the author described it as a "single-player game of real-time action and strategic decision making". The magazine described it as "a real-time space strategy game". The game has elements of resource management and wargaming. In the United Kingdom, the earliest real-time strategy games are Stonkers by John Gibson, published in 1983 by Imagine Software for the ZX Spectrum, and Nether Earth for ZX Spectrum in 1987. In North America, the oldest game retrospectively classified as real-time strategy by several sources is The Ancient Art of War (1984), designed by Dave and Barry Murry of Evryware, followed by The Ancient Art of War at Sea in 1987. In Japan, the earliest is Bokosuka Wars (1983), an early strategy RPG (or "simulation RPG"); the game revolves around the player leading an army across a battlefield against enemy forces in real-time while recruiting/spawning soldiers along the way, for which it is considered by Ray Barnholt of 1UP.com to be an early prototype real-time strategy game. Another early title with real-time strategy elements is Sega's Gain Ground (1988), a strategy-action game that involved directing a set of troops across various enemy-filled levels. TechnoSoft's Herzog (1988) is regarded as a precursor to the real-time strategy genre, being the predecessor to Herzog Zwei and somewhat similar in nature, though primitive in comparison. IGN cites Herzog Zwei, released for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis home console in 1989 as "arguably the first RTS game ever", and it is often cited as "the first real-time strategy game" according to Ars Technica. It combines traditional strategy gameplay with fully real-time, fast-paced, arcade-style action gameplay, featuring a split-screen two-player mode where both players are in action simultaneously and there are no pauses while decisions are taken, forcing players to think quickly while on the move. In Herzog Zwei, though the player only controls one unit, the manner of control foreshadowed the point-and-click mechanic of later games. Scott Sharkey of 1UP argues that it introduced much of the genre conventions, including unit construction and resource management, with the control and destruction of bases being an important aspect of the game, as were the economic/production aspects of those bases. Herzog Zwei is credited by 1UP as a landmark that defined the genre and as "the progenitor of all modern real-time strategy games." Chuck Sperry cited Herzog Zwei as an influence on Dune II. Notable as well are early games like Mega Lo Mania by Sensible Software (1991) and Supremacy (also called Overlord – 1990). Although these two lacked direct control of military units, they both offered considerable control of resource management and economic systems. In addition, Mega Lo Mania has advanced technology trees that determine offensive and defensive prowess. Another early (1988) game, Carrier Command by Realtime Games, involved real-time responses to events in the game, requiring management of resources and control of vehicles. The early game Sim Ant by Maxis (1991) had resource gathering, and controlling an attacking army by having them follow a lead unit. However, it was with the release of Dune II from Westwood Studios (1992) that real-time strategy became recognized as a distinct genre of video games. 1992–1998: seminal titles Although real-time strategy games have an extensive history, some titles have served to define the popular perception of the genre and expectations of real-time strategy titles more than others, in particular the games released between 1992 and 1998 by Westwood Studios and Blizzard Entertainment. Drawing influence from Herzog Zwei, Populous, Eye of the Beholder, and the Macintosh user interface, Westwood's Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty (1992) featured all the core concepts and mechanics of modern real-time strategy games that are still used today, such as using the mouse to move units, and gathering resources, and as such served as the prototype for later real-time strategy games. According to its co-designer and lead programmer, Joe Bostic, a "benefit over Herzog Zwei is that we had the advantage of a mouse and keyboard. This greatly facilitated precise player control, which enabled the player to give orders to individual units. The mouse, and the direct control it allowed, was critical in making the RTS genre possible.” The success of Dune II encouraged several games which became influential in their own right. Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994) achieved great prominence upon its release, owing in part to its use of a fantasy setting and also to its depiction of a wide variety of buildings (such as farms) which approximated a full fictitious society, not just a military force. Command & Conquer, as well as Command and Conquer: Red Alert, became the most popular early RTS games. These two games contended with Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness after its release in late 1995. Total Annihilation, released by Cavedog Entertainment in 1997, introduced 3D units and terrain and focused on huge battles that emphasized macromanagement over micromanagement. It featured a streamlined interface that would influence many RTS games in later years. Age of Empires, released by Ensemble Studios in 1997 tried to put a game in a slower pace, combining elements of Civilization with the real-time strategy concept by introducing ages of technologies. In 1998, Blizzard released the game StarCraft, which became an international phenomenon and is still played in large professional leagues to this day. Collectively, all of these games defined the genre, providing the de facto benchmark against which new real-time strategy games are measured. Refinement and transition to 3D The real-time strategy genre has been relatively stable since 1995. Additions to the genre's concept in newer games tend to emphasize more of the basic RTS elements (higher unit caps, more unit types, larger maps, etc.). Rather than innovations to the game concept, new games generally focus on refining aspects of successful predecessors. As the paragon example of gameplay refinement, Cavedog's acclaimed Total Annihilation from 1997 distilled the core mechanics of Command & Conquer, and introduced the first 3D units and terrain in real-time strategy games. The Age of Empires focus on historical setting and age advancement was refined further by its sequel, Age of Empires II: Age of Kings, and by Stainless Steel Studios' Empire Earth in 2001. GSC Game World's Cossacks: European Wars series took the genre in a different direction, bringing population caps into the tens of thousands. Dungeon Keeper (1997), Populous: The Beginning (1998), Jeff Wayne's The War of the Worlds (1998), Warzone 2100 (1999), Machines (1999), Homeworld (1999), and Dark Reign 2 (2000) were among the first completely 3D real-time strategy titles. Homeworld was notable in that it featured a 3D environment in space, therefore allowing movement in every direction, a feature which its semi-sequel, Homeworld Cataclysm (2000) continued to build upon adding features such as waypoints. Homeworld 2, released in 2003, streamlined movement in the 360° 3D environment. Furthermore, Machines, which was also released in 1999 and featured a nearly 100% 3D environment, attempted to combine the RTS genre with a first-person shooter (FPS) genre although it was not a particularly successful title. These games were followed by a short period of interest in experimental strategy games such as Allegiance (2000). Jeff Wayne's The War of the Worlds was notable for being one of the few completely non-linear RTS games ever. It is only in approximately 2002 that 3D real-time strategy became the standard, with both Warcraft III (2002) and Ensemble Studio's Age of Mythology (2002) being built on a full 3D game engine. Kohan: Immortal Sovereigns introduced classic wargame elements, such as supply lines to the genre. Battle Realms (2001) was another full 3D game, but had limited camera views. The move from 2D to 3D has been criticized in some cases. Issues with controlling the camera and placement of objects have been cited as problems. Specialization and evolution A few games have experimented with diversifying map design, which continues to be largely two-dimensional even in 3D engines. Earth 2150 (2000) allowed units to tunnel underground, effectively creating a dual-layer map; three-layer (orbit-surface-underground) maps were introduced in Metal Fatigue. In addition, units could even be transported to entirely separate maps, with each map having its own window in the user interface. Three Kingdoms: Fate of the Dragon (2001) offered a simpler model: the main map contains locations that expand into their own maps. In these examples, however, the gameplay was essentially identical regardless of the map layer in question. Dragonshard (2005) emphasized its dual-layer maps by placing one of the game's two main resources in each map, making exploration and control of both maps fundamentally valuable. Relatively few genres have emerged from or in competition with real-time strategy games, although real-time tactics (RTT), a superficially similar genre, emerged around 1995. In 1998, Activision attempted to combine the real-time strategy and first-person shooter genres in Battlezone (1998), while in 2002 Rage Games Limited attempted this with the Hostile Waters games. Later variants have included Natural Selection (2002), a game modification based on the Half-Life engine, and the free software Tremulous/Unvanquished. Savage: The Battle for Newerth (2003) combined the RPG and RTS elements in an online game. Some games, borrowing from the real-time tactics (RTT) template, have moved toward an increased focus on tactics while downplaying traditional resource management, in which designated units collect the resources used for producing further units or buildings. Titles like Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War (2004), Star Wars: Empire at War (2006), and Company of Heroes (2006) replace the traditional resource gathering model with a strategic control-point system, in which control over strategic points yields construction/reinforcement points. Ground Control (2000) was the first such game to replace individual units with "squads". Others are moving away from the traditional real-time strategy game model with the addition of other genre elements. One example is Sins of a Solar Empire (2008), released by Ironclad Games, which mixes elements of grand-scale stellar empire building games like Master of Orion with real-time strategy elements. Another example is indie game Achron (2011), which incorporates time travel as a game mechanic, allowing a player to send units forward or backward in time. Multiplayer online battle arena games (MOBA) have originated as a subgenre of real-time strategy games, however this fusion of real-time strategy, role-playing, and action games has lost many traditional RTS elements. These type of games moved away from constructing additional structures, base management, army building, and controlling additional units. Map and the main structures for each team are still present, and destroying enemy main structure will secure victory as the ultimate victory condition. Unlike in RTS, a player has control over the only one single powerful unit, called "hero" or "champion", who advances in level, learns new abilities, and grows in power over the course of a match. Players can find various friendly and enemy units on the map at any given time assisting each team, however, these units are computer-controlled and players usually don't have direct control over their movement and creation; instead, they march forward along set paths. Defense of the Ancients (DotA), a Warcraft III mod from 2003, and its standalone sequel Dota 2 (2013), as well as League of Legends (2009), and Heroes of the Storm (2015), are the typical representatives of the new strategy subgenre. Former game journalist Luke Smith called DotA "the ultimate RTS". Gameplay In a typical real-time strategy game, the screen is divided into a map area displaying the game world and terrain, units, and buildings, and an interface overlay containing command and production controls and often a "radar" or "minimap" overview of the entire map. The player is usually given an isometric perspective of the world, or a free-roaming camera from an aerial viewpoint for modern 3D games. Players mainly scroll the screen and issue commands with the mouse, and may also use keyboard shortcuts. Gameplay generally consists of the player being positioned somewhere in the map with a few units or a building that is capable of building other units/buildings. Often, but not always, the player must build specific structures to unlock more advanced units in the tech tree. Often, but not always, RTS games require the player to build an army (ranging from small squads of no more than 2 units, to literally hundreds of units) and using them to either defend themselves from a virtual form of Human wave attack or to eliminate enemies who possess bases with unit production capacities of their own. Occasionally, RTS games will have a preset number of units for the player to control and do not allow building of additional ones. Resource gathering is commonly the main focus of the RTS games, but other titles of the genre place higher gameplay significance to how units are used in combat (Z: Steel Soldiers for example, awards credits for territory captured rather than gathered resources), the extreme example of which are games of the real-time tactical genre. Some titles impose a ceiling on the number simultaneous troops, which becomes a key gameplay consideration, a significant example being StarCraft, while other titles have no such unit cap. Micromanagement and macromanagement Micromanagement deals with a player's constant need to manage and maintain individual units and resources on a fine scale. On the other hand, macromanagement refers to a player's management of economic expansion and large-scale strategic maneuvering, allowing the player time to think and consider possible solutions. Micromanagement involves the use of combat tactics involved in the present, whereas macromanagement considers the greater scale of the game in an attempt to predict the future. Criticism of gameplay Turn-based vs. real-time A debate has emerged between fans of real-time strategy (RTS) and turn-based strategy (TBS) (and related genres) based on the merits of the real-time and turn-based systems. Because of their generally faster-paced nature (and in some cases a smaller learning curve), real-time strategy games have surpassed the popularity of turn-based strategy computer games. In the past, a common criticism was to regard real-time strategy games as "cheap imitations" of turn-based strategy games, arguing that real-time strategy games had a tendency to devolve into "click-fests" in which the player who was faster with the mouse generally won, because they could give orders to their units at a faster rate. The common retort is that success involves not just fast clicking, but also the ability to make sound decisions under time pressure. The "clickfest" argument is also often voiced alongside a "button babysitting" criticism, which pointed out that a great deal of game time is spent either waiting and watching for the next time a production button could be clicked, or rapidly alternating between different units and buildings, clicking their respective button. Some titles attempt to merge the two systems: for example, the role-playing game Fallout uses turn-based combat and real-time gameplay, while the real-time strategy games Homeworld, Rise of Nations, and the games of the Total War and Hegemony series allow the player to pause the game and issue orders. Additionally, the Total War series has a combination of a turn-based strategy map with a real-time battle map. Another example of a game combining both turn-based game and real-time-strategy is The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-Earth II which allows players, in a 'War of the Ring' game, to play a turn-based strategy game, but also battle each other in real time. Tactics vs. strategy A second criticism of the RTS genre is the importance of skill over strategy in real-time strategy games. The manual dexterity and ability to multitask and divide one's attention is often considered the most important aspect to succeeding at the RTS genre. According to Troy Dunniway, former Westwood developer who has also worked on Command and Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, "A player controls hundreds of units, dozens of buildings and many different events that are all happening simultaneously. There is only one player, and he can only pay attention to one thing at a time. Expert players can quickly flip between many different tasks, while casual gamers have more problems with this." Real-time strategy games have been criticized for an overabundance of tactical considerations when compared to the amount of strategic gameplay found in such games. According to Chris Taylor, lead designer of Supreme Commander, he said, "[My first attempt at visualizing RTSs in a fresh and interesting new way] was my realizing that although we call this genre 'Real-Time Strategy,' it should have been called 'Real-Time Tactics' with a dash of strategy thrown in." (Taylor then posits his own game as having surpassed this mold by including additional elements of broader strategic scope.) In general terms, military strategy refers to the use of a broad arsenal of weapons including diplomatic, informational, military, and economic resources, whereas military tactics is more concerned with short-term goals such as winning an individual battle. In the context of strategy video games, however, the difference is often reduced to the more limited criteria of either a presence or absence of base building and unit production. In an article for Gamasutra, Nathan Toronto criticizes real-time strategy games for too often having only one valid means of victory — attrition — comparing them unfavorably to real-time tactics games. Players' awareness that the only way for them to win or lose is militarily makes them unlikely to respond to gestures of diplomacy. The result is that the winner of a real-time strategy game is too often the best tactician rather than the best strategist. Troy Goodfellow counters this by saying that the problem is not that real-time strategy games are lacking in strategy (he says attrition is a form of strategy), rather it is that they too often have the same strategy: produce faster than you consume. He also states that building and managing armies is the conventional definition of real-time strategy, and that it is unfair to make comparisons with other genres. In an article for GameSpy, Mark Walker criticizes real-time strategy games for their lack of combat tactics, suggesting real-time tactics games as a more suitable substitute. He also says that developers need to begin looking outside the genre for new ideas in order for strategy games to continue to be successful in the future. This criticism has ushered into a couple of hybrid designs that try to resolve the issues. The games of the Total War series have a combination of a (turn-based) strategy map with a (real-time) battle map, allowing the player to concentrate on one or the other. The games of the Hegemony series also combine a strategy map and a battle map (in full real-time) and the player can at any point in time seamlessly zoom in and out in between both. Rushing vs. planning A third common criticism is that real-time gameplay often degenerates into "rushes" where the players try to gain the advantage and subsequently defeat the opponent as quickly in the game as possible, preferably before the opposition is capable of successfully reacting. For example, the original Command & Conquer gave birth to the now-common "tank rush" tactic, where the game outcome is often decided very early on by one player gaining an initial advantage in resources and producing large amounts of a relatively powerful but still quite cheap unit—which is thrown at the opposition before they have had time to establish defenses or production. Although this strategy has been criticized for encouraging overwhelming force over strategy and tactics, defenders of the strategy argue that they're simply taking advantage of the strategies utilized, and some argue that it is a realistic representation of warfare. One of the most infamous versions of a rush is the "Zergling rush" from the real-time strategy game StarCraft, where the Zerg player would morph one of their starting workers (or the first one produced) into a spawning pool immediately and use all of their resources to produce Zerglings, attacking once they have enough to overwhelm any early defense; in fact, the term "zerging" has become synonymous with rushing. Some games have since introduced designs that do not easily lend themselves to rushes. For example the Hegemony series made supply and (seasonal) ressource management an integral part of its gameplay, thus limiting rapid expansion. On consoles Despite Herzog Zwei, a console game, laying the foundations for the real-time strategy genre, RTS games never gained popularity on consoles like they did on the PC platform. Real-time strategy games made for video game consoles have been consistently criticized due to their control schemes, as the PC's keyboard and mouse are considered to be superior to a console's gamepad for the genre. Thus, RTS games for home consoles have been met with mixed success. Scott Sharkey of 1UP notes that Herzog Zwei had already "offered a nearly perfect solution to the problem by giving the player direct control of a single powerful unit and near autonomy for everything else," and is surprised "that more console RTS games aren't designed with this kind of interface in mind from the ground up, rather than imitating" PC control schemes "that just doesn't work very well with a controller". Some handheld consoles like Napoleon on the GBA uses a similar solution. However, several console titles in the genre received positive reception. The Pikmin series, which began in 2001 for the Nintendo GameCube, is beloved by players and became a million-seller. Similarly, Halo Wars, which was released in 2009 for the Xbox 360, generated generally positive reviews, achieved an 82% critic average on aggregate web sites, and sold over 1 million copies. According to IGN, the gameplay lacks the traditional RTS concepts of limited resources and resource gathering and lacks multiple buildings. Graphics Total Annihilation (1997) was the first real-time strategy game to utilize true 3D units, terrain, and physics in both rendering and in gameplay. For instance, the missiles in Total Annihilation travel in real time in simulated 3D space, and they can miss their target by passing over or under it. Similarly, missile-armed units in Earth 2150 are at a serious disadvantage when the opponent is on high ground because the missiles often hit the cliffside, even in the case when the attacker is a missile-armed helicopter. Homeworld, Warzone 2100 and Machines (all released in 1999) advanced the use of fully 3D environments in real-time strategy titles. In the case of Homeworld, the game is set in space, offering a uniquely exploitable 3D environment in which all units can move vertically in addition to the horizontal plane. However, the near-industry-wide switch to full 3D was very gradual and most real-time strategy titles, including the first sequels to Command & Conquer, initially used isometric 3D graphics made by pre-rendered 3D tiles. Only in later years did these games begin to use true 3D graphics and gameplay, making it possible to rotate the view of the battlefield in real-time. Spring is a good example of the transformation from semi-3D to full-3D game simulations. It is an open-source project which aims to give a Total Annihilation game-play experience in three dimensions. The most ambitious use of full 3D graphics was realized in Supreme Commander, where all projectiles, units and terrain were simulated in real time, taking full advantage of the UI's zoom feature, which allowed cartographic style navigation of the 3D environment. This led to a number of unique gameplay elements, which were mostly obscured by the lack of computing power available in 2007, at the release date. Japanese game developers Nippon Ichi and Vanillaware worked together on Grim Grimoire, a PlayStation 2 title released in 2007, which features hand-drawn animated 2D graphics. From 2010, real-time strategy games more commonly incorporated physics engines, such as Havok, in order to increase realism experienced in gameplay. A modern real-time strategy game that uses a physics engine is Ensemble Studios' Age of Empires III, released on October 18, 2005, which used the Havok Game Dynamics SDK to power its real-time physics. Company of Heroes is another real-time strategy game that uses realistically modeled physics as a part of gameplay, including fully destructible environments. Tournaments RTS World tournaments have been held for both StarCraft and Warcraft III since their 1998 and 2002 releases. The games have been so successful that some players have earned over $200,000 at the Warcraft III World Championships. In addition, hundreds of StarCraft II tournaments are held yearly, as it is becoming an increasingly popular branch of e-sports. Notable tournaments include MLG, GSL, and Dreamhack. RTS tournaments are especially popular in South Korea. See also List of real-time strategy video games References Further reading Video game genres Video game terminology	6,315
doc-en-10745_0	John Edward Bernard Seely, 1st Baron Mottistone, (31 May 1868 – 7 November 1947), also known as Jack Seely, was a British Army general and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1904 and a Liberal MP from 1904 to 1922 and from 1923 to 1924. He was Secretary of State for War for the two years prior to the First World War, before being forced to resign as a result of the Curragh Incident. He led one of the last great cavalry charges in history at the Battle of Moreuil Wood on his war horse Warrior in March 1918. Seely was a great friend of Winston Churchill and the only former cabinet minister to go to the front in 1914 and still be there four years later. Background Seely was born at Brookhill Hall, between Derby and Nottingham, on 31 May 1868. He was the seventh child, and fourth son, of Sir Charles Seely, 1st Baronet (1833–1915). Seely was a member of a family of politicians, industrialists and significant landowners. His grandfather Charles Seely (1803–1887) was a noted Radical Member of Parliament and philanthropist and was famous for hosting Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian revolutionary hero, in London and the Isle of Wight in 1864. Seely's father and brother Sir Charles Seely, 2nd Baronet were also MPs, as would later be his nephew Sir Hugh Seely, 3rd Baronet and 1st Baron Sherwood, who became Under-Secretary of State for Air during the Second World War. The family had homes in Nottinghamshire and the Isle of Wight as well as extensive property in London. He is still associated with the Isle of Wight, where he spent his holidays whilst growing up. His aunt's husband, Colonel Harry Gore Browne, won the Victoria Cross during the Indian Mutiny. Gore Browne was manager of the extensive Seely estates on the Isle of Wight. Queen Victoria lived nearby at her favourite residence, Osborne House. Early life He was educated at Harrow School, where he fagged for Stanley Baldwin. He also met Winston Churchill, who became a lifelong friend. He then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge 1887–90. Seely served in the Hampshire Yeomanry, in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant, while still an undergraduate, on 7 December 1889. He was promoted to lieutenant on 23 December 1891 and to captain on 31 May 1892. He joined the Inner Temple and was called to the Bar in 1897. Second Boer War Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War he was commissioned as a captain in the Imperial Yeomanry on 7 February 1900, having succeeded in arranging transport to South Africa for his squadron the same week, with the assistance of his uncle Sir Francis Evans, 1st Baronet, chairman of the Union Castle Line. He is remembered in South Africa as the commander that placed the 14-year-old Japie Greyling (1890-1954) against a wall in front of a firing squad, threatening to have him executed if he did not provide information about the Boer forces in the area. The boy refused to cooperate, and was freed. Several memorials still exist in South Africa today, attesting to the remarkable story. He served bravely, if a little insubordinately. He was mentioned in despatches and awarded a medal with four clasps, as well as the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in November 1900. Early political career Whilst still on active service in South Africa during the Boer War, Seely was elected Member of Parliament for the Isle of Wight as a Conservative at a by-election in May 1900 and re-elected at the "Khaki" General Election that autumn. On 10 August 1901, he was promoted to the rank of major in the yeomanry, with the honorary rank of captain in the Army from 10 July. Seely was appointed a deputy lieutenant of the Isle of Wight in 1902. Along with Winston Churchill and Lord Hugh Cecil he attacked the Balfour government's neglect of the Army. He was a strong believer in free trade and was unhappy with the Unionist (Conservative) Party's increasing support for Tariff Reform (protectionism). He also opposed the Balfour government's support for the use of Chinese Slavery in South Africa. He left the Conservative Party in March 1904 mainly over these two issues and challenged the Conservative Party to oppose him running as an Independent Conservative at the 1904 Isle of Wight by-election. They declined and he was returned unopposed. He was narrowly elected Liberal MP for Liverpool Abercromby at the 1906 General Election. Seely was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Hampshire Yeomanry on 20 June 1907, and to colonel on 31 March 1908; he was therefore known as "Colonel Seely" during his time as a politician before the First World War. Under-Secretary of State In 1908, the new Prime Minister H. H. Asquith appointed him Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, in place of Winston Churchill who had been promoted to the Cabinet. According to the Dictionary of National Biography, "Since his chief, Lord Crewe, was in the Lords, important work fell to the under-secretary, in particular the South Africa Act 1909, which brought about the Union of South Africa." He became a member of the Privy Council in 1909. Seely was also amongst those Liberals who strongly supported Lloyd George's budgets of 1909 and 1910. Seely was defeated for Abercromby at the January 1910 General Election and returned to Parliament for Ilkeston in Derbyshire at a by-election later in 1910, holding that seat until 1922. In October 1910, he was awarded the Territorial Decoration. Secretary of State for War Appointment and policies Seely then served as Under-Secretary of State for War from 1911 to 1912. As a yeomanry colonel, he did not support conscription, which General Henry Wilson favoured. "Ye Gods" was how Wilson greeted his appointment in his diary. Seely was already a member of the Committee of Imperial Defence. In June 1912, apparently on Churchill's suggestion, Seely was promoted to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for War, in succession to Haldane. He held the post until 1914. With Sir John French he was responsible for the invitation to General Foch to attend the Army Manoeuvres of 1912 and was active in preparing the army for war with Germany. Seely supported General Wilson when he gave evidence to the Committee of Imperial Defence (CID) in November 1912 that the presence of the British Expeditionary Force on the continent would have a decisive effect in any future war. The mobility of the proposed Expeditionary Force, and in particular the development of a Flying Corps (the origin of the modern Royal Air Force) were his special interests. According to The Times, these developments played a significant role in the victory during World War I. In April 1913 Seely told the House of Commons that the Territorial Force could see off an invasion by 70,000 men and that the General Staff opposed conscription. Sir John French (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) obtained a partial retraction after Wilson had threatened that he and his two fellow Directors at the War Office would resign in protest at the "lie", but Wilson felt that French's recent promotion to Field Marshal had made him reluctant to clash with Liberal Ministers. During the CID "Invasion Inquiry" (debates of 1913–14 as to whether some British regular divisions should be retained at home to defeat a potential invasion), Seely lobbied in vain for all six divisions to be sent to France in the event of war. French became very friendly with Seely when his first wife died in childbirth in August 1913. Curragh incident With Irish Home Rule due to become law in 1914, and the Cabinet contemplating some kind of military action against the Ulster Volunteers who wanted no part of it, French and Seely summoned Paget (Commander-in-Chief, Ireland) to the War Office for talks, whilst Seely wrote to the Prime Minister (24 October 1913) about the potential use of General Macready, who had experience of peacekeeping in the South Wales coalfields in 1910, and had been consulted by Birrell (Chief Secretary for Ireland) about the use of troops in the 1912 Belfast riots. In October 1913 Seely sent him to report on the police in Belfast and Dublin. There was more discussion about the Army's stance over Home Rule outside the Army than within it. Seely spoke to the assembled Commanders-in-Chief of the Army's six Regional Commands, to remind them of their responsibility to uphold the civil power. They met at the War Office on 16 December 1913 with French and the Adjutant-General Spencer Ewart present. He assured them that the Army would not be called upon for "some outrageous action, for instance, to massacre a demonstration of Orangemen", but nonetheless officers could not "pick and choose" which lawful orders they would obey, and that any officer who attempted to resign on the issue should instead be dismissed. This did not stop tensions about the Army's role from growing. By March 1914 intelligence reported that the Ulster Volunteers, now 100,000 strong, might be about to seize the ammunition at Carrickfergus Castle, and political negotiations were deadlocked as the Ulster Protestant leader Edward Carson was demanding that Ulster have a complete, not just temporary, opt-out from Home Rule. Seely was on the five-man Cabinet Committee on Ireland (along with Crewe, Simon, Birrell and Churchill (First Lord of the Admiralty)). General Paget, who was reluctant to move in case it exacerbated the crisis, was summoned to London. On 14 March 1914 the Committee warned Paget of the perceived need to occupy the arms depots to prevent the Ulster Volunteers from doing so. Seely repeatedly assured French of the accuracy of intelligence that Ulster Volunteers might march on Dublin. No trace of Seely's intelligence survives. It has been suggested, e.g. by Sir James Fergusson, that the move to deploy troops may have been a "plot" by Churchill and Seely to goad Ulster into a rebellion which could then be put down, although this view is not universally held. Carson departed London for Ulster on 19 March, amidst talk that he was to form a provisional government. No written orders had been issued to Paget. It had been agreed that officers domiciled in Ulster would be allowed to "disappear" for the duration of the crisis, with no blot on their career records, but that other officers who objected were to be dismissed rather than being permitted to resign. Although the ODNB concurs that Seely was foolish in effectively giving any officers discretion over which orders to obey, he was keen to keep Paget on the government's side and maintain the unity of the Army. The move to deploy troops resulted in the Curragh incident of 20 March, in which Gough and many other officers threatened to resign. The elderly Field-Marshal Roberts, whom Seely had told the King was "at the bottom" of the matter, thought Seely "drunk with power". The peccant paragraphs On the morning of Monday 23 March, Seely had a meeting with Gough, with Paget, French and Spencer Ewart in attendance. Seely, who – by Gough's account – attempted unsuccessfully to browbeat him by staring at him, accepted French's suggestion that a written document from the Army Council might help to convince Gough's officers. Seely took over a draft document to a Cabinet meeting for approval. Seely had to leave the meeting for an audience with the King, and in his absence the Cabinet agreed a text, stating that the Army Council were satisfied that the incident had been a misunderstanding, and that it was "the duty of all soldiers to obey lawful commands". Seely, assisted by Viscount Morley, later added two paragraphs, stating that the Crown had the right to use force in Ireland or elsewhere, but had no intention of doing so "to crush political opposition to the policy or principles of the Home Rule Bill". This was initialled by Seely, French and Ewart and then given to Gough. It is unclear whether this – amending a Cabinet document without Cabinet approval – was an honest blunder on Seely's part or whether he was encouraged to do so and then made a scapegoat. Gough, on the advice of Maj-Gen Wilson, then insisted on adding another paragraph clarifying that the Army would not be used to enforce Home Rule on Ulster, with which French concurred in writing. Seely had not been consulted about this second assurance. Asquith publicly repudiated the "peccant paragraphs" (25 March). Talk of a government "plot" was now widespread amongst the Opposition. Seely accepted the blame in the House of Commons on 25 March and offered to resign to protect French and Ewart; Asquith initially refused to accept his resignation, despite writing to Venetia Stanley that he blamed the crisis on "Paget's tactless blundering" and "Seely’s clumsy phrases". By 30 March it was clear that Asquith, to his regret, would now have to insist that Seely resign, along with French and Ewart. Seely remained a member of the CID, and it is unclear whether or when he might have been restored to the Cabinet had war not soon broken out. First World War Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, Seely was recalled to active duty as a special-service officer. Seely served for near the entirety of the First World War, with few breaks, leaving London on 11 August 1914 to take up a post on Sir John French's staff. On a liaison mission between the French Fifth Army and Haig's I Corps (31 August 1914 – during the period when Sir John French's retreat had opened up a gap in the Allied line), he claimed to have been almost captured in the fog, but to have bluffed his way past a German cavalry patrol by calling out (in German) that he was a member of the Great General Staff. In October 1914, Seely was dispatched to Belgium to participate in the Siege of Antwerp. Initially acting as an observer, Seely temporarily joined the staff of Archibald Paris, the commander of the British Royal Naval Division, which had been deployed to the city under orders from First Lord Winston Churchill. Once it became clear Antwerp was going to capitulate to the Germans, Seely assisted with the evacuation of the Royal Naval Division. On 28 January 1915, Seely was given command of the Canadian Cavalry Brigade, with the temporary rank of brigadier-general and the substantive rank of colonel. He was mentioned in despatches five times, further enhancing his reputation for bravery. He was known as "the Luckiest Man in the Army" and was the subject of many apocryphal stories, such as that he recommended his soldier servant for a Victoria Cross for having stood never less than twenty yards behind him during an engagement. On 1 January 1916, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). During the advance to the Hindenburg Line in spring 1917, Seely, whose brigade was attached to Fourth Army, commandeered infantry from XV Corps to form an ad hoc combat group to capture Équancourt. General du Cane's anger was assuaged – Seely later claimed – by the arrival of congratulations from Field Marshal Haig. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMG) on 1 January 1918. During the German Spring Offensive Seely, back from London, called on Percy Beddington, a senior staff officer of the Fifth Army, at around 2am on 24 March 1918, to inform him of the gossip in London that Fifth Army had been routed. Beddington, who had only managed to get to sleep an hour previously, for the first time since the morning of 21 March, on a camp bed in his office, recorded that he "lost (his) temper, cursed him up hill and down dale for daring to wake (him) with such drivel." Seely himself later admitted that it suddenly seemed unimportant a few days later when he was commanding the CCB in action, but it mattered a great deal in the next few days when Gough was sacked from command of the Army as a scapegoat. After being gassed in 1918, he returned to England, and was relieved of command of the brigade on 20 May 1918. He was angry about the move, but it was revealed in later correspondence by James H. Elmsley to Canadian Corps commander Arthur Currie that "[t]hose who served under him, I know had an exceptionally hard time and I am glad for the sake of the fellows of the 3rd Div. that he is going." Seely had remained an MP throughout his military service in the First World War, and as a member of the Liberal faction which supported Lloyd George's coalition government, he was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Munitions on 10 July 1918, serving under Churchill (then Minister of Munitions). He was the only member of the government, besides Churchill, to see active service in the war, and was promoted to the temporary rank of major general on 13 July. Belgium appointed him a Commander of the Order of the Crown, and France both appointed Seely a Commander of the Légion d'honneur and awarded him the Croix de guerre. Later career Seely relinquished his temporary rank of major-general on 14 January 1919. He was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Air and President of the Air Council in 1919, again under Winston Churchill (Secretary of State for War). However, he resigned both posts at the end of 1919 after the Government refused to create a Secretary of State for Air (as it later did). In June 1920, he was one of three candidates for the post of Governor-General of Australia presented to the Australian prime minister Billy Hughes, along with Lord Forster and Lord Donoughmore. Like many Lloyd George Liberals, Seely lost his seat at Ilkeston at the November 1922 General Election. He retired from the army on 25 August 1923, with the honorary rank of major-general. Seely was also a Colonel of the Territorial Army, an Honorary Colonel of 72nd (Hampshire), an Honorary Air Commander Auxiliary Air Force. Seely returned to Parliament as a member of the reunited Liberal Party for the Isle of Wight at the December 1923 General Election, which saw a hung Parliament in which the Liberals supported the first Labour Government under Ramsay MacDonald. In May 1924, however, Churchill (then out of Parliament, and who had recently left the Liberal Party to become an independent "Constitutionalist", prior to rejoining the Conservatives after his return to the Commons in 1924) listed Seely in a letter to Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin as one of his group of Liberal MPs who would vote against the Labour government, and a month later mentioned Seely as a likely Liberal Conservative. Indeed, according to historian Chris Wrigley, Seely's political trajectory was similar to that of Churchill's (i.e. a Conservative in 1900, joining the Liberals a few years later, then becoming a Conservative again in the 1920s). Seely lost his seat again at the 1924 General Election, at which the Liberals suffered heavy losses. Seely vehemently opposed the General Strike of 1926. He was made Chairman of the National Savings Committee in 1926, a post he served in until 1943, the same year he became vice-president until his death. During this time he was asked by the Government to conduct the publicity in regard to the conversion of the 5% war loan. According to The Times, "in the Second World War the activities of the National Savings Committee were largely extended and became a vital part of the national war effort." He continued to have an influential role in domestic politics. Seely was granted the Freedom of the City of Portsmouth in 1927. Appeasement On 21 June 1933 Seely was raised to the peerage as Baron Mottistone, of Mottistone in the County of Southampton. In 1933 Mottistone visited Berlin in his capacity as Chairman of the Air League, as a guest of Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1935, he visited Germany again in his boat "Mayflower". In May 1935 Adolf Hitler made a well publicised speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. That month Mottistone told the House of Lords that "we ought to assume that it is genuine and sincere...I have had many interviews with Herr Hitler. I think the noble Lord and all the people who have really met this remarkable man will agree with me on one thing, however much we may disagree about other things—that he is absolutely truthful, sincere, and unselfish". His book "Mayflower seeks the Truth", which according to the ODNB was "full of Nazi propaganda", was published in Germany in 1937. Plans for a British edition were shelved in 1938 as tensions mounted over Czechoslovakia. As late as June 1939 (after Hitler had broken the Munich Agreement and occupied Prague) he proclaimed in the House of Lords: "I am an unrepentant believer in...the policy of appeasement". However, in 1941 he wrote an article in The Sunday Times and the Evening Standard denouncing the brutality of "Hitlerism". Other posts Seely was also Vice-President of the RNLI. He was a keen sailor and for much of his life was coxswain of the Brook Lifeboat. Seely served as Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire from 1918 to 1947. He was also a Justice of the Peace (JP) for Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, the first Chairman of Wembley Stadium, and a director of Thomas Cook. He died in Westminster aged 79. His will was valued for probate at £9,212 12s 4d (not including settled land - land tied up in family trusts so that no individual has full control over it - worth £5,500). These equate respectively to around £300,000 and £200,000 at 2016 prices. Legacy Seely was a popular figure in the House of Commons. In later life, in a play on his title, his self-promotion earned him the nickname "Lord Modest One". He was described as a brave man, but it was also said unkindly of him that if he had had more brains he would have been half-witted. The Times called him a "Gallant Figure in War and Politics" and F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead, wrote, "In fields of great and critical danger he has constantly over a long period of years displayed a cool valour which everybody in the world who knows the facts freely recognizes." Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies in the final year of World War I, gave him a cigarette case inscribed, "Au Ministre de 1912: au Vaillant de la Grande Guerre." A screen was erected in St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Mottistone in his memory. Marriages and descendants Seely married Emily Florence, daughter of Colonel Sir Henry George Louis Crichton, on 9 July 1895. They had three sons and four daughters. She died in August 1913. His eldest son and heir, 2Lt Frank Reginald Seely, was killed in action with the Royal Hampshire Regiment at the Battle of Arras on 13 April 1917. He married for the second time, to Evelyn Izmé Murray, JP (born 1886, died 11 Aug 1976) on 31 July 1917. She was the widow of his friend George Crosfield Norris Nicholson and daughter of Montolieu Oliphant-Murray, 1st Viscount Elibank. They had one son (she already had a son from her previous marriage). Seely's heir John Seely (1899–1963) was an architect whose work, with Paul Edward Paget in the partnership of Seely & Paget, included the interior of Eltham Palace in the Art Deco style, and the post-World War II restoration of a number of bomb-damaged buildings, such as the London Charterhouse and the church of St John Clerkenwell. Seely's son from his second marriage, David Peter Seely, 4th Baron Mottistone (1920–2011), was the last Governor of the Isle of Wight; he was baptised with Winston Churchill and the then Prince of Wales (subsequently Edward VIII and then later the Duke of Windsor) as his godparents Seely's grandson Brough Scott, who presented horseracing television programmes, wrote a biography of Seely, Galloper Jack (2003). Seely was a maternal great-great-grandfather of theatre director Sophie Hunter. The present Conservative MP for the Isle of Wight, Bob Seely, is his great-great nephew. In popular culture According to the Sir Alfred Munnings Art Museum (Alfred Munnings was a former president of the Royal Academy of Arts and famous horse painter) "Without doubt his most important painting was that of General J. E. B. Seely (later Lord Mottistone) on his charger Warrior which led to his commission to paint the Earl of Athlone, brother of Queen Mary." Jack Seely was featured in the HBO film Into the Storm in 2009. At the end of the film Churchill reads a sympathetic post-election note from his old friend Jack Seely: "I feel our world slipping away." Churchill thinks back: "I met him in South Africa, riding across the veldt. He was Col. Seely then. I saw him at the head of a column of British cavalry, riding twenty yards in front, on a black horse. I thought of him as the very symbol of British Imperial power." The Testimony Films 2012 documentary War Horse: The Real Story contained extensive discussion of the First World War service of Seely and his widely revered horse, Warrior. Warrior was adopted as his formation's mascot and had a reputation for bravery under fire. Warrior survived the war, dying in 1941 at the age of 33. In September 2014, the horse was posthumously awarded an honorary PDSA Dickin Medal for bravery. Writings Adventure (1930) - featuring an introduction by Lord Birkenhead, praising his skill as a raconteur. Fear and Be Slain: Adventures by land, sea and air (1931) Launch! A Life-Boat Book (1932) For Ever England (1932) My Horse Warrior (1934) – a biography of his charger The Paths of Happiness (1938) Seely's books shed light on his personality but are not always factually reliable. Electoral record References Sources Burke's Peerage and Baronetage 107th Edition Volume III Dictionary of National Biography, 1941–1950. richardlangworth.com telegraph.co.uk express.co.uk warriorwarhorse.com , essay on Seely written by Roger Fulford, revised by Mark Pottle External links J.E.B. Seely at National Registry of Archives Oxford Dictionary of National Biography – Seely, John Edward Bernard (requires login) The Mighty Warrior – Extended story of the Canadian cavalry horse 1868 births 1947 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge British Army cavalry generals of World War I British Army personnel of the Second Boer War British Secretaries of State Seeley, J.E.B Deputy Lieutenants of the Isle of Wight Seely, J.E.B Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire Members of the Inner Temple Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People educated at Harrow School Secretaries of State for War (UK) Seely, J. E. B. Seely, J. E. B. Seely, J. E. B. Seely, J. E. B. Seely, J. E. B. Seely, J. E. B. UK MPs who were granted peerages Seely, J. E. B. Imperial Yeomanry officers Members of Parliament for the Isle of Wight Hampshire Yeomanry officers Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Companions of the Order of the Bath Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Deputy Lieutenants of Hampshire J.E.B. Peers created by George V	6,227
doc-en-10753_0	Hill Street Blues is an American serial police procedural television series that aired on NBC in prime-time from January 15, 1981, to May 12, 1987, for 146 episodes. The show chronicles the lives of the staff of a single police station located on Hill Street in an unnamed large city. The "blues" are the police officers in their blue uniforms. The show received critical acclaim and its production innovations influenced many subsequent dramatic television series produced in the United States and Canada. In its debut season, the series won eight Emmy Awards, a debut season record later surpassed only by The West Wing. The show won a total of 26 Emmy Awards (out of 98 Emmy Award nominations) during its run, including four consecutive wins for Outstanding Drama Series. Background MTM Enterprises developed the series on behalf of NBC, appointing Steven Bochco and Michael Kozoll as series writers. The writers were allowed freedom to create a series that brought together a number of fresh ideas in TV drama. Each episode featured intertwined storylines, some of which were resolved within the episode, with others developing throughout a season. The conflicts between the work lives and private lives of the characters were also significant. The series featured a strong focus on the workplace struggle between what is right and what works. Almost every episode began with a pre-credit sequence (or teaser) consisting of (mission) briefing and roll call to start the day shift. From season three on, a "Previously on..." montage of clips of up to six episodes preceded the roll call. Almost all episodes took place over the course of a single day, many concluding with Capt. Frank Furillo (Daniel J. Travanti) and public defender Joyce Davenport (Veronica Hamel) in a domestic situation, often in bed, discussing how their respective days went. The series dealt with real-life issues and employed professional jargon and slang to a greater extent than had been seen before on television. Each week after roll call, from Season 1 until Michael Conrad's death, partway through Season 4, Sgt. Phil Esterhaus would say, "Let's be careful out there." Sgt. Lucille Bates continued the tradition through the end of Season 4, as a tribute to Michael Conrad. From Season 5 until most of Season 6, Sgt. Stan Jablonski concluded his roll calls with, "Let's go out there and do it to them before they do it to us." (At one point, at the suggestion of Det. Mayo, Jablonski softened this to "Let's do our job before they do theirs.") From then on, the show changed directions and conclusions (and even roll calls) were dropped. Production Hill Street Blues employed what was, at that time, a unique style of camera usage for weeknight television productions, such as filming close in with action cuts rapidly between stories. Rather than studio (floor) cameras, handhelds were used to enhance this style. Overheard, off-screen dialogue aurally-augmented the "documentary" feel with respect to the filmed action of a scene. Although filmed in Los Angeles (both on location and at CBS Studio Center in Studio City), the series is set in a generic unnamed inner-city location with a feel of a U.S. urban center in the Midwest or Northeast. Bochco reportedly intended this fictional city to be a hybrid of Chicago, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh. The program's focus on failure and those at the bottom of the social scale is pronounced, in contrast to Bochco's later project L.A. Law. Inspired by police procedural detective novels such as Ed McBain's 1956 Cop Hater, the show has been described as Barney Miller out of doors. The focus on the bitter realities of 1980s urban living was revolutionary for its time. Music The theme music for "Hill Street Blues" was written by Mike Post, featuring Larry Carlton on guitar. It was released as a single and became a major US hit, reaching #10 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in November 1981. It was also an adult contemporary hit in the US and Canada. The song has no lyrics. Seasons Pilot: Brandon Tartikoff commissioned a series from MTM Productions, which assigned Bochco and Kozoll to the project. The pilot was produced in 1980, but was held back as a mid-season replacement so as not to get lost among the other programs debuting in the fall of 1980. Barbara Bosson, who was married to Bochco, had the idea to fashion the series into four- or five-episode story "arcs". Robert Butler directed the pilot and developed a look and style inspired by the 1977 documentary The Police Tapes, in which filmmakers used handheld cameras to follow police officers in the South Bronx. Butler went on to direct the first four episodes of the series, and Bosson had hoped he would stay on permanently. However, he felt he was not being amply recognized for his contributions to the show's look and style and left to pursue other projects. He would return to direct just one further episode, "The Second Oldest Profession" in season two. Season 1: The pilot aired on Thursday, January 15, 1981, at 10:00 pm, which would be the show's time slot for nearly its entire run. The second episode aired two nights later; the next week followed a similar pattern (episode 3 on Thursday, episode 4 on Saturday). NBC had ordered 13 episodes and the season was supposed to end on May 25 with a minor cliffhanger (the resolution of Sgt. Esterhaus' wedding). Instead, growing critical acclaim prompted NBC to order an additional four episodes to air during the May sweeps. Bochco and Kozoll quickly fashioned this into a new story arc, which aired as two two-hour episodes to close the season. In the first season's original ending, Officer Joe Coffey (Ed Marinaro) is shot dead during a vehicle stop. However, later on the producers decided that Coffey should remain, so the scene was edited to show him being seriously wounded and taken to hospital. (The character would eventually be killed in the sixth season.) This echoes the shooting and resurrection of Renko and Hill at the beginning of the season, providing unintentional thematic bookends to the first season. In early episodes, the opening theme had several clearly audible edits; this was replaced by a longer, unedited version partway through the second season. The end credits for the pilot differed from the rest of the series in that the background still shot of the station house was completely different; it was also copyrighted 1980 instead of 1981. Ranking 87th out of 96 shows, it became the lowest-rated program ever renewed for a second season at the time. However, it was only renewed for ten episodes. A full order was picked up partway through the season. Season 2: A writers strike pushed the start of the season forward to October 29, meaning that only 18 episodes were completed that year. Kozoll was now listed as a consultant, signifying his diminished role in the show. He later stated he was already feeling burnt out, and in fact was relying more on car chases and action to fill the scripts. A less muted version of the closing theme was played over the end credits. Season 3: Kozoll left the show at the end of season two, replaced for the most part by Anthony Yerkovich (who later created Miami Vice after leaving Hill Street Blues at the end of this season) and David Milch. This was the show's most popular in terms of viewership, as it finished at #21. This was also the birth of "Must See TV", as the show was joined by Cheers, Taxi and Fame. The network promoted Thursdays as "the best night of television on television." Michael Conrad was increasingly absent from the show due to his ongoing, and ultimately unsuccessful, battle with cancer. Season 4: Following his death on November 22, 1983, Michael Conrad's final appearance was broadcast halfway through the season in February 1984 in a memorable send-off episode, "Grace Under Pressure". Det. Harry Garibaldi (Ken Olin) was introduced at the end of the season as a temporary replacement for Det. J.D. LaRue (Kiel Martin) who was supposedly suffering from mononucleosis. The show won its fourth and final Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series this season. Season 5: The show changed drastically this season, entering a somewhat "soap opera-ish" period according to Bochco. New characters included Sgt. Stanislaus Jablonski (Robert Prosky) and Det. Patsy Mayo (Mimi Kuzyk). Det. Garibaldi was now a regular, while Fay Furillo became a full-time member of the squad room as a victim's advocate. Bochco was dismissed at season's end by then-MTM President Arthur Price. The firing was due to Bochco's cost overruns, coupled with the fact that the show had achieved the 100-episode milestone needed to successfully syndicate it. Betty Thomas won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series this season. However, at the awards ceremony, Barry Bremen, aka "The Great Imposter", rushed the stage ahead of Thomas and claimed she was unable to attend. He then claimed the award and left the stage, confusing viewers and robbing Thomas of her moment in the sun, although she returned and spoke after the ad break. Presenter Peter Graves suggested that the imposter was "on his way to the cooler." Season 6: Major changes occurred as Det. Mayo, Det. Garibaldi, Lt. Ray Calletano (René Enríquez), Fay Furillo (Barbara Bosson) and Officer Leo Schnitz (Robert Hirschfeld) were all phased out at the start of the season, and Joe Coffey left near the end. The sole addition was Lt. Norman Buntz, played by Dennis Franz, who had played a different character, the corrupt "bad guy" Detective Sal Benedetto, in several season 3 episodes. Buntz and Benedetto were doppelgängers. Peter Jurasik played a new recurring character ("Sid the Snitch"), who often teamed with Buntz. In a 1991 interview on Later with Bob Costas, Ken Olin claimed these characters were removed so the new show-runners would receive royalties. Bosson's departure, however, was voluntary. She left after a salary conflict with the new executive producer who, according to the actress, had also wanted her character, Fay, to go back to being a shrewish "thorn in her ex-husband's side". The season premiere opened with a roll call filled with officers never before seen on the show, briefly fooling viewers into thinking the entire cast had been replaced. It was then revealed that this was, in fact, the night shift. The action then cut to the day shift pursuing their after-work activities. Another unique episode from this season explained through flashbacks how Furillo and Davenport met and fell in love. This was the first season that Travanti and Hamel were not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor/Actress in a Drama Series. Season 7: Up until now, each episode of the series started with the morning roll call. Episodes from season 7 break away from tradition, showing characters at home or working. The roll call becomes a minor part of the beginning. Some episodes don't show roll call at all. Officer Patrick Flaherty (Robert Clohessy) and Officer Tina Russo (Megan Gallagher) joined this season in an attempt to rekindle the Bates/Coffey relationship of years past. Stan Jablonski became a secondary character part way through this season, and when Travanti announced he would not return the next year, the producers decided to end the show in 1987. The program was also moved to Tuesday nights almost midway through the season after nearly six years to make way for L.A. Law on Thursdays. During this season the show featured the first lesbian recurring character on a major network; the character was a police officer called Kate McBride, played by Lindsay Crouse. This was the only season that Bruce Weitz (Det. Mick Belker) was not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Only Betty Thomas was nominated, making her the sole member of the cast to be nominated all seasons. This was the only season for which the show was not nominated for Outstanding Drama Series. Broadcast history and Nielsen ratings The series later aired in reruns on TV Land, Bravo, AmericanLife TV, and NuvoTV. It has been running since September 2015 on Heroes & Icons network. Seasons one through seven can also be viewed on Hulu and Star. Season three can be viewed as streaming video on commercial sites and is also available in many countries from Channel 4 on YouTube. Setting Series producers deliberately left the exact city in which the series was set vague and a variety of methods are employed to imply different general locations. The call letters of local TV stations were usually obscured to avoid showing whether they began with "W" (the Federal Communications Commission designation for stations east of the Mississippi River) or "K" (signifying a station west of the Mississippi River). An episode in season three specifically mentions a radio station of WDPD, suggesting a city east of the Mississippi. However, in bar scenes throughout the series, characters are frequently shown drinking bottles of beer that strongly resemble Coors Beer. Coors did not obtain national distribution until 1986, and as a result of national distribution laws was not available east of the Mississippi until that year, implying the location is west of the Mississippi. Though most of the series' scenes were filmed in Los Angeles (on location and at CBS Studio Center in Studio City), the series' introduction shows exterior shots entirely of Chicago and Cutaway shots from Chicago were used in production, with police cars painted to resemble the color schemes of Chicago Police Department patrol vehicles. Chicago's 7th District Police Station is frequently shown in cutaway shots and also during the closing credits. (This station was closed by the Chicago Police in 1998 and later repurposed as the headquarters for the University of Illinois at Chicago police.) The first episode of season three shows both a TV camera labeled "WREQ", and a shot of a Regional Transportation Authority suburban train arriving at the Chicago and North Western Terminal. However, in the penultimate episode of season 2, a street sign for Los Angeles Street – a major thoroughfare in downtown LA – is visible outside the fictitious Hotel Doane. There are several mentions through the series of characters going down to "the shore", which implies a lake or oceanfront setting. One indication of setting within the show was given by the Southern-accented character Officer Andy Renko when he stated in the season one episode "Politics as Usual": "Just drop that cowboy stuff. I was born in New Jersey, never been west of Chicago in my life." In Season 1 episode 12, Captain Frank Furillo informs Lieutenant Howard Hunter that the armored vehicle he was test driving has been found "in the East River", implying New York. In Season 2, Episode 3, Sergeant Phil Esterhaus references guarding "the national guard armory in Newark", implying a location in or near New Jersey. Season 2 episode 18 shows an elevated train on which "CTA" can clearly be seen, suggesting Chicago. Throughout the series, characters occasionally mention well-known Chicago street names, such as Michigan Avenue, or other Chicago-related landmarks, such as the Blue Line subway and Mercy Hospital. Both of the characters played by Dennis Franz employ a heavy "Chicago midwestern" accent, also employed by Dan Aykroyd in The Blues Brothers, a film set in Chicago. In a Season 5 episode, during an undercover detail, Detective Belker is knocked unconscious by a criminal and stashed in the luggage compartment of an interstate bus. A package labeled "Springfield ILL" (using the old three-letter Postal Service state abbreviation) is next to him. When he is finally freed from the compartment and told he is in Springfield, it is still daytime and after he rides a bus back to his origin, it is now early evening and the other detective at his detail is not alarmed when Belker explains his absence as "following a tail", implying the distance was not very great (Springfield is roughly 3 hours drive from Chicago via I-55). Show writer Steven Bochco attended college at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh. The run-down, shabby, drug-ridden impression of Pittsburgh's Hill District that Bochco acquired was apparently part of the inspiration for the show. He intended the setting to resemble several cities, including Chicago, Pittsburgh and Buffalo. Although the city is never named, the Illinois state flag is visible over the judge's left shoulder in the courtroom scenes in the Season 2 episode "Fruits of the Poisonous Tree," suggesting that the location is Chicago, though the officers do not wear hats with bands bearing the Sillitoe tartan pattern found on the hats of actual Chicago police officers. Title Hill Street Blues refers to the blue uniforms worn by many police officers in the United States and, by extension, the depressing nature of inner-city police work. The phrase is uttered only once in the series, apart from introductions such as "Previously on Hill Street Blues." It is spoken by Detective Emil Schneider (Dolph Sweet) in the first-season episode "Gator Bait." Schneider says it in a slightly mocking tone, in reference to officers Hill and Renko, who he feels are out of their league at a particular crime scene. The precinct bowling team is the "Hill Street Blue Ballers." Cast Officers are listed by the rank they held at first appearance on the program; some officers later held higher ranks. Main characters Capt. Francis Xavier "Frank" Furillo (Daniel J. Travanti, 1981–87) Joyce Davenport (Veronica Hamel, 1981–87) Sgt. Philip Freemason "Phil" Esterhaus (Michael Conrad, 1981–84) Det. Michael "Mick" Belker (Bruce Weitz, 1981–87) Sgt. Henry Goldblume (Joe Spano, 1981–87) Ofc. Robert "Bobby" Hill (Michael Warren, 1981–87) Ofc. Andrew "Andy" Renko (Charles Haid, 1981–87) Sgt. Howard Hunter (James B. Sikking, 1981–87) Ofc. Lucille "Lucy" Bates (Betty Thomas, 1981–87) Det. John D. "JD" LaRue (Kiel Martin, 1981–87) Det. Neal Washington (Taurean Blacque, 1981–87) Lt. Raymundo "Ray" Calletano (René Enriquez, 1981–86) Ofc. Joe Coffey (Ed Marinaro, 1981–86) Fay Furillo (Barbara Bosson, 1981–86) Sgt. Stanislaus "Stan" Jablonski (Robert Prosky, 1984–87) Det. Harry Garibaldi (Ken Olin, 1984–85) Det. Patricia "Patsy" Mayo (Mimi Kuzyk, 1984–85) Lt. Norman "Norm"/"Guido" Buntz (Dennis Franz, 1985–87) Ofc. Patrick Flaherty (Robert Clohessy, 1986–87) Ofc. Tina Russo (Megan Gallagher, 1986–87) Other characters Chief Fletcher Daniels (Jon Cypher, 1981–87) Ofc. Leo Schnitz (Robert Hirschfeld, 1981–85, promoted to series regular in final season) Grace Gardner (Barbara Babcock, 1981–85) Jesús Martinez (Trinidad Silva, 1981–87) Capt. Jerry Fuchs (Vincent Lucchesi, 1981–84) Attorney/Judge Alan Wachtel (Jeffrey Tambor, 1982–87) Captain Freedom (Dennis Dugan, 1982) Assistant D.A. Irwin Bernstein (George Wyner, 1982–87) Ofc. Robin Tattaglia Belker (Lisa Sutton, 1982–87) Det. Sal Benedetto (Dennis Franz, 1983. Franz later appeared as series regular Lt. Norman Buntz (see above)) Gina Srignoli (Jennifer Tilly, 1984–85) Det. Manny Rodriguez (Del Zamora, 1985) Celeste Patterson (Judith Hansen, 1985–86) Sid "The Snitch" Thurston (Peter Jurasik, 1985–87) Hector Ruiz (Panchito Gomez, 1981–85) Judge Lee Oberman (Larry D. Mann, 1983–85) "Buck Naked" flasher (Lee Weaver, 1981–87) Daryl Ann Renko (Deborah Richter, sometimes billed as Debi Richter, 1983–87) Chief Coroner Wally Nydorf (Pat Corley, 1981–1987) Shamrock Leader Tommy Mann (David Caruso, 1981–1983) Blood (Bobby Ellerbee, 1981–84) Doris Robson (Alfre Woodard, 1983) Guest actors Hill Street Blues featured many guest actors who were cementing their careers in TV & Film. It also occasionally featured well-known character actors. Notable guest actors include: Terry Alexander Jonathan Banks Michael Biehn David Caruso Don Cheadle Vance Colvig Bryan Cranston James Cromwell Hector Elizondo Martin Ferrero Laurence Fishburne Jonathan Frakes Robin Gammell Andy Garcia Paul Gleason Crispin Glover Danny Glover Cuba Gooding Jr. Linda Hamilton Penny Johnson Jerald Anne-Marie Johnson Jane Kaczmarek Stanley Kamel Terry Kiser Yaphet Kotto Michael Lerner Whitman Mayo Barney Martin Paul McCrane James McDaniel Frances McDormand Chuck Mitchell Chris Noth Edward James Olmos Chazz Palminteri Joe Pantoliano Felton Perry Joaquin Phoenix CCH Pounder Daphne Reid James Remar Ron Rifkin Tim Robbins Mimi Rogers Leo Rossi Saul Rubinek Joe Santos Dwight Schultz Helen Shaver Ally Sheedy Brent Spiner Dolph Sweet Joe E. Tata Lawrence Tierney Jennifer Tilly Meg Tilly James Tolkan George Wallace Tracey Walter Keenen Ivory Wayans Forest Whitaker Alfre Woodard Critical reception Initially, Hill Street Blues received rave reviews from critics alongside dismal Nielsen ratings. Early schedule switching did not help; the show was broadcast once weekly on four different nights during its first season alone but gradually settled into a Thursday night time slot. The NBC Broadcast Standards Unit deemed it "too violent, too sexy, too grim." The producers described the show as "an hour drama with 13 continuing characters living through a Gordian knot of personal and professional relationships." In a May 1981 review, John J. O'Connor charted the show's growing popularity and called it "a comfortable balance between comedy and drama." The choice to include African-Americans as mainstays in the core ensemble cast and to feature several interracial and interethnic cop partnerships drew notice and praise, as did the overlapping plots and examinations of moral conundrums such as police corruption, racism, alcoholism and both interpersonal and institutional forgiveness. The show was very influential, with many others imitating its use of handheld cameras, ensemble casts and multiple overlapping storylines lasting for several episodes, set in urban decay. Alan Sepinwall wrote in 2014 that it "is on the short list of the most influential TV shows ever made. Whether through shared actors, writers, directors or through stylistic and thematic complexity, its DNA can be found in nearly every great drama produced in the 30-plus years since it debuted." He compared Hill Street Blues to Casablanca, which was so influential on other films that "if you come to see it for the first time after a lifetime of watching the copies, it could be at risk of playing like a bundle of clichés—even though it invented those clichés." In 1993, TV Guide named the series its All-Time Best Cop Show in an issue celebrating 40 years of television. In 1997, the episode "Grace Under Pressure" was ranked number 49 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. When the list was revised in 2009, "Freedom's Last Stand" was ranked number 57. In 2002, Hill Street Blues ranked number 14 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and in 2013 TV Guide ranked it #1 in its list of the 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time and #23 of the 60 Best Series. Awards The show shares the record for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series wins (4, 1981–84) with Mad Men (2008–11), L.A. Law (1987, 1989–91), Game of Thrones (2015, 2016, 2018, 2019) and The West Wing (2000–03). It has been nominated for the most Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (16) and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (13). The series shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members (excluding the guest performer category) for a single series in one year. (Both L.A. Law and The West Wing also hold that record.) At the 34th Primetime Emmy Awards, for the 1981–82 season nine cast members were nominated for Emmys. Daniel J. Travanti and Michael Conrad were the only ones to win (for Lead Actor and Supporting Actor respectively). The others nominated were Veronica Hamel (for Lead Actress), Taurean Blacque, Michael Warren, Bruce Weitz, and Charles Haid (for Supporting Actor), and Barbara Bosson and Betty Thomas (for Supporting Actress). At the 34th Primetime Emmy Awards, for the only time in Emmy Award history all five nominees in an acting category (in this case, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) were from a single series. The pilot episode, "Hill Street Station," was awarded an Edgar for Best Teleplay from a Series. "Hill Street Station" is the only episode in television history to have won the two major best director (Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series) and the two major best writer awards (Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Drama). Over its seven seasons, the show earned 98 Emmy Award nominations, an average of 14 nominations per year. Betty Thomas was the sole cast member nominated in every season and the only one to be nominated in the last season. In 1997, the episode "Grace Under Pressure" was ranked number 49 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. When the list was revised in 2009, "Freedom's Last Stand" was ranked number 57. In 2007, Channel 4 (UK) ranked Hill Street Blues No. 19 on their list of the "50 Greatest TV Dramas." Home media 20th Century Fox released the first two seasons of Hill Street Blues on DVD in Region 1 in 2006. Both releases contain special features including gag reel, deleted scenes, commentary tracks and featurettes. On December 5, 2013, Shout! Factory announced its acquisition of the rights to the series in Region 1, releasing Hill Street Blues: The Complete Series on DVD on April 29, 2014. In late 2014, Shout! began releasing single-season sets. In Region 2, Channel 4 DVD released the first two seasons on DVD in the UK in 2006. In Region 4, Shock Records released the first three seasons on DVD in Australia on December 4, 2013, and the remaining four seasons on April 30, 2014. On December 4, 2013, Shock Records also released a complete series set. Spinoff Beverly Hills Buntz Beverly Hills Buntz aired on NBC from November 5, 1987 to April 22, 1988. It was a half-hour comedy, a hybrid between light private eye fare and a sitcom. Main character Norman Buntz (Dennis Franz) quits Hill Street, moves to Beverly Hills with Sid "The Snitch" Thurston (Peter Jurasik) and becomes a private investigator. Thirteen episodes were filmed, though only nine were broadcast. In popular culture Hill Street Blues has inspired parodies, storylines, characters, and cultural references in numerous media vehicles. Second City Television - In 1981, the Canadian comedy series SCTV created a parody skit, 'The Benny Hill Street Blues,' a cross between The Benny Hill Show and Hill Street Blues. The Simpsons episode "The Springfield Connection" (S6E23), in which Marge becomes a cop, uses and ends with a mix of The Simpsons and Hill Street Blues themes. Southern rock band 38 Special's music video for "Back Where You Belong" stars the band members as bumbling plainclothes police officers pursuing a female suspect. An affectionate homage to Hill Street Blues, the video begins with a morning rollcall scene in which a police sergeant implores the band members to "be extra careful out there today." Computer game In 1991, Krisalis Software released the computer game Hill Street Blues, based on the TV show. The game runs on the Amiga, Atari ST and DOS platforms and places the player in charge of Hill Street Station and its surrounding neighborhood, with the aim of promptly dispatching officers to reported crimes, apprehending criminals and making them testify at court. If certain areas have less serious crimes unresolved, such as bag snatching, they soon escalate to more serious ones, such as murder in broad daylight. The game is still available for download at computer-game sites and outlets, and has received mixed reviews. References External links Hill Street Blues at Encyclopedia of Television 1981 American television series debuts 1987 American television series endings 1980s American crime drama television series 1980s American police procedural television series Best Drama Series Golden Globe winners Edgar Award-winning works English-language television shows Krisalis Software games NBC original programming Peabody Award-winning television programs Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series winners Television series by MTM Enterprises Television series created by Steven Bochco American detective television series	6,702
doc-en-10773_0	This list contains the names of albums that contain a hidden track and also information on how to find them. Not all printings of an album contain the same track arrangements, so some copies of a particular album may not have the hidden track(s) listed below. Some of these tracks may be hidden in the pregap, and some hidden simply as a track following the listed tracks. The list is ordered by artist name using the surname where appropriate. M83: M83 on the North American re-release has an untitled track following almost five minutes of silence after "I'm Happy, She Said." Dead Cities, Red Seas & Lost Ghosts Has an untitled song plays following a silence after "Beauties Can Die." M.I.A., Arular: After a short silence at the end of "Galang," there's an additional song—"M.I.A.." Mac DeMarco: Salad Days: There is a short message from Mac DeMarco after a short silence at the end of "Jonny's Odyssey", who says "Hi guys, this is Mac, thank you for joining me, see again soon, bye bye." Here Comes the Cowboy: The final track "Bye Bye Bye" ends at 4:33, followed by 47 seconds of Japanese people's voices before "The Cattleman's Prayer" starts. Amy Macdonald, A Curious Thing: Track 12 contains a life version of "Dancing in the Dark" after a short silence (Starts at mark 6:02 of Track 12). Macabre: On the album "Murder Metal," the last track, named "Fritz Haarman der Metzger" is 13 minutes, and contains an unnamed hidden track. Madness, One Step Beyond...: On the original release, the unlisted song "Madness" is between tracks 13 ("Mummy's Boy") and 14 ("Chipmunks Are Go!"). Madness, The Business - the Definitive Singles Collection: There is an unlisted introduction which takes up track 1 on CD1. Magalí Bachor: Magalí: After about 10 minutes after "Éste Momento," in her debut Album you can hear a nice remix of the second song, "Baby." The Maine (band): One Pack of Smokes from Broke: After some time after "Waiting for my Sun to Shine," in the Album "Pioneer". The Magic Numbers, Hymn For Her: Unlisted song appears after a pause following final track "Try" Man or Astro-man?, EEVIAC operational index and reference guide, including other modern computational devices: Final track, "Automated Liner Notes Sequence," is unlisted. Destroy All Astromen!: At the end of the album, well after the final track, a voice says (in an exaggerated Southern accent), "Boy, whatchu waitin' around for? There ain't no mystery track on this durn CD!" maNga, maNga: "Kal Yanimda 2" can be found after final track "Kapanis." Manic Street Preachers, Know Your Enemy: "We Are All Bourgeois Now" at 8:40 of the final track. It is a cover of a song by McCarthy and later featured on the B-sides and rarities compilation Lipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers). Send Away the Tigers: A cover of John Lennon's "Working Class Hero" follows final track "Winterlovers." Journal for Plague Lovers: "Bag Lady" follows final track "Willam's Last Words." Mansun, Attack of the Grey Lantern: After the Dark Mavis, you will get early b-side, "An Open Letter to the Lyrical Trainspotter." Kleptomania: "The Dog From 2 Doors Down" follows a gap after "Good Intentions Heal The Soul"; on CD 3, after "Taxloss (Live)," 3 tracks are included: "Witness to an Opera," "Thief (Re-Recorded)" and "Wide Open Space (Mike Hunter Version)" Marduk, Nightwing: Track "Nightwing" is a hidden track and is not mentioned on the rear cover but there are lyrics in the booklet. Marillion, This Strange Engine: After a long silence after end of last song, Steve Hogarth can be heard laughing over piano intro to "Man of a Thousand Faces" Brave: On the vinyl double album, Side 4 has two grooves. Each contains a different ending according to where one drops the stylus on the record. Clutching at Straws and Afraid of Sunlight both have hidden tracks that can only be heard when played on a PC with an encryption that steers the webbrowser to the Marillion website. Marilyn Manson: Smells Like Children: Track 16 is untitled and unlisted. Antichrist Superstar: "Empty Sounds of Hate" can be found at track 99, and works as both a prologue and epilogue to the album when played on loop as it seems to extend from the final song "Man That You Fear" and leads into the first track, "Irresponsible Hate Anthem." Mechanical Animals: "Untitled" can be found if CD is played in a computer. Damian Marley, Halfway Tree: "And You Be Loved" is found after the end of "Stand a Chance" Laura Marling: On her debut album Alas, I Cannot Swim there is a hidden track of the same name during "Your Only Doll (Dora)". Sarah Masen, The Dreamlife of Angels: The hidden song "Longing Unknown" is hidden in the "minus track" of the first song, and can be found by rewinding approximately 3:30. Mass of Atoms, Enhance the Chaos: A cover of the Rheostatics' "Public Square" is the unlisted final track on the cassette. Massacration, Gates of Metal Fried Chicken of Death: A disco-like version of "Metal Massacre Attack (Aruê Aruô)" appears at the end of the disk. Mastodon, Blood Mountain: The album's last song, "Pendulous Skin," contains a secret "fan letter" from Josh Homme, who provided guest vocals on the album. Matchbook Romance, Voices: Untitled track at the end of the album Stories and Alibis: Tracks 12 through 83 are three to four seconds of scilence and once it reaches track 84, there is a hidden track with a man speaking, people laughing, and weird noises. Matchbox Twenty: :Mad Season: Orchestral reprise of "You Won't Be Mine" following the original track, approximately 7:45 in. More Than You Think You Are: "So Sad, So Lonely" after silence at the end of the album Kevin Max, Stereotype Be: "You" (starts at approximately 3:09 of track 14) The Imposter: "Letting Go" after silence at the end of "Fade to Red." Maxwell, Embrya (1998): A hidden track, "Gestation: Mythos," appears in the pregap of the first track. Brian May, Another World: After the last track a piano version of the song "Business" is played. Mayhem, Grand Declaration of War: It features hidden track situated in pregap before track 1. Edwin McCain, Misguided Roses: At the end of Track 12, "Holy City" there is a long pause that leads into the hidden track "Through the Floor." Paul McCartney: McCartney: A seconds-long unlisted fragment of an unreleased track called "Suicide" plays during the final moments of "Hot As Sun/Glasses." The same track would be included in full as a bonus track on a 2011 reissue of the album. Wild Life: In this album there are two unlisted jamming tracks called "Bip Bop Link" after the end of "I Am Your Singer" and "Mumbo Link" after the closing track "Dear Friend". Band on the Run: After the closing track "Nineteen Hundred and Eighty Five," a brief reprise of the opening track "Band on the Run" plays. Off the Ground: After the end of the closing track "C'mon People," an unlisted track called "Cosmically Conscious" (a shorter edit of the longer version on the "Off The Ground" single) is played. Driving Rain: The album contains an uncredited sixteenth track, "Freedom." Chaos and Creation in the Backyard: An instrumental, "I've Only Got Two Hands," is heard after the end of "Anyway." New: "Scared" after the end of "Road." On the album's Deluxe Edition, it appears after the end of "Get Me Out of Here." Jesse McCartney, Beautiful Soul: After the track "The Stupid Things," the hidden track "Good Life" starts to play. McFly, Room on the Third Floor (2004): A hidden track, "Get Over You," previously released as a B-side, appears in the pregap of the first track. Motion in the Ocean (2006): A hidden track, "Silence Is a Scary Sound," appears after approximately five minutes of silence at the end of track 12, "Don't Stop Me Now." Above the Noise (2010): Numerous clips throughout the album, including the riff from "Supreme" in "I Need a Woman." Pat McGee Band, Shine: Immediately after the title track ends, an instrumental reprise of "I Know" begins. It was split into a separate track for its release on the iTunes Music Store. Stephanie McIntosh, Tightrope (2006): "I'd Be You" is located 60 seconds after the album's final song, "The Night of My Life," ends. Sarah McLachlan, Fumbling Towards Ecstasy: a solo piano version of "Possession" after silence at the end of the album. The Freedom Sessions: a solo piano version of "Hold On" appears a couple minutes after "Ol' 55." Mclusky: My Pain and Sadness is More Sad and Painful Than Yours: "Evil Frankie" at the end of the final track (5:10 into World Cup Drumming) Mclusky Do Dallas: "Reviewing the Reviewers" after the final track Meat Loaf, Couldn't Have Said It Better: "Mercury Blues" approximately 2 minutes after the end of "Forever Young" Meat Puppets, Too High to Die: An unlisted remake of "Lake of Fire" (originally on Meat Puppets II) begins at 3:46 of the final song on the album, "Comin' Down." Megadeth, Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years: Untitled collage of Megadeth's music, approximately 33 seconds after the end of "Peace Sells," at the end of the album. (In the Japanese version this track is not hidden but is instead track 16.) Mêlée: Everyday Behavior: Untitled song at the end of track 11, approximately 2:10 after the end of "Pennsylvania" John Mellencamp: Big Daddy: Cover version of The Hombres' "Let It All Hang Out" at the end of track 11, "J.M.'s Question Freedom's Road: Song about George W. Bush titled "Rodeo Clown" at the end of track 10, "Heaven is a Lonely Place" Melt-Banana, Teeny Shiny: Untitled track at the end of the album Melys: Casting Pearls: Untitled instrumental track hidden in the pregap of the first track. Natalie Merchant, Ophelia: Orchestral reprise of "Ophelia" following the last track Mercury Rev, Deserter's Songs: Untitled track at the end of the album MercyMe, Coming Up to Breathe: "Have Fun" begins after a long silence at the end of "I Would Die For You." Merz (musician): Loveheart: 'The Winter Song' appears after a silent gap on the last track 'Loveheart'. Merzbow, Merzbient, disc 2: Untitled track number 2 is unlisted on the back cover. Meshuggah, None: The hidden kicks can be heard at the end of the final track. Metallica, Garage Inc., disc 1: After 30–60 seconds of silence, Metallica jam to the later half of Robin Trower's Bridge of Sighs at the end of Track 11: "The More I See" by Discharge. Garage Inc., disc 2 (The $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited): At the end of "Last Caress/Green Hell," there is a mock performance of the intro to Iron Maiden's Run to the Hills which fades out. Method of Escape, Method of Escape (2014): "To Keep You" starts playing after the last track "Broken Jar" ends. Metz, Metz: "--))--" is the unlisted final track. MewithoutYou, [A→B] Life After approximately 5:00 of complete silence (starting at 5:43), an abruptly-starting acoustic version of the song "I Never Said I Was Brave" is sung by guitarist Mike Weiss. Mew, Half the World Is Watching Me The song "Ending" can be found on the first issue of the album by rewinding past 0:00 on the first track "Am I Wry? No." No More Stories...: When the first track, "New Terrain," is reversed, it reveals a hidden track called "Nervous." Micachu, Jewellery (album): After the final track on CD version, song "Hardcore" appears after 20 minutes of silence. George Michael, Songs from the Last Century: After the last track and a few minutes of silence the listener will hear "It's All Right with Me." Midnight Oil, Scream in Blue: track 13 is an unlisted 5:04 acoustic version of "Burnie" The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Ska-Core, the Devil, and More: A live version of "Howwhywuz Howwhyam" after the final track "Drugs and Kittens"/"I'll Drink to That," preceded by a few minutes of silence Mika, Life in Cartoon Motion (2007): A hidden track, "Over My Shoulder," appears at 5:43 minutes in track 10's love ballad, "Happy Ending." On the UK release, a bonus track called "Ring Ring" is featured after the entire track 10 as track 11, making "Over My Shoulder" appear before the album has ended. Ministry, Dark Side of the Spoon: "Everybody" as track 42 (Unofficially titled as "Linda Summertime") Houses of the Molé: "Psalm 23" as track 23, an alternative version of "No W" without Carmina Burana samples, preceded by a rendition of The Star-Spangled Banner. Later versions of album include "No W" without Carmina Burana samples and "Psalm 23" is replaced by the track "Bloodlines" (composed for Vampire: The Masquerade - Bloodlines game). Also, there is a second hidden song at track 69, called "Walrus." Rio Grande Blood: Unlisted 13th track which is "Gangreen" intro without guitars. Dannii Minogue: Girl: A cover version of Harry Nilsson's song "Coconut" is hidden at the end of the album, after "Movin' Up." Neon Nights: A remix of "Come and Get It" (Sebastian Krieg Remix) appears after closing track, "It Won't Work Out." Kylie Minogue, Light Years: "Password" hidden in the album's pregap Minor Threat, Out of Step: Untitled track at end of side 2 on vinyl and cassette release. Track is listed as Cashing in on CD release and Complete Discography Mint Condition, Life's Aquarium: The hidden bonus tracks "DeCuervo's Revenge" and "If We Play Our Cards Right" start at the end of the last song "Leave Me Alone" following two minutes of silence. Mistle Thrush, Agus Amàrach: After 21 tracks of silence following the final credited song, there is an untitled 2:10 ambient wash of sound spread across five tracks. The Misfits, American Psycho: "Hell Night" starts about 5 minutes after the last listed track, "Don't Open 'til Doomsday." On the vinyl version this track is replaced with "Dead kings rise", which is not the demo version the is available on "Cuts from the crypt". Kim Mitchell, Ain't Life Amazing There is a brief pause at the end of the eneventh track, before "Fill your head with rock" begins to play. This song is not listed on the packaging. Super Refraction: On the final track of the album, after the credited song ends, there is 1:30 of silence, followed by a 22:32 sound collage pieced together from samples of the singer's vocals. Moby, Hotel: The fifteenth track is an unlisted slow instrumental called "35 Minutes." Last Night: "Lucy Vida" is hidden after a brief amount of silence following the last track on the album. Modest Mouse: "Sad Sappy Sucker": Of the 24 tracks on the CD, only 23 are listed, with an extra song—"Classy Plastic Lumber"—inserted as track four, off-setting the track numbers for the remainder of the songs. Modjo, Modjo: An acoustic version of "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)" was played after the final track, "Savior Eyes". moe., Dither: An alternate version of "Captain America" starts after roughly 14 minutes of silence following the album-ending "Opium." Mouse on Mars, Vulvaland: An untitled track after several minutes of silence lasting 6:05 in duration. The Moffatts, Submodalities: There are two tracks hidden within the deceptively long (24:43 mins) final listed track, "Spy," appearing at 11:52 ("Destiny") and 22:04 ("Kill the Seagull," also known as the "Submodalities Chant" before the name was released) respectively. Moloko, Do You Like My Tight Sweater?: Untitled track after the last track, "Who Shot the Go Go Dancer" Monaco, Music For Pleasure The song "Sedona" ends at minute 5:50. At minute 6:50, after 1 minute of silence, begins a brief hidden track: it's an outro message that says "Oi! You can turn it off now". Mono Puff, It's Fun to Steal: A untitled track appears in the pregap before the first track. Monrose, Ladylike: "I Surrender" appear at 5:18 of "Mono." Monster Magnet, Dopes to Infinity: On the CD version, an extended noise piece, "Forbidden Planet," appears at the end of the album following several minutes of silence. The song also appears on the two-disc LP version (filling the entire second side of the second disc) and as a B-side. Monster Magnet, Tab: Some releases of the album include two tracks, "Murder" and "Tractor," which are not listed on the cover. Both tracks had appeared earlier on their eponymous debut album. Gary Moore, A Different Beat After the last track and a few minutes silence you will hear another version of "Surrender" Dark Days in Paradise: Untitled track at end of album following "Business as Usual" - on the remaster it is credited; it is actually the title track of the CD, "Dark Days In Paradise" Geoff Moore & the Distance: Threads: A cover of Sly and the Family Stone's "Stand!" following the final track "The Letter." Morbid Angel, Heretic: The album has 30 unlisted tracks, most are silent, four contain isolated guitar leads, one is ambient, and one is an instrumental version of another song on the album. Alanis Morissette: Jagged Little Pill: Track 13 contains an alternate take of "You Oughta Know" and, following silence, at 5:12, "Your House," a solo a cappella song which she performed at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards. Jagged Little Pill Acoustic: Track 12 "Wake Up" is followed by silence and at 6:18 "Your House" accompanied by instruments. Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie: a demo of "Uninvited," with only pianos and vocals at the end of the Australian edition of the album. Mortician, The Final Bloodbath Session: Track 28 is unlisted on the back cover. The Move, Looking On: After the last song, "Feel Too Good," has finished, an unlisted song titled "The Duke of Edinburgh's Lettuce" begins. The Movement, Set Sail: Following the final track, "Kind," Jordan Miller performs a solo acoustic song titled "Breathe." Mr. Bungle: OU818: At the end of the tape you can hear outtakes from the Intro of "Mr. Nice Guy" with all the band members cracking up in laughter. Disco Volante: "The Secret Song" (labeled "Spy" in setlists). On the CD, this song plays on track 3 after the listed song, "Carry Stress in the Jaw." On the vinyl LP, this song is recorded on a separate groove between the grooves of "Carry Stress in the Jaw" — the record needle must be manually moved to hear it. There is also a hidden track at the end of the final song, "Merry Go Bye Bye," which seems to be a recording of the band jamming. Jason Mraz: At the end of the Mr. A-Z CD, after Song For a Friend a song plays with a church choir singing. Ms. Dynamite: Follow the last track "Ramp" is about two minutes of silence, followed by "Get Up, Stand Up!" Mudhoney, My Brother the Cow: "woC eht rehtorB yM," 13th unlisted track, which is the whole album played backwards (tracks 12 to 1 in reverse) Municipal Waste (band): At the end of the Waste 'em All CD, there is a sixteenth song after the song titled "Mountain Wizard." It is about flying a kite. Muse: Hullabaloo Soundtrack: "What He's Building," a poem read by Tom Waits, is hidden in the pregap of the second disc. Random 1-8: Three hidden remixes of "Sunburn" at the end. Starlight: A hidden song, which is referred to as fans and the band as "You Fucking Motherfucker" can be found by placing the DVD version into a DVD player and going to Title 4. HAARP: On the H.A.A.R.P. DVD, Sing For Absolution is a hidden track on Title 2. While on the CD, the a riff from the song "Maggie's Farm" is played at the end of track 5, "Map of the Problematique." Absolution Tour: Various other live performances are hidden on the DVD. When in the Extras menu, go down to 'Stockholm Syndrome', press the left button and the 'X' in 'Extras' should light up. Then press play. On the US release of the Black Holes and Revelations album + the Absolution Tour as a bonus disc, when in the extras menu, go down to "Groove in the States" and then press right (or left, depending on your remote) and the 'X' in 'Extras' should light up, press play and they will play. Mushroomhead: Mushroomhead: Untitled hidden track number 43 (tracks 14-42 are 5 seconds each of blank audio). This is a mash-up of some of the tracks, including Slow Thing, Too Much Nothing, Indifferent, 2nd Thoughts, Mommy and 43. M3: Track number 99 "Dark And Evil Joe" (tracks 11-98 are 7 seconds each of blank audio). This is a prank phone call. XX: A hidden prank phone call starts sometime after the freestyle rap of JMann. This is only available on the Eclipse Records release of the album. XIII: A cover of Seal's "Crazy" is at about 5:25 of the end of the final track. Kacey Musgraves, Pageant Material: Musgraves' cover of "Are You Sure" by Willie Nelson is a part of track 13, "Fine", on CD pressings of the album and on Spotify (giving track 13 a length of 7:50), but a separate track on all other digital platforms. The song features vocals from Nelson. The Music: The Music Limited Edition CD: "New Instrumental" hidden in the pregap for 5:09 before track 1 Welcome to the North: 'The Walls Get Smaller' is hidden after silence at the end of the last track 'Open Your Mind' Strength in Numbers: 'No Danger' is found after a silent gap at the end of the last track 'Inconceivable Odds' MxPx, Secret Weapon: "Song About Nothing" is after the last track ("Throw Your Body in the Air" in the special edition, otherwise "Tightly Wound"). My Chemical Romance, The Black Parade: Track called "Blood" hidden at the end of the album, on track 14 at 1:30. This track is only available on explicit versions of the album My Little Pony, Winning Streak (1995): There is a pregap consisting that Howie b. Reynolds talking about Yom Kippur... also used on Less Than Jake's Losing Streak Album. Anthem (2004): After the bonus track on the cassette edition, there's a track which consists that the Cutie Mark Crusaders thinking the hidden track should start... but it didn't. Followed by 2 minute silence. After all that, there's the demo version of "The Ghost of You and Me" which is recorded at the summer of 2003. Mr. Spring: "Not for Sale" on the 8-track Cart edition 2008 . Track called "Aquarious" left off original CD master and another 6 unnamed tracks on the cart issue to fill the tapes. Cat IRT404/08 Mor ve Ötesi, Dünya Yalan Söylüyor (The World is Lying) (2004) 230.000+ copies sold in TR: Track called "Uyan" hidden at the end of the album on track 10, "27:26 Minutes" Mystery Jets, Twenty One: Twenty One appears after two minutes' silence on the final track. See also List of backmasked messages List of albums with tracks hidden in the pregap References M	5,945
doc-en-10785_0	The Kangaroo Chronicles are a book series by the German author, singer-songwriter and Kabarett artist Marc-Uwe Kling. The first book in the series, Die Känguru-Chroniken (en: The Kangaroo Chronicles), was published in 2009. The second volume, Das Känguru-Manifest (en: The Kangaroo Manifesto), was published in 2011; the third volume followed in 2014 under the name Die Känguru-Offenbarung (en: The Kangaroo Revelations). The fourth volume is called Die Känguru-Apokryphen (en: The Kangaroo Apocrypha) and was published in 2018. In 2020, a film of the same name was released by ZDF and X Filme. The stories in the anthology were originally broadcast as a weekly podcast, Neues vom Känguru (en: News from the Kangaroo), on Fritz, a Berlin-based radio station. In 2010, the podcast was awarded the for "Best Comedy". Plot Die Känguru Chroniken (en: The Kangaroo Chronicles) The story opens with Marc-Uwe Kling answering the door to a kangaroo. It explains that it would like to borrow some eggs from him, as it wants to make pancakes but did not remember to buy any eggs. The author is flabbergasted by the talking animal but reacts quickly and fetches some eggs for his new neighbor. Shortly after he had closed the door, it rings again – the Kangaroo also needs to borrow some salt, milk, flour, oil and a pan. Marc-Uwe is happy to help out, grabs the ingredients and the pan and gives them to the Kangaroo. Before he's even moved an inch from the door, the bell rings once again. The Kangaroo does not have a stove yet. Marc-Uwe invites his neighbor into the kitchen – a momentous decision, considering the Kangaroo later moves in with him, without asking for permission, and the two of them become flatmates. The Kangaroo refuses to pursue stable employment, and when asked about it, simply states "I'm a Communist. Got something against it?" As such, the author is responsible for the Kangaroo's livelihood. The Chronicles report their conversations and shared experiences, usually through direct speech. Each chapter is a complete short story in and of itself, but they do build on top of one another. For instance, in one story, the author pulls a book out of a fuzzy sock, referring to an earlier chapter when he mentioned that he keeps his books inside fuzzy socks to keep them from sliding off his crooked shelf. These connecting elements, referring to Punch lines from earlier stories and requiring knowledge of previous events appear as running gags throughout the books. The story is set in Berlin, and occasionally mentions concrete geographical locations, such as Berlin-Kreuzberg or the underground station Kottbusser Tor. The relationship between Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo is characterized by bickering, jealousy and spending a lot of time with each other – a bit like a stereotypical marriage. Their topics of conversation range from media and linguistic criticism to capitalism, questions of life and faith, contemporary protest culture, Karl Marx, Bertold Brecht, the Red Army Fraction and the Viet Cong. Towards the end of the book the two are confronted with a new neighbor – the Penguin. It introduces itself as a salesman for frozen food, but both Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo are immediately suspicious Das Känguru Manifest (en: The Kangaroo Manifesto) The second volume ties in where the first one ends. The reader learns about the fictional Ministerium für Produktivität (en: Ministry of Productivity), which plans to crack down on unemployed persons by introducing the Initiative für mehr Arbeit (en: Initiative for More Labour). Meanwhile, a rivalry develops between the Kangaroo and the Penguin. The Kangaroo, for instance, installs its punching bag so it bumps into their shared wall whenever it's punched. In return, the Penguin places several alarm clocks against the wall in order to wake the Kangaroo. Marc-Uwe's editor suggests to the Kangaroo that the Penguin is its archenemy, fighting to advance its kapitalistischen Weltverschlechterungsplan (en: Capitalist plot to screw up the world). At an awards ceremony which Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo attend as were nominees for the "Best Book Featuring a Talking Animal," they meet Jörg and Jörn Dwigs – brothers who founded the right-wing populist party Sicherheit und Verantwortung (en: Safety and Responsibility). This inspires the Kangaroo to found das Asoziale Netzwerk (en: the anti-social network) – a group that commits "anti-terror attacks" aimed at "The System." The SV is elected to parliament in the next elections and plans to categorise foreigners into two groups: productive or unproductive. The Ministry of Productivity implements this plan, despite the efforts of the Anti-Social Network to destroy its databases. At the close of the book, the Kangaroo, who still believes the Penguin to be the head of the campaign, is categorised as unproductive and is deported. Although each short story remains intelligible on its own, in the second volume, Kling begins to develop an overarching plot line—whereas the first volume primarily revolves around realist depictions of everyday life in Berlin (with the exception of the talking kangaroo), the second volume introduces various fictional, quasi-realistic organisations and institutions. Die Känguru-Offenbarung (en: The Kangaroo Revelations) The third volume is divided into two parts – Revelations I and II. At the beginning of Revelations I, Marc-Uwe has been alone for several months already and is suffering from depression. However, the Kangaroo soon returns. Since it is now an illegal immigrant, it relies on a series of disguises to avoid deportation. The two quickly determine that the Penguin no longer lives in his flat, so they make it their mission to find him. They do not follow a set plan or strategy, preferring simply to look in many different places—but wherever they end up, they seem to have just missed the penguin. At the end of part 1, Marc-Uwe's editor asks for more grandeur, so in Revelations II, the flatmates carry on their search abroad. Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo visit New York City, Toronto, Brussels, Seattle and Caracas, then Toronto again, and finally Ho-Chi-Minh City. It turns out that the Anti-Social Network has branched out into regional groups all over the world, and they encounter other members in New York and Toronto. In Ho-Chi-Minh City, Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo find a factory that is run by the Penguin. To find out what is being manufactured there, they follow the supply chain, eventually reaching an island in the Aegean Sea. The Kangaroo develops the theory that the Penguin and his associates want to turn the whole world into an airport. Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo find the penguins' headquarters, where it turns out they're raising small penguins. Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo barely escape the penguins' factory, only making it out with the help of a turncoat penguin. Finally, they make their way to the Outback, where they meet an independent group of kangaroos who are also fighting against "The System" and the penguins. The Revelations also include an appendix which describes various anti-terror attacks against the Kangaroo's various foes. The final part of this appendix describes the kangaroos' sabotage of the penguins' first airport. Revelations I is similar to the Manifesto in that its stories remain comprehensible in isolation; the stories in the second part, on the other hand, build upon one another. As the book progresses, its chapters become less and less individually comprehensible. The Revelations incorporate many elements characteristic of Fantasy novels. It also contains various running gags new to the series. For example, every time the protagonists meet someone abroad, it's emphasised again and again what a crazy coincidence it is that the new character just happens to speak German. Die Känguru-Apokryphen (en: The Kangaroo Apocrypha) The fourth volume was published in October 2018. It is made up of 30 different stories, by and large not organised in chronological order. Nevertheless, some series of interdependent stories, for example those featuring Dietmar Kötke, are told chronologically. Some of the stories are set during the time period of the Chronicles, but others occur even after the end of the Revelations. The Apocrypha also include some stories from earlier volumes, retold from the perspective of the Kangaroo. Characters and Organisations Protagonists The Narrator The protagonist of the Chronicles is the first-person narrator, Marc-Uwe. He is characterized as an educated, critical, self-reflecting intellectual in his late twenties. Marc-Uwe is a member of the ‘Kleinkunstszene’ of Berlin (genre of arts including poetry slam, kabarett, and comedy amongst other things). He was born in Baden-Württemberg and now lives in a flat in Berlin. Money is usually tight, this does not change when the Kangaroo moves in, as it does not make any money and has Marc-Uwe pay for everything. Marc-Uwe likes to read his poems to the Kangaroo and tell it about his thoughts, plans and ideas, which the Kangaroo likes to criticize ruthlessly. It is not often that the two are on a par in their debates and discussions, however, the Kangaroo tends to win most discussions as it uses unfair and malicious techniques when debating. The Kangaroo The Kangaroo fought in the Vietnam War on the side of the Viet Cong, according to its statement, and came to the GDR as Vertragsarbeiter (contract worker) with his mother after the war had ended. However, later, it is discovered that it only waved at the last American helicopter as a little baby out of its mother’s pouch. It tells the narrator that it’s a full-time communist, but files for unemployment later in the text. It is a relentless critic of capitalism and fights for a just world order, bread for all and the ban of the so-called music television (television where music, music videos and information related to music is aired), which is why it founded the “Judeo-Bolshevist world conspiracy association” (original: “Jüdisch-Bolschewistische Weltverschwörung e.V.”). But all of these attempts fail naturally because of the insignificance of the Kangaroo in the world’s affairs and because of its laziness. Thereby, its critical of capitalism attitude is often counteracted because it’s kept by the narrator. In addition to that, it uses the narrator as object for its unfair trade practices (such as forced ringtone subscriptions). The kangaroo loves booze pralines, schnitzel buns with mince, as well as the band Nirvana and movies with Bud Spencer – preferably without Terence Hill. It is literate, argues radical and consequent, while simultaneously behaving childish, defiant and goatish. It does steal ashtrays whenever it has the opportunity and is occasionally malicious and back-stabbing. In dicey situations though, the kangaroo selflessly assists his roommate. It always carries a ton of stuff in his pouch. Until the kangaroo locates what it precisely needs, it frequently has to search for long time and then pulls out books, bolt cutters, newspapers, stolen ashtrays and lots more. In many cases the red boxing gloves it carries in his pouch come to use, which most of the times are found unerringly. It is working on a magnum opus, which, according to the Kangaroo, carries the two human main driving forces in its title: “opportunism and repression”. The Kangaroo tends to cite smaller passages out of it. As a fictive character the Kangaroo – even though the author repeatedly mentions the Kangaroo’s existence – functions as the author’s alter ego, as a being which isn’t bound to the common norms of the society. Therefore, it can say and do whatever it wants and what the author would be prohibited from doing. In literature this a known and frequently used stylistic device. It is possible for the Kangaroo to insult officers or kick small dogs out of the way, while naturally discussing their particular aerodynamic characteristics. At a cocktail party, it pees on Jörn Dwigs, the founder of a fictitious right-wing populist party because it decided to take figures of speech literally. The comedy of the Chronicles results from these liberties the Kangaroo takes. Furthermore, the Kangaroo is able to voice unconventional truths, similar to the child in the fairy tale The Emperor’s New Clothes. The Kangaroo is often childish and cunning, sometimes mischievous, but is in the end willing to reconcile with the author, most gladly however after winning an argument. The Kangaroo has features, which can be interpreted as typically female as well as typically male. That’s why the Kangaroo’s gender is not clearly definable. Although only female kangaroos have a permanent pouch - and the Kangaroo uses its pouch clichédly as a kind of chaotic handbag in the course of the three books - it suggests that the pouch might be just stapled on in the course of book three. In an interview the author said that the Kangaroo was "bi-trans-metro-sexual", when asked about the Kangaroo’s gender. The main character's friends Axel Krapotke Krapotke is a somewhat silly young Bundeswehr soldier who appears for the first time in the second part and later joins the Anti-Social Network. He is often excluded from the rest of the group and not rarely brings the Kangaroo to spectacular outbursts of rage, for example because he thinks the rules for Mau Mau are too complicated. Friedrich-Wilhelm and Otto-Von Friedrich-Wilhelm and Otto-Von are two brothers of Turkish descent whose parents, according to Friedrich-Wilhelm, “went a little over the top with their intention to integrate”. They are part of the Anti-Social Network founded by the Kangaroo and play a key role in it alongside the Kangaroo and the narrator. Out of the two brothers, Friedrich-Wilhelm features more often in the stories; he studies medicine and finds a girlfriend between the second and third book. They have a son named Bartholomäus. Otto-Von appears mainly in the second book. He runs a small shop called “Snacks and the City”, where he initially sells doner kebap and fruit. Later, after a business idea of Otto-Von, he sells solely cheap beer. During the course of the book, his business expands and becomes a chain store. God God is a female member of the Anti-Social Network, which was founded by the Kangaroo. Her true name Maria is first mentioned in the chapter "Swedish Scientists" of the Kangaroo Apocrypha, as well as the fact that she successfully completed her study of arts. However, her code name in the network is often used for a running gag (this is how the characters talk about God, using phrases that can be related to both her and the religious figure). During the plot, the protagonist falls in love with her and is therefore often nervous and stammering in her presence. God herself doesn't seem to have any special interest in him. As mentioned during the plot, God lives in a council flat and has a little son named Jesus with her boyfriend, who owns a mobile phone shop. Another running gag is God's frequent changes of profession, which all show precarious employment ("I collect shitty jobs like other people collect surprise egg figures!"). Herta Herta is the owner of the narrator’s local pub. She is apparently a former East Berlin native, as she e. g. disadvantages West Germans at her pub toilet; moreover, she speaks with a strong Berlin dialect. After she has to close her pub in the second book because a resident complains about the noise, she opens an illegal pub, mainly frequented by members of the Anti-Social Network and Spanish tourists. Herta is also part of the Anti-Social Network and has the nickname “Amazonenkönigin” (en: “Queen of the Amazons”). Her motto is: „Es jibt sone und solche, un’ dann jibt’s noch janz andre, aber det sind die Schlimmsten“ (en: “There are such people and others, and then there are totally different ones, but those are the worst”). Sarah Sarah is a young backpacker, who meets Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo several times on their trip around the world. Sarah is an extremely hyperactive person, who talks quickly in streams of words. She likes to use English words like “amazing” and “awesome”, as well as phrases such as “It’s kind of like…” and “You know…” on a frequent basis. This phenomenon is said to occur due to the pills prescribed by her psychiatrist (this is a reference to a previously stated gag between the protagonist and his psychiatrist, who wants to prescribe Marc-Uwe mood lifters). During the plot, she develops a romantic interest in Marc-Uwe, which he does not return. Later in the story, it turns out that Sarah is actually from Germany, too, after which conversations between her and Marc-Uwe are held in German and not in English anymore. Antagonists The Penguin At the End of Chronicles, the Penguin moves into the flat opposite of the one Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo share. Shortly after that, the Penguin is proclaimed the “cosmic antagonist” by the Kangaroo. From Manifesto onwards, the Kangaroo and the Penguin aim to terrorise each other, amongst other things by loud noise. In Revelations, Marc-Uwe and the Kangaroo chase the Penguin around the world to prevent its “Kapitalistischen Weltverschlechterungsplan” (en: capitalist plan in order to screw up the world). As it turns out, there is not only one Penguin, but thousands. Their leader is a large emperor penguin. Jörg and Jörn Dwigs Jörn and Jörg Dwigs are twins. They first appear in Manifesto. Jörg is a judge for asylum law who became famous because of his 100% rejection quote. Jörn is a bank director and finances the populistic right-wing party Sicherheit und Verantwortung (SV) (meaning “security and responsibility” in English), which the two of them founded. He is the author of a book called “Ich bin ja kein Rassist, aber” (“Well, I´m not a racist, but”). Jörg Dwigs is an allusion to the Austrian right-wing populist Jörg Haider who was the chairman of the Austrian party FPÖ for many years. Schmidtchen Schmidtchen is a policeman who would like to arrest the Kangaroo, but his intellect is inferior to its rhetoric talent. He forgets his valid suspicions about the Kangaroo as soon as he enters the apartment and gets involved in a discussion with it, where it uses confusing arguments. He only appears in the Chronicles on two occasions. Other characters and organizations The Anti-Social Network The Anti-Social Network is an “anti-terror-organization” that was founded by the Kangaroo. It works against the “terror of media, Government and economy”. The name was chosen because all systems that call themselves social are anti-social, according to the Kangaroo. Therefore, a truly social organization has to call itself anti-social. On the basis of the real structure of such organizations, every member and every gathering can give itself a senseless title, there are no hierarchies. The actions that the network carries out, the so-called anti-terror-attacks, can be named however the perpetrator wants to call them accordingly. The psychiatrist Since the very first volume, the narrator keeps appointments with his psychiatrist regularly and tells him about his adventures with the kangaroo. The psychiatrist interprets the existence of the kangaroo as a hallucination of the narrator until he brings the kangaroo to an appointment. On the strength of that, the psychiatrist has a nervous breakdown, undergoes medical treatment himself, represses the existence of the kangaroo and keeps trying to convince the I-narrator of its nonexistence. The fact that the psychiatrist rips diverse statements of the I-narrator out of its context and interprets them as romantic advances becomes another running gag. In doing so, his reaction is not averse, but he keeps affirming that his professional ethics prevent him from getting to know his patients privately. Form and language Chronicles consists of 81 short stories which are told in present tense (except for Chapter 21, which is told metafictionally). The chapters are relatively short, at the most a dozen pages long. Some of the chapters end in abstracts from “opportunism and repression”, which is the fundamental work of social science the Kangaroo is working on. Apart from this, the chapters' contents consist of dialogue between the Kangaroo and the Narrator. Those discussions use everyday language feature terms of dialect, foreign and loan words, and technical terms. Both the Kangaroo and the Narrator use idioms and expressions in other languages to illustrate the intellectual level of their discussions. Furthermore, the protagonists use footnotes to comment on certain aspects. In some chapters, quotes are featured before the main text, as it is custom in literature. These are mainly intended to be comical and absurd, due to misattribution. Originally coined by Kant, the following is misquoted by Kling to be said by Silvio Berlusconi: (en: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law. Categorical imperative) The author cites Monty Python and Calvin and Hobbes as his role models when it comes to humor. Genre The works of the Kangaroo Chronicles are not actual chronicles but satiric and episodic novels. The books show a high degree of allusions, intertextuality, word play, punch lines and running gags. All four books reference popular culture and contain homages to movies (among them Star Wars, The Lord of the Rings, Fight Club) and literature. The allusions to the Viet Cong, the GDR, the history of communist ideology and its various movements, politics and contemporary history require a certain amount of historical and general knowledge. However, that never stopped the Chronicles from being widely read and listened to, by adults as well as children. The individual texts display characteristics of short stories: a straight, episodic plot; a limited number of characters (with a tendency towards stereotypes); a determined beginning and a succinct end constructed as a punch line; stylistically concise and suggestive language and in regards to content a tendency towards the extraordinary. However, in contrast to a typical short story the two protagonists are both present in the stories most of the time, creating a two character perspective structure. Because of the jokes and its easiness to be read out aloud, the whole work shows similarities to a poetry slam. There are also parallels to a fable as there are animal protagonists with human attributes and a critical, educative tenor, all of which results in a satirical effect. Reception The Kangaroo Chronicles were received mostly positive by the cultural pages: The Süddeutsche Zeitung described the author as a "new high-flyer on the German cabaret scene", the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung rated the columns as "eloquent, amusing and fast-paced", the radio station Deutschlandfunk Kultur praised: "Kling writes subtly exaggerated and radically direct. In the opinion of Elisabeth von Thadden in the weekly newspaper Die Zeit Kling offers "everything social philosophy has to offer in terms of social criticism: The kangaroo wants political participation (Jürgen Habermas), whines for recognition (Axel Honneth), needs love (Eva Illouz) and definitely resonance (Hartmut Rosa), seeks justice (John Rawls), wants to abolish the system (no one represents it any more), declares the biological gender difference irrelevant (Judith Butler). It wants to treat animals like humans (Martha Nussbaum) and suffocates in ambivalence (Zygmunt Bauman)". Sophie Weigand praised in Literaturen (a German literature magazine), "never has social criticism been so witty and so pointed at the same time, this book is not only alternative but also completely unrivalled. It is a satirical bible, precisely the Holy Scripture of the antisocial network." The satirical magazine Titanic, on the other hand, criticized that Kling "first of all wants to make one joke after another and not hurt anyone. Which is why the political aspects of his books seem just as harmless, unmotivated and largely senseless as the whole thing in the first place. One must have a childlike disposition to be inspired by such things (Original German quote:„zuvörderst einen Jux nach dem anderen machen und niemandem wehtun. Weshalb denn auch das Politische seiner Bücher genauso harmlos, unmotiviert und weitgehend sinnfrei daherkommt wie überhaupt das ganze Klingeling. Man muß schon über ein kindliches Gemüt verfügen, um sich von so etwas begeistern zu lassen.“). Adaptations Stage/Theatre A first theatre play of the Kangaroo Chronicles by Isabelle Chastenier and Benjamin Muth was staged at the Eduard-von-Winterstein-Theater in Annaberg-Buchholz in 2015. After that, guest performances in, inter alia, Berlin (Brotfabrik), Dresden (Johannstadthalle) and Freiburg (Wallgraben-Theater) followed. In 2016, Hans Schernthaner adapted the book for the stage. Under his direction, the Kangaroo Chronicles were staged at the Altonaer Theater. The cast consisted of Stephan Möller-Titel as Marc-Uwe and Robert Zimmermann as the kangaroo. Movie In October 2018, the making of the film started. The movie was produced by X-Film and the ZDF. It was directed by Dani Levy. Marc-Uwe Kling took responsibility for the script. The film should have been in the cinemas by the end of 2019, but the cinema release was postponed until the 5 March 2020. English Translations Kling, Marc-Uwe. The Kangaroo Chronicles. Translated by Sarah Cossaboon and Paul-Henri Campbell. Voland & Quist GmbH, 2016. Ebook. Kling, Marc-Uwe. The Kangaroo Chronicles – Best Of. Translated by Sarah Cossaboon and Paul-Henri Campbell. Performed by Marc-Uwe Kling. Voland & Quist GmbH, 2016. Audiobook. References German books Book series introduced in 2009 Fantasy books	6,038
doc-en-8677_0	In mathematics, the congruence lattice problem asks whether every algebraic distributive lattice is isomorphic to the congruence lattice of some other lattice. The problem was posed by Robert P. Dilworth, and for many years it was one of the most famous and long-standing open problems in lattice theory; it had a deep impact on the development of lattice theory itself. The conjecture that every distributive lattice is a congruence lattice is true for all distributive lattices with at most ℵ1 compact elements, but F. Wehrung provided a counterexample for distributive lattices with ℵ2 compact elements using a construction based on Kuratowski's free set theorem. Preliminaries We denote by Con A the congruence lattice of an algebra A, that is, the lattice of all congruences of A under inclusion. The following is a universal-algebraic triviality. It says that for a congruence, being finitely generated is a lattice-theoretical property. Lemma. A congruence of an algebra A is finitely generated if and only if it is a compact element of Con A. As every congruence of an algebra is the join of the finitely generated congruences below it (e.g., every submodule of a module is the union of all its finitely generated submodules), we obtain the following result, first published by Birkhoff and Frink in 1948. Theorem (Birkhoff and Frink 1948). The congruence lattice Con A of any algebra A is an algebraic lattice. While congruences of lattices lose something in comparison to groups, modules, rings (they cannot be identified with subsets of the universe), they also have a property unique among all the other structures encountered yet. Theorem (Funayama and Nakayama 1942). The congruence lattice of any lattice is distributive. This says that α ∧ (β ∨ γ) = (α ∧ β) ∨ (α ∧ γ), for any congruences α, β, and γ of a given lattice. The analogue of this result fails, for instance, for modules, as , as a rule, for submodules A, B, C of a given module. Soon after this result, Dilworth proved the following result. He did not publish the result but it appears as an exercise credited to him in Birkhoff 1948. The first published proof is in Grätzer and Schmidt 1962. Theorem (Dilworth ≈1940, Grätzer and Schmidt 1962). Every finite distributive lattice is isomorphic to the congruence lattice of some finite lattice. It is important to observe that the solution lattice found in Grätzer and Schmidt's proof is sectionally complemented, that is, it has a least element (true for any finite lattice) and for all elements a ≤ b there exists an element x with a ∨ x = b and a ∧ x = 0. It is also in that paper that CLP is first stated in published form, although it seems that the earliest attempts at CLP were made by Dilworth himself. Congruence lattices of finite lattices have been given an enormous amount of attention, for which a reference is Grätzer's 2005 monograph. The congruence lattice problem (CLP): Is every distributive algebraic lattice isomorphic to the congruence lattice of some lattice? The problem CLP has been one of the most intriguing and longest-standing open problems of lattice theory. Some related results of universal algebra are the following. Theorem (Grätzer and Schmidt 1963). Every algebraic lattice is isomorphic to the congruence lattice of some algebra. The lattice Sub V of all subspaces of a vector space V is certainly an algebraic lattice. As the next result shows, these algebraic lattices are difficult to represent. Theorem (Freese, Lampe, and Taylor 1979). Let V be an infinite-dimensional vector space over an uncountable field F. Then Con A isomorphic to Sub V implies that A has at least card F operations, for any algebra A. As V is infinite-dimensional, the largest element (unit) of Sub V is not compact. However innocuous it sounds, the compact unit assumption is essential in the statement of the result above, as demonstrated by the following result. Theorem (Lampe 1982). Every algebraic lattice with compact unit is isomorphic to the congruence lattice of some groupoid. Semilattice formulation of CLP The congruence lattice Con A of an algebra A is an algebraic lattice. The (∨,0)-semilattice of compact elements of Con A is denoted by Conc A, and it is sometimes called the congruence semilattice of A. Then Con A is isomorphic to the ideal lattice of Conc A. By using the classical equivalence between the category of all (∨,0)-semilattices and the category of all algebraic lattices (with suitable definitions of morphisms), as it is outlined here, we obtain the following semilattice-theoretical formulation of CLP. Semilattice-theoretical formulation of CLP: Is every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice isomorphic to the congruence semilattice of some lattice? Say that a distributive (∨,0)-semilattice is representable, if it is isomorphic to Conc L, for some lattice L. So CLP asks whether every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice is representable. Many investigations around this problem involve diagrams of semilattices or of algebras. A most useful folklore result about these is the following. Theorem. The functor Conc, defined on all algebras of a given signature, to all (∨,0)-semilattices, preserves direct limits. Schmidt's approach via distributive join-homomorphisms We say that a (∨,0)-semilattice satisfies Schmidt's Condition, if it is isomorphic to the quotient of a generalized Boolean semilattice B under some distributive join-congruence of B. One of the deepest results about representability of (∨,0)-semilattices is the following. Theorem (Schmidt 1968). Any (∨,0)-semilattice satisfying Schmidt's Condition is representable. This raised the following problem, stated in the same paper. Problem 1 (Schmidt 1968). Does any (∨,0)-semilattice satisfy Schmidt's Condition? Partial positive answers are the following. Theorem (Schmidt 1981). Every distributive lattice with zero satisfies Schmidt's Condition; thus it is representable. This result has been improved further as follows, via a very long and technical proof, using forcing and Boolean-valued models. Theorem (Wehrung 2003). Every direct limit of a countable sequence of distributive lattices with zero and (∨,0)-homomorphisms is representable. Other important representability results are related to the cardinality of the semilattice. The following result was prepared for publication by Dobbertin after Huhn's passing away in 1985. The two corresponding papers were published in 1989. Theorem (Huhn 1985). Every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice of cardinality at most ℵ1 satisfies Schmidt's Condition. Thus it is representable. By using different methods, Dobbertin got the following result. Theorem (Dobbertin 1986). Every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice in which every principal ideal is at most countable is representable. Problem 2 (Dobbertin 1983). Is every conical refinement monoid measurable? Pudlák's approach; lifting diagrams of (∨,0)-semilattices The approach of CLP suggested by Pudlák in his 1985 paper is different. It is based on the following result, Fact 4, p. 100 in Pudlák's 1985 paper, obtained earlier by Yuri L. Ershov as the main theorem in Section 3 of the Introduction of his 1977 monograph. Theorem (Ershov 1977, Pudlák 1985). Every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice is the directed union of its finite distributive (∨,0)-subsemilattices. This means that every finite subset in a distributive (∨,0)-semilattice S is contained in some finite distributive (∨,0)-subsemilattice of S. Now we are trying to represent a given distributive (∨,0)-semilattice S as Conc L, for some lattice L. Writing S as a directed union of finite distributive (∨,0)-subsemilattices, we are hoping to represent each Si as the congruence lattice of a lattice Li with lattice homomorphisms fij : Li→ Lj, for i ≤ j in I, such that the diagram of all Si with all inclusion maps Si→Sj, for i ≤ j in I, is naturally equivalent to , we say that the diagram lifts (with respect to the Conc functor). If this can be done, then, as we have seen that the Conc functor preserves direct limits, the direct limit satisfies . While the problem whether this could be done in general remained open for about 20 years, Pudlák could prove it for distributive lattices with zero, thus extending one of Schmidt's results by providing a functorial solution. Theorem (Pudlák 1985). There exists a direct limits preserving functor Φ, from the category of all distributive lattices with zero and 0-lattice embeddings to the category of all lattices with zero and 0-lattice embeddings, such that ConcΦ is naturally equivalent to the identity. Furthermore, Φ(S) is a finite atomistic lattice, for any finite distributive (∨,0)-semilattice S. This result is improved further, by an even far more complex construction, to locally finite, sectionally complemented modular lattices by Růžička in 2004 and 2006. Pudlák asked in 1985 whether his result above could be extended to the whole category of distributive (∨,0)-semilattices with (∨,0)-embeddings. The problem remained open until it was recently solved in the negative by Tůma and Wehrung. Theorem (Tůma and Wehrung 2006). There exists a diagram D of finite Boolean (∨,0)-semilattices and (∨,0,1)-embeddings, indexed by a finite partially ordered set, that cannot be lifted, with respect to the Conc functor, by any diagram of lattices and lattice homomorphisms. In particular, this implies immediately that CLP has no functorial solution. Furthermore, it follows from deep 1998 results of universal algebra by Kearnes and Szendrei in so-called commutator theory of varieties that the result above can be extended from the variety of all lattices to any variety such that all Con A, for , satisfy a fixed nontrivial identity in the signature (∨,∧) (in short, with a nontrivial congruence identity). We should also mention that many attempts at CLP were also based on the following result, first proved by Bulman-Fleming and McDowell in 1978 by using a categorical 1974 result of Shannon, see also Goodearl and Wehrung in 2001 for a direct argument. Theorem (Bulman-Fleming and McDowell 1978). Every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice is a direct limit of finite Boolean (∨,0)-semilattices and (∨,0)-homomorphisms. It should be observed that while the transition homomorphisms used in the Ershov-Pudlák Theorem are (∨,0)-embeddings, the transition homomorphisms used in the result above are not necessarily one-to-one, for example when one tries to represent the three-element chain. Practically this does not cause much trouble, and makes it possible to prove the following results. Theorem. Every distributive (∨,0)-semilattice of cardinality at most ℵ1 is isomorphic to (1) Conc L, for some locally finite, relatively complemented modular lattice L (Tůma 1998 and Grätzer, Lakser, and Wehrung 2000). (2) The semilattice of finitely generated two-sided ideals of some (not necessarily unital) von Neumann regular ring (Wehrung 2000). (3) Conc L, for some sectionally complemented modular lattice L (Wehrung 2000). (4) The semilattice of finitely generated normal subgroups of some locally finite group (Růžička, Tůma, and Wehrung 2007). (5) The submodule lattice of some right module over a (non-commutative) ring (Růžička, Tůma, and Wehrung 2007). Congruence lattices of lattices and nonstable K-theory of von Neumann regular rings We recall that for a (unital, associative) ring R, we denote by V(R) the (conical, commutative) monoid of isomorphism classes of finitely generated projective right R-modules, see here for more details. Recall that if R is von Neumann regular, then V(R) is a refinement monoid. Denote by Idc R the (∨,0)-semilattice of finitely generated two-sided ideals of R. We denote by L(R) the lattice of all principal right ideals of a von Neumann regular ring R. It is well known that L(R) is a complemented modular lattice. The following result was observed by Wehrung, building on earlier works mainly by Jónsson and Goodearl. Theorem (Wehrung 1999). Let R be a von Neumann regular ring. Then the (∨,0)-semilattices Idc R and Conc L(R) are both isomorphic to the maximal semilattice quotient of V(R). Bergman proves in a well-known unpublished note from 1986 that any at most countable distributive (∨,0)-semilattice is isomorphic to Idc R, for some locally matricial ring R (over any given field). This result is extended to semilattices of cardinality at most ℵ1 in 2000 by Wehrung, by keeping only the regularity of R (the ring constructed by the proof is not locally matricial). The question whether R could be taken locally matricial in the ℵ1 case remained open for a while, until it was disproved by Wehrung in 2004. Translating back to the lattice world by using the theorem above and using a lattice-theoretical analogue of the V(R) construction, called the dimension monoid, introduced by Wehrung in 1998, yields the following result. Theorem (Wehrung 2004). There exists a distributive (∨,0,1)-semilattice of cardinality ℵ1 that is not isomorphic to Conc L, for any modular lattice L every finitely generated sublattice of which has finite length. Problem 3 (Goodearl 1991). Is the positive cone of any dimension group with order-unit isomorphic to V(R), for some von Neumann regular ring R? A first application of Kuratowski's Free Set Theorem The abovementioned Problem 1 (Schmidt), Problem 2 (Dobbertin), and Problem 3 (Goodearl) were solved simultaneously in the negative in 1998. Theorem (Wehrung 1998). There exists a dimension vector space G over the rationals with order-unit whose positive cone G+ is not isomorphic to V(R), for any von Neumann regular ring R, and is not measurable in Dobbertin's sense. Furthermore, the maximal semilattice quotient of G+ does not satisfy Schmidt's Condition. Furthermore, G can be taken of any given cardinality greater than or equal to ℵ2. It follows from the previously mentioned works of Schmidt, Huhn, Dobbertin, Goodearl, and Handelman that the ℵ2 bound is optimal in all three negative results above. As the ℵ2 bound suggests, infinite combinatorics are involved. The principle used is Kuratowski's Free Set Theorem, first published in 1951. Only the case n=2 is used here. The semilattice part of the result above is achieved via an infinitary semilattice-theoretical statement URP (Uniform Refinement Property). If we want to disprove Schmidt's problem, the idea is (1) to prove that any generalized Boolean semilattice satisfies URP (which is easy), (2) that URP is preserved under homomorphic image under a weakly distributive homomorphism (which is also easy), and (3) that there exists a distributive (∨,0)-semilattice of cardinality ℵ2 that does not satisfy URP (which is difficult, and uses Kuratowski's Free Set Theorem). Schematically, the construction in the theorem above can be described as follows. For a set Ω, we consider the partially ordered vector space E(Ω) defined by generators 1 and ai,x, for i<2 and x in Ω, and relations a0,x+a1,x=1, a0,x ≥ 0, and a1,x ≥ 0, for any x in Ω. By using a Skolemization of the theory of dimension groups, we can embed E(Ω) functorially into a dimension vector space F(Ω). The vector space counterexample of the theorem above is G=F(Ω), for any set Ω with at least ℵ2 elements. This counterexample has been modified subsequently by Ploščica and Tůma to a direct semilattice construction. For a (∨,0)-semilattice, the larger semilattice R(S) is the (∨,0)-semilattice freely generated by new elements t(a,b,c), for a, b, c in S such that c ≤ a ∨ b, subjected to the only relations c=t(a,b,c) ∨ t(b,a,c) and t(a,b,c) ≤ a. Iterating this construction gives the free distributive extension of S. Now, for a set Ω, let L(Ω) be the (∨,0)-semilattice defined by generators 1 and ai,x, for i<2 and x in Ω, and relations a0,x ∨ a1,x=1, for any x in Ω. Finally, put G(Ω)=D(L(Ω)). In most related works, the following uniform refinement property is used. It is a modification of the one introduced by Wehrung in 1998 and 1999. Definition (Ploščica, Tůma, and Wehrung 1998). Let e be an element in a (∨,0)-semilattice S. We say that the weak uniform refinement property WURP holds at e, if for all families and of elements in S such that ai ∨ bi=e for all i in I, there exists a family of elements of S such that the relations • ci,j ≤ ai,bj, • ci,j ∨ aj ∨ bi=e, • ci,k ≤ ci,j∨ cj,k hold for all i, j, k in I. We say that S satisfies WURP, if WURP holds at every element of S. By building on Wehrung's abovementioned work on dimension vector spaces, Ploščica and Tůma proved that WURP does not hold in G(Ω), for any set Ω of cardinality at least ℵ2. Hence G(Ω) does not satisfy Schmidt's Condition. All negative representation results mentioned here always make use of some uniform refinement property, including the first one about dimension vector spaces. However, the semilattices used in these negative results are relatively complicated. The following result, proved by Ploščica, Tůma, and Wehrung in 1998, is more striking, because it shows examples of representable semilattices that do not satisfy Schmidt's Condition. We denote by FV(Ω) the free lattice on Ω in V, for any variety V of lattices. Theorem (Ploščica, Tůma, and Wehrung 1998). The semilattice Conc FV(Ω) does not satisfy WURP, for any set Ω of cardinality at least ℵ2 and any non-distributive variety V of lattices. Consequently, Conc FV(Ω) does not satisfy Schmidt's Condition. It is proved by Tůma and Wehrung in 2001 that Conc FV(Ω) is not isomorphic to Conc L, for any lattice L with permutable congruences. By using a slight weakening of WURP, this result is extended to arbitrary algebras with permutable congruences by Růžička, Tůma, and Wehrung in 2007. Hence, for example, if Ω has at least ℵ2 elements, then Conc FV(Ω) is not isomorphic to the normal subgroup lattice of any group, or the submodule lattice of any module. Solving CLP: the Erosion Lemma The following recent theorem solves CLP. Theorem (Wehrung 2007). The semilattice G(Ω) is not isomorphic to Conc L for any lattice L, whenever the set Ω has at least ℵω+1 elements. Hence, the counterexample to CLP had been known for nearly ten years, it is just that nobody knew why it worked! All the results prior to the theorem above made use of some form of permutability of congruences. The difficulty was to find enough structure in congruence lattices of non-congruence-permutable lattices. We shall denote by ε the `parity function' on the natural numbers, that is, ε(n)=n mod 2, for any natural number n. We let L be an algebra possessing a structure of semilattice (L,∨) such that every congruence of L is also a congruence for the operation ∨ . We put and we denote by ConcU L the (∨,0)-subsemilattice of Conc L generated by all principal congruences Θ(u,v) ( = least congruence of L that identifies u and v), where (u,v) belongs to U ×U. We put Θ+(u,v)=Θ(u ∨ v,v), for all u, v in L.br /> The Erosion Lemma (Wehrung 2007). Let x0, x1 in L and let , for a positive integer n, be a finite subset of L with . Put Then there are congruences , for j<2, such that (Observe the faint formal similarity with first-order resolution in mathematical logic. Could this analogy be pushed further?) The proof of the theorem above runs by setting a structure theorem for congruence lattices of semilattices—namely, the Erosion Lemma, against non-structure theorems for free distributive extensions G(Ω), the main one being called the Evaporation Lemma. While the latter are technically difficult, they are, in some sense, predictable. Quite to the contrary, the proof of the Erosion Lemma is elementary and easy, so it is probably the strangeness of its statement that explains that it has been hidden for so long. More is, in fact, proved in the theorem above: For any algebra L with a congruence-compatible structure of join-semilattice with unit and for any set Ω with at least ℵω+1 elements, there is no weakly distributive homomorphism μ: Conc L → G(Ω) containing 1 in its range. In particular, CLP was, after all, not a problem of lattice theory, but rather of universal algebra—even more specifically, semilattice theory! These results can also be translated in terms of a uniform refinement property, denoted by CLR in Wehrung's paper presenting the solution of CLP, which is noticeably more complicated than WURP. Finally, the cardinality bound ℵω+1 has been improved to the optimal bound ℵ2 by Růžička. Theorem (Růžička 2008). The semilattice G(Ω) is not isomorphic to Conc L for any lattice L, whenever the set Ω has at least ℵ2 elements. Růžička's proof follows the main lines of Wehrung's proof, except that it introduces an enhancement of Kuratowski's Free Set Theorem, called there existence of free trees, which it uses in the final argument involving the Erosion Lemma. A positive representation result for distributive semilattices The proof of the negative solution for CLP shows that the problem of representing distributive semilattices by compact congruences of lattices already appears for congruence lattices of semilattices. The question whether the structure of partially ordered set would cause similar problems is answered by the following result. Theorem (Wehrung 2008). For any distributive (∨,0)-semilattice S, there are a (∧,0)-semilattice P and a map μ : P × P → S such that the following conditions hold: (1) x ≤ y implies that μ(x,y)=0, for all x, y in P. (2) μ(x,z) ≤ μ(x,y) ∨ μ(y,z), for all x, y, z in P. (3) For all x ≥ y in P and all α, β in S such that μ(x,y) ≤ α ∨ β, there are a positive integer n and elements x=z0 ≥ z1 ≥ ... ≥ z2n=y such that μ(zi,zi+1) ≤ α (resp., μ(zi,zi+1) ≤ β) whenever i < 2n is even (resp., odd). (4) S is generated, as a join-semilattice, by all the elements of the form μ(x,0), for x in P. Furthermore, if S has a largest element, then P can be assumed to be a lattice with a largest element. It is not hard to verify that conditions (1)–(4) above imply the distributivity of S, so the result above gives a characterization of distributivity for (∨,0)-semilattices. Notes References Lattice theory Mathematical problems	5,805
doc-en-8281_0	The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (IRSSA; , ) is an agreement between the government of Canada and approximately 86,000 Indigenous peoples in Canada who at some point were enrolled as children in the Canadian Indian residential school system, a system which was in place between 1879 and 1997. The IRSSA recognized the damage inflicted by the residential schools and established a C$1.9-billion compensation package called CEP (Common Experience Payment) for all former IRS students. The agreement, announced in 2006, was the largest class action settlement in Canadian history. As of March 2016, a total of C$1,622,422,106 has been paid to 79,309 former students. An additional C$3.18 billion has been paid out to 31,103 former students as of March 31, 2019, through IAPs (Independent Assessment Process) which are for damages suffered beyond the norm for the IRS. Indian residential schools Indian residential schools were a network of "boarding schools" for Native Canadians (First Nations or "Indians"; Métis and Inuit). These schools operated in all Canadian provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland and Labrador. The first school opened in 1828, and the last one closed in 1997. The last school to close was Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet, in what is now Nunavut; it became a IRSSA-recognized school in 2019 following a court ruling, which is why earlier accounts describe the last school closing in 1996. Funded by the Canadian government's Indian Affairs and Northern Development, and administered by Christian churches, predominantly the Roman Catholic Church in Canada (60%), but also the Anglican Church of Canada (30%), and the United Church of Canada, including its pre-1925 constituent church predecessors (10%). The policy was to remove children from the influence of their families and culture and assimilate them into the dominant Canadian culture. Over the course of the system's existence, approximately 30% of native children, roughly some 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally. History of the IRSSA In November 1996, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) issued its final 4,000-page report with 440 recommendations. Indian residential schools were the topic of one chapter. In 1998 in response to the RCAP the Canadian federal government unveiled Gathering Strength: Canada's Aboriginal Action Plan, a "long-term, broad-based policy approach in response to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples which included the "Statement of Reconciliation: Learning from the Past," in which the "Government of Canada recognizes and apologizes to those who experienced physical and sexual abuse at Indian residential schools and acknowledges its role in the development and administration of residential schools." In 2001, the federal Office of Indian Residential Schools Resolution Canada was created to manage and resolve the large number of abuse claims filed by former students against the federal government. In 2004, an Assembly of First Nations Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan to Compensate for Abuses in Indian Residential Schools led to discussions to develop a holistic, fair and lasting resolution of the legacy of Indian Residential Schools. The law firm of Regina, Saskatchewan lawyer, Tony Merchant, Q.C.—Merchant Law Group LLP—represented over 7,000 survivors—approximately 50 per cent of "all known" residential school survivors in Canada" who had pursued class action lawsuits" against the Canadian federal government . Following the publication of the 1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples report, residential school survivors met across the country at gatherings, also attended by Tony Merchant, who became a "familiar figure", signing up thousands of survivors for a class action law suit. MLG lawyers received "nothing until a class action settlement was secured" in a legal fees agreement that was settlement-driven. David Blott's Calgary, Alberta-based law firm "handled almost 4,600 residential school claims." On November 20, 2005, an agreement in principle was reached by the negotiating parties which included Canada, as represented by Frank Iacobucci, a retired Supreme Court of Canada Justice, the plaintiffs' representative—the National Consortium and the Merchant Law Group (MLG), independent Counsel, the Assembly of First Nations, Inuit representatives, the General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada, the Presbyterian Church in Canada, the United Church of Canada, and Roman Catholic Entities for the "resolution of the legacy of Indian Residential Schools." On 23 November 2005 the Canadian federal government announced the IRSSA compensation package. It represents the largest class-action lawsuit in Canadian history. On 11 June 2008, Prime Minister Harper "apologized on behalf of the Government of Canada, and all Canadians, for the forcible removal of Aboriginal children from their homes and communities to attend Indian residential schools. In this historic Apology, the Prime Minister recognized that there is no room in Canada for the attitudes that created the residential school system to prevail." In Regina, Saskatchewan, on December 15, 2006, Justice Dennis Ball, approved the "settlement of class and individual residential school claims" under the IRSSA. Components of the IRSSA The agreement was signed on May 8, 2006, with implementation on September 19, 2007. Federal government contributions The five main components of the IRSSA provided by the federal government were the Common Experience Payment (CEP), Independent Assessment Process (IAP), the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), Commemoration, and Health and Healing Services. Common Experience Payment (CEP) The IRSSA offered former students blanket compensation through the Common Experience Payment (CEP) with an average lump-sum payment of C$28,000. The CEP, a component of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, totaling C$1.9 billion, was "part of an overall holistic and comprehensive response to the Indian residential school legacy." Payments were higher for more serious cases of abuse. The CEP recognized "the experience of living at an Indian Residential School(s) and its impacts. All former students who resided at a recognized Indian Residential School(s) and were alive on May 30, 2005 were eligible for the CEP. This include[d] First Nations, Métis, and Inuit former students." This initial payment for each person who attended a residential school amounted to C$10,000 per person plus C$3,000 per year. The application deadline for CEP was 19 September 2011 with some exceptions made until September 19, 2012. By 31 December 2012, "a total of 105,540 applications were received under the common experience payment. C$1.62 billion was paid to "78,750 recipients, representing 98% of the 80,000 estimated eligible former students." Independent Assessment Process The IRSSA allotted C$960 million to the Independent Assessment Process (IAP), "a settlement fund for claims of sexual abuses, serious physical abuse and other wrongful acts" at IRS which "provides money to those who experienced serious physical and/or sexual abuse at an Indian Residential School (...) The maximum payment is C$275,000, but an additional C$250,000 may be awarded for claims of actual income loss." By 31 December 2012, over C$1.7 billion in total was issued through the IAP. around three times more applications were received than expected, and the IAP is forecast to continue hearings until around 2017. By 2011 there were already 29,000 claims, double the 12,500 originally estimated by the IRSSA and this number was expected to rise even more. Violent abuse was "rampant, not isolated." According to Dan Ish, Indian Residential School Adjudication Secretariat chief adjudicator for the IAP, estimated in 2012 that IAP claims would be somewhere between two and three billion dollars more than anticipated. The fate of the records documenting over 38,000 IAP claims was placed in front of Canadian courts. The Supreme Court of Canada decided that on September 19, 2027 all records generated through IAP will be destroyed unless the Survivor mentioned in the record indicates that they wish the record is preserved. The Supreme Court decision indicated that IAP records can only be requested for preservation by Survivors. Family members are unable to ask for records to be saved, meaning that IAP records of people who have died since the time of their IAP claim and before this process was established, will not be saved. Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission IRSSA allocated C$60 million for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to document and preserve the experiences of survivors. The Commission was launched 2 June 2008. On 20 October 2008, Justice Harry LaForme, Commission chair resigned, claiming "the commission was on the verge of paralysis and doomed to failure. He cited an "incurable problem" with the other two commissioners — Claudette Dumont-Smith and Jane Brewin Morley — who he said refused to accept his authority as chairman and were disrespectful." On 15 October 2009 the Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission was relaunched by then-Governor General Michaëlle Jean with Justice Murray Sinclair, an Ojibway-Canadian judge, First Nations lawyer, as the chair. By August 2012, the federal government had released over 941,000 documents to the TRC related to residential schools. Health and Healing Services On 31 March 1998 in response to the RCAP and as part of Gathering Strength—Canada's Aboriginal Action Plan, the federal government established the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (AHF), an "Aboriginal-managed, national, Ottawa-based, not-for-profit private corporation", with a C$350 million-dollar grant and an eleven-year mandate from March 1998 to March 2009. Its role was "to encourage and support, through research and funding contributions, community-based Aboriginal directed healing initiatives which address the legacy of physical and sexual abuse suffered in Canada’s Indian Residential School System, including inter-generational impacts." In 2007, under the IRSSA, the federal government provided $125 million to the AHF, which was intended to provide five years of funding. Further funding was to come from the money paid by the Catholic entities under section 3.3 of Schedule O-3, of which at least 80% was to be transferred to the AHF. A court dispute over the amount of money due to the AHF because of this obligation subsequently arose between the government and the Catholic entities. IRSSA also supported the Resolution Health Support Worker (RHSW) Program. Commemoration Fund The IRSSA allocated C$20 million for the Commemoration Fund for national and community commemorative projects. This fund was managed by the TRC and Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Church contributions The church entities signed agreements to provide financial and in-kind support for healing and reconciliation programs, as outlined in the following table. Compensation payments made prior to the implementation of the IRSSA were credited against these obligations. Legal representation Crawford Class Action was the court-appointed administrator. C$100-million was allocated by IRSSA for the payment of plaintiffs’ legal fees. Controversies Conduct of certain lawyers Dan Ish, upon his retirement from his position as chief adjudicator of IAP, described challenges with private lawyers who allegedly illegally profited from IRSSA benefits. They investigated Winnipeg lawyer Howard Tennenhouse, Calgary lawyer David Blott and Vancouver lawyer Stephen Bronstein and numerous other lawyers. Ish "personally reported Tennenhouse to the Law Society of Manitoba, who eventually disbarred the veteran lawyer and repaid clients nearly a million dollars. A Vancouver judge barred Blott and others he worked with from further IAP work after claimants complained of wrongly being charged loans, fees, penalties and interest-something forbidden under the IAP. In 2013, the IRSAS requested an investigation into Bronstein but settled for a "review" of his practice and alleged connection with a paroled murderer doing IAP intake work." In 2012 the Law Society of Manitoba disbarred Tennenhouse for life. He pleaded guilty to charges and agreed to pay back the "C$950,000 in extra fees" he charged 55 former residential school students. In 2014 as the Law Society of Alberta moved to disbar Calgary lawyer, David Blott "accused of misconduct in his handling of settlements awarded to survivors of residential school abuse", Blott resigned. The "investigation into Blott’s action cost taxpayers C$3.5 million." Ivon Johnny, a convicted killer, had his parole revoked in January 2013 after "allegations he threatened and extorted (...) substantial sums of money from vulnerable and in some cases cognitively deficient [IRSSA] claimants. In February 2013 "B.C. Supreme Court Justice Brenda Brown "ordered Bronstein to be interviewed by a court monitor about his alleged dealings with Johnny." In January 2015, the office of the Attorney General of Canada launched a law suit in the Court of Queen's Bench for Saskatchewan, in Regina, Saskatchewan, on behalf of the Canadian federal government, against Tony Merchant's Regina, Saskatchewan-based Merchant Law Group. Tony Merchant, Q.C., who "is known as the king of class action lawsuits in Canada," and Merchant Law Group LLP had successfully represented about fifty per cent of "all known individuals in Canada pursuing class action lawsuits" against the Canadian federal government as survivors of residential schools. In November 2005, they were part of the negotiating teams that culminated in the multi-billion National Settlement with the Canadian Government−C$1.9 Billion in compensation for Common Experience Payments" and C$3 billion in Independent Assessment Process (IAP) compensation. The 2015 case against MLG was first launched at the Queen's Court, and appealed at the Court of Appeal before it was heard by the Supreme Court of Canada in 2018. The March 15, 2018 ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada rejected MLG's appeal to have the fraud action struck down, which means the government of Canada can continue with its damages suit against the law firm. On August 2, 2018, the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed Merchant Law Group (MLG)'s appeal to retain C$21,310.83 of a residential school survivor’s compensation" for "outstanding legal bills." The survivor's January 2014 C$93,000 IRSSA Independent Assessment Process (IAP) compensation is protected under a 2006 Supreme Court of British Columbia the IRSSA and the Financial Administration Act. Under that Act, lawyers are "expressly forbidden to assign any part of IAP compensation"..."because IAP claimants were considered especially vulnerable." Since 2000, MLG had represented the client and her son. The adjudication secretariat routinely checking IAP files found the deduction for the previous legal bills." When Merchant was told to return the money to the claimant, he appealed to retain the money for legal fees. In October 2020, the Law Society of Saskatchewan announced their decision to suspend Merchant for eight months, saying that because of the woman's vulnerability, Merchant "should have known better" than to use a disrespectful, and intimidating tone with her, compelling her to sign a form authorizing Merchant to retain her IAP claim to pay for "unrelated legal bills owed by her son." The disciplinary panel said the suspension will start in February 2021 and that Merchant must also pay over C$10,000 in costs. According to an October 2, 2020 Regina Leader Post article, MLG submitted a statement of appeal to the Saskatchewan Court of Appeal to overturn the disciplinary panel's decision, and to overturn the suspension. Legal dispute between Canadian Government and Catholic entities The IRSSA provided for a dispute resolution process using “requests for directions” (RFD). On December 24, 2013, the Government of Canada submitted an RFD (RFD #1) seeking directions on the extent to which the Catholic entities were allowed to deduct legal fees of C$1.6 million incurred to administer their financial obligations of C$29 million as “reasonable administration costs”. The Catholic entities attempted to negotiate a settlement to resolve RFD #1. Through their lawyer, Gordon Kuski, they offered to “settle all matters between the parties” by paying C$1 million in exchange for “a General Release with respect to all matters between the Parties,” and “more specifically”, “a Release and an Indemnity in accordance with the terms contemplated by Section 4.5 and Section 4.6 of the Settlement Agreement, Schedule ‘O-3’”. In negotiations, the Catholic entities’ offer increased to C$1.2 million. On September 18, 2014 at 7:08 a.m., government lawyer Alexander Gay emailed Kuski: “The clients accept C$1.2M as a quantum. The thing that needs to be resolved is the paperwork and the wording on the release documents. How do you propose to proceed?” At 9:13 a.m., Kuski replied: “Thanks for this. We have a deal. I’ll call you today to discuss logistics.” Kuski followed up with a letter describing the settlement, including language about a release under §4.5 and §4.6. At 11:37 a.m., Gay replied by email: At 4:02 p.m., Kuski sent a draft General Final Release, which was mostly consistent with his previous letter of June 26, but added a release under §4.7 (related to the fundraising obligations) as well. On September 30, 2014, Gay sent Kuski an amended draft General Final Release that would release the Catholic Entities only from matters related to RFD #1. He did not redline Kuski’s draft or explicitly advise him of the significant difference between versions. Kuski replied on October 1 advocating for the broader release; Gay’s response included the sentence, “We may have a problem.” On November 10, Canada refused to consent to the broader release. The Catholic Entities commenced a second RFD (RFD #2) arguing that an enforceable settlement had been reached. Evidence pertaining to the government's position on the fundraising obligation Some evidence related to RFD #1 from government affiant Pamela Stellick went beyond the issues in the RFD; in particular, she stated that the Catholic entities had “failed to meet their C$25M fundraising obligation”. Cross-examined on the government’s position, she said, “I think there is some concerns perhaps that more efforts couldn’t have been made to raise further funding from across Canada.” When asked what suggestions the government had for improving the campaign, she answered, “I don’t think it is Canada’s place to offer or suggest or tell them how to run their fundraising campaign.” During RFD #2, Gay expressed “some concern” about whether the Catholic entities had satisfied the fundraising obligation, but had “no knowledge” as to whether the government believed the Catholic entities were in default of that obligation. Outcome of RFD #2: Fontaine v Saskatchewan (Attorney General) Justice Neil Gabrielson found that an enforceable settlement did exist: in exchange for C$1.2 million, the Catholic entities were entitled to releases and indemnities under §4.5 and §4.6 of the IRSSA, but not §4.7. He rejected Canada’s position that the parties had agreed only on the amount to pay, and would deal “with quantum first and terms second”: Failure of Catholic fundraising campaign and related press coverage The Catholic fundraising campaign, called “Moving Forward Together”, fell far short of its $25 million goal, ultimately raising only $3.7 million. Since some of the financial obligations of the Anglican and United Churches under the IRSSA were proportional to the outcome of the Catholic campaign, the failure of the campaign reduced those obligations by more than $3 million. In April 2016, The Globe and Mail linked the fundraising shortfall to the legal dispute, claiming that a "miscommunication by a federal lawyer" had "allowed the Catholic Church to renege on its obligation to try to raise $25-million to pay for healing programs for the survivors of Indian residential schools." Early press coverage: 2014 to early 2016 In early 2014, The Catholic Register and the Nickel Belt News reported that the federal government was suing the Catholic entities over what the Nickel Belt News called "$1.5 million in contested expenses on funds." The Register quoted Archbishop Gérard Pettipas, chair of the board of , expressing "frustration" that the fundraising campaign (which, he said, was "not a part of the lawsuit") was "not going to meet" its $25 million goal: “It’s a ‘best efforts’ campaign. We’re supposed to exercise our best efforts. We could contend we have exercised our best efforts. Short of a miracle, I don’t think we’re going to be able to make it.” Pettipas told the Register that "[a]ll the elements of the settlement" were "supposed to conclude in September 2014", though "the work of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission" had been "extended another year to 2015." In May 2014, the Anglican Journal reported on a presentation by Chancellor David Jones to the Anglican Council of General Synod on the status of Anglican IRSSA funds. He stated that "$2.7 million" of that money was "held in reserve pending the outcome of the Roman Catholic fundraising campaign", and could be returned to the Anglican entities unless "the Catholic campaign raised more than $11.1 million by September 2014". In January 2016, The Catholic Register reported on the “failure” of the “Moving Forward Together” campaign, stating that the “$21-million shortfall” had “added another challenge to the task of reconciliation between Canadian churches and Native communities.” The article observed that “[w]ith the campaign over and the Aboriginal Healing Foundation wrapped up, the Catholic fundraising shortfall meant a reduction in the proportion owed by the other three churches.” In particular, "$2.8 million" had been returned to the Anglicans, who would use it for their “ongoing Anglican Fund for Healing and Reconciliation, which runs reconciliation projects in remote aboriginal communities across Canada.” The Globe and Mail links fundraising shortfall to legal dispute On April 17, 2016, The Globe and Mail published an article claiming that "[i]n an attempt to make the Catholic Church pay the full amount of the $29-million cash settlement, the government inadvertently released it from any obligation it might have had to continue with a dismal fundraising campaign." The article quoted Andrew Saranchuk, an assistant deputy minister within the Indigenous Affairs department, as having written to a citizen that a court settlement reached on July 16, 2015 (i.e., Fontaine v Saskatchewan (Attorney General)), "released the Catholic entities from all three of their financial obligations under the settlement agreement, including the 'best efforts' fundraising campaign, in exchange for a repayment of $1.2-million in administrative fees." Saranchuk claimed that this result "was due to miscommunications between counsel regarding the nature and extent of the settlement being discussed." Describing the court decision, the article stated that during the 2014 settlement negotiations, "Mr. Gay's responses led Mr. Kuski to believe they had a deal, even though the government had no intention of allowing the Church to walk away from the fundraising obligations." The Globe and Mail'''s claim that the 2015 court decision played a crucial role in ending the Catholic fundraising obligation was at variance with prior reporting from The Catholic Register and the Anglican Journal, which placed the end of the fundraising campaign in 2014. (A 2017 article from the Anglican Journal also stated that the "Roman Catholic campaign ended in September 2014".) According to section 3.9 of Schedule O-3 of the IRSSA, the Catholic entities agreed to "use their best efforts" to raise funds "throughout the seven year period following the day after the coming into force of this Agreement"; the agreement came into effect on September 19, 2007. In a February 2014 affidavit from the legal dispute, AANDC senior analyst Pamela Stellick deposed that the campaign was "to end in 2014". In an April 18 Globe and Mail article, former AFN National Chief Phil Fontaine, who helped to negotiate the IRSSA and also assisted the Catholic entities with the fundraising campaign, was quoted as saying, "The government is ultimately responsible for meeting all of the financial obligations [...] I don't know about legally, but there's a moral obligation here [...] We're dealing with close to 80,000 survivors and it's important for them that they be treated fairly and justly." Describing his work with the fundraising campaign, he said, "We tried very hard to meet the commitment that the Catholic church entities faced. We were unsuccessful." Senator Murray Sinclair, who chaired the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, "pointed out that one of the commission's calls to action was for the parties to the settlement agreement – the churches and the government – to establish permanent funding for healing and reconciliation." The article quoted Sinclair as saying, "When two of the defendants make a deal between themselves that ends up in a loss of funding to the survivors, then who really suffers?" An April 19 article stated that Indigenous Affairs Minister Carolyn Bennett "said it is not up to the government to compensate for the shortfall", and further quoted Bennett as saying that the Catholic Church should pay and that the government would "apply deeper pressure" to that end. An April 20 article reported that "[u]nder the former Conservative government, the Justice Department served notice in August that it intended to appeal the ruling." However, according to a government representative writing in April 2016, "officials from the Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development received a mandate from the former Conservative government to negotiate a settlement with the Catholic entities. [...] Negotiations began in August 2015 and an agreement of release was signed October 30, 2015. As a result of these negotiations, it was agreed the Protective Notice of Appeal would be withdrawn." The appeal was dropped "six days after the Trudeau government took office." An April 26 article reported on the reduction of the financial obligations of the Anglican and United Churches due to the failure of the Catholic fundraising campaign. Interviewed in an April 27 Catholic Register article, Archbishop Gérard Pettipas rejected the idea that the Catholic organizations had “used legal trickery to sidestep their obligations”, saying, “It isn’t accurate. [...] There was a cash contribution. There was in-kind payment. There was a best-efforts campaign. We did all those. There wasn’t any weaselling out.” (In a separate document dated April 21, Pettipas stated that the government had been “included in conversations dealing with the fundraising plan as designed by the fundraising firm”, and had been “informed on a yearly basis of the financial status of the fundraising campaign. ... The status of the campaign was well known so it is difficult to understand what it is represented that there was a misstep which would have taken place.”) The Catholic Register also interviewed Joanne Villemaire, senior vice president at Ketchum Philanthropy, the professional fundraising organization hired for the "Moving Forward Together" campaign. She said it was a "very tough project" and "significant effort" was put into it. However, according to the Register'', "[w]hile [the campaign] did manage to raise money from Catholic dioceses, religious orders and associations, neither wealthy individuals nor corporations were ready to step up and become lead donors, said Villemaire." Pettipas stated that the Catholic entities dismissed Ketchum in 2013: "Not because they were doing a bad job. They were doing a terrific job, but it wasn’t working. We were spending more money doing administration and promotion than we were taking in. On a C$25-million campaign, you can expect to spend 10 per cent or C$2.5 million on all that. But we had already spent C$2 million and got almost nothing. ..." After the departure of Ketchum, the Catholic entities launched a nationwide pew collection, raising "just shy of C$1 million". Citations External links Truth and Reconciliation Main Website Indian Residential School Resolution Canada Remembering the Children Tour The schools Settlement Agreement 2007 at The Canadian Encyclopedia See also Cultural genocide First Nations Idle No More Racism in North America Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada First Nations history Residential schools in Canada Human rights in Canada First Nations education Assimilation of indigenous peoples of North America Truth and reconciliation reports	6,068
doc-en-10837_0	Bronshtein and Semendyayev (often just Bronshtein or Bronstein, sometimes BS) is the informal name of a comprehensive handbook of fundamental working knowledge of mathematics and table of formulas originally compiled by the Russian mathematician Ilya Nikolaevich Bronshtein and engineer Konstantin Adolfovic Semendyayev. The work was first published in 1945 in Russia and soon became a "standard" and frequently used guide for scientists, engineers, and technical university students. Over the decades, high popularity and a string of translations, extensions, re-translations and major revisions by various editors led to a complex international publishing history centered around the significantly expanded German version. Legal hurdles following the fall of the Iron Curtain caused the development to split into several independent branches maintained by different publishers and editors to the effect that there are now two considerably different publications associated with the original title – and both of them are available in several languages. With some slight variations, the English version of the book was originally named A Guide-Book to Mathematics, but changed its name to Handbook of Mathematics. This name is still maintained up to the present by one of the branches. The other line is meanwhile named Users' Guide to Mathematics to help avoid confusion. Overview Bronshtein and Semendyayev is a comprehensive handbook of fundamental working knowledge of mathematics and table of formulas based on the Russian book (, literally: "Handbook of mathematics for engineers and students of technical universities") compiled by the Russian mathematician Ilya Nikolaevich Bronshtein () and engineer Konstantin Adolfovic Semendyayev (). The scope is the concise discussion of all major fields of applied mathematics by definitions, tables and examples with a focus on practicability and with limited formal rigour. The work also contains a comprehensive list of analytically solvable integrals, that is, those integrals which can be described in closed form with antiderivatives. History With Dmitrii Abramovich Raikov, Bronshtein authored a Russian handbook on elementary mathematics, mechanics and physics (), which was published in 1943. Around the same time in 1939/1940, Bronshtein, together with Semendyayev, also wrote their Russian handbook of mathematics for engineers and students of technical universities. Among other sources this work was influenced by the 1936 Russian translation of the 1931 edition of the much older German . Hot lead typesetting had already started when the Siege of Leningrad prohibited further development and the print matrices were relocated. After the war, they were considered lost, but could be found again years later, so that the first edition of could finally be published in 1945. The expanded German translation (literally: "Pocketbook of mathematics") by Viktor Ziegler was first published in 1958 by B. G. Teubner in Leipzig. It was honoured as ("Most beautiful book") of the year 1958. Based on the German translation, an English translation became available as well under the title A Guide-Book to Mathematics in 1964, first by Pergamon Press and The Macmillan Company, later by Springer Verlag and Verlag Harri Deutsch. In 1966, it became apparent that the title needed considerable updates to meet new requirements. The original authors felt too old to continue the work and the Russian publisher Nauka () seemed to have had lost interest in the further development as well for some while. Therefore, in 1970, a consortium of East-German mathematicians were contracted by Teubner Verlag to start to expand and revise the work. This was coordinated by Viktor Ziegler, Dorothea Ziegler and Günter Grosche (University of Leipzig). While Semendyayev contributed some work, he did not want some other new chapters to be included in the manuscript in 1976, therefore they had to be split out into a new volume II. Finally, after almost a decade of work, the major new revision could be published in 1979, legally as a cooperation of Teubner and Nauka. The reworked two-volume German edition was well received and again became a "standard" in higher mathematics education in Germany. This led to a string of high-volume revisions and translations into Russian, English and Japanese to meet the international demand. The English version was published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company and Verlag Harri Deutsch as Handbook of Mathematics. A decade later, the German '' and the later reunification led to considerable changes in the publishing environment in Germany between 1989 and 1991. The East-German publisher Teubner Leipzig was integrated into the West-German publisher Teubner Stuttgart. These changes put an end to the cooperation of the East-German Teubner Verlag with the West-German Verlag Harri Deutsch, who had been licensing this and other titles for distribution in Germany and Switzerland, a business model no longer working in a free market. Licensing issues caused the development to split into two independent branches by the two publishing houses: Consequential, Verlag Harri Deutsch contracted and Heiner Mühlig to start afresh and translate the last non-Teubner influenced version (officially the latest revision (1977) of the third Russian edition (1953), which is actually the eleventh Russian edition (1967)) into German for a major rework of as a single-volume title. This was first published in 1992/1993. When Verlag Harri Deutsch closed its business two decades later, Europa-Lehrmittel took over in 2013. They continue to maintain this work up to the present (2020). The new English translation (now by Springer Verlag) is still called Handbook of Mathematics. In a parallel development, Eberhard Zeidler, who had contributed to the Grosche and Ziegler editions already, became editor for the continuation of the latest existing German edition by Teubner (1990), the version which had previously also been distributed by Verlag Harri Deutsch, and updated it significantly to become the (literally: "Teubner pocketbook of mathematics") for Teubner. This was first published in 1995/1996 – still as a two-volume work. The work was continued by Vieweg+Teubner Verlag after the merger with in 2003. When Vieweg+Teubner was bought by Springer and renamed Springer Vieweg Verlag, several new chapters were added and some more advanced contents stripped out for the single-volume (literally: "Springer pocketbook of mathematics") in 2012/2013. This is now accompanied by a completely reworked and considerably expanded four-volume series named (literally: "Springer handbook of mathematics") by Zeidler also based on the former Bronshtein and Semendyayev. So far, this latest revision of the alternative development branch isn't available in English, but volume I of the former has been translated and published by Oxford University Press as Oxford Users' Guide to Mathematics already. Editions 1945–1978: Bronshtein and Semendyayev editions Russian editions (1945–1977, 1998–2009) Authors: Bronshtein, Ilya Nikolaevich (); Semendyayev, Konstantin Adolfovic (). Nauka () Moscow : 1st edition, 1945 (556 pages, print run of 50 000): 2nd edition, 1948 (556 pages, print run of 83 000 units): 3rd revised edition, 1953 (chapter IV by () rewritten and chapters 8–10 added): 4th edition, 1954: (Gostekhizdat) 5th edition, 1955 6th edition, 1956 (ii+608 pages): 7th edition, 1957 (609 pages) 8th edition, 1959 9th edition, 1962, () (Fizmatgiz / ). 10th edition, 1964 (614 pages): (reprint 2013, paperback, Book on Demand Ltd.) 11th edition, 1967 (608 pages + 1 inlet, last Russian edition of this series, as Nauka published in a print run of 100 000 units a translation of Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers by Granino and Theresa M. Korn instead in 1968) 1977 (end of production?) Nauka (Наука) / Fizmatlit (Физматлит) 15th edition, 1998 (608 pages, reprint of 11th edition 1967): Lan () : reprint edition (print run: 2000), 2009 (608 pages): (paperback) reprint edition, 2010-04-21 (608 pages): German editions (1958–1978) Authors: Bronshtein, Ilya Nikolaevich; Semendyayev, Konstantin Adolfovic; Miller, Maximilian. Translator: Ziegler, Viktor. BSB B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft : 1st expanded edition, 1958 (xii+548 pages + 1 inlet sheet, based on 4th or 6th Russian edition, ca. 1954, with a chapter by Miller added) 2nd edition, 1959 (xii+548 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 3rd further expanded edition, 1960 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet, with another chapter by Miller added): 1st edition, 1961 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 2nd edition, 1961 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 2nd edition, 1962 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 3rd edition, 1962 (xiii+584 pages): 4th edition, 1964 (xiii+584 pages): ? edition, 1965 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 5th edition, 1965 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 6th unchanged edition, 1st printing, 1963 (xiii+584 pages): (soft plastic cover) 6th edition, 2nd printing, 1965 (xiii+584 pages): (soft plastic cover) 6th edition, 1966 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): (soft plastic cover) 6th edition, 1966 (xiii+584 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 7th reviewed and corrected edition, 1967 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 8th edition, 1967 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): (soft plastic cover) 8th unchanged edition, 1967 (xiii+585 pages): (soft plastic cover) 8th edition, 1968 [1967] (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 9th edition, 1969 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 10th edition, 1969 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): (soft plastic cover) 10th edition, 1969 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): (soft plastic cover) 10th edition, 1970 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet): 11th edition, 1971 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 12th edition, 1973 (xiii+585 pages + 1 inlet sheet) 12th edition, 1973 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 13th edition, 1973 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 14th edition, 1974 15th edition, 1975 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets) 15th edition, 1975 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 16th edition, 1976 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets) 16th edition, 1976 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 17th edition, 1977 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 17th edition, 1977 (xiii+585 pages + 2 inlet sheets): 18th edition, 1978 (xiii+585 pages) Polish editions (1959–2019) 1959 (696 pages) (PWN), Warsaw: 1968 1973 1986 1996 1997 2004 PWN, Warsaw: 2010 2017 (856 pages): 2019 (856 pages) Hungarian editions (1963–1987) Translator: György, Bizám Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest: extended 2nd edition, 1963 (768 pages) 3rd edition, 1974 (768 pages): 4th edition, 1980 (768 pages): , 5th edition, 1982 (768 pages): 6th edition, 1987 (1190 pages): French editions (1963–1990) Translator: Lefort, Henri , Paris: 1st edition, based on 8th Russian edition (935 pages + inlet ""), 1963 2nd edition, 1967 1976 9th edition, 1990 (935 pages) Slovenian editions (1963–1994) Translator: , Ljubljana / : 1st edition, 1st printing, 1963 (2+699 pages+corrigenda): 1st reprint, 1967 (699 pages+corrigenda): 2nd reprint, 1970 (700 pages+corrigenda): 3rd reprint, 1972 (700 pages+corrigenda): , Ljubljana : 4th reprint, 1975 (pre+699 pages+corrigenda): 5th reprint, 1978 (2+699 pages): 6th reprint, 1980 (2+699 pages): 7th reprint 8th reprint, 1984 (pre+699 pages): 9th reprint, 1987 (pre+699 pages): 10th reprint, 1988 (pre+699 pages): , (book) , Ljubljana / : 11th reprint, 1990 (2+699 pages): , (book) 12th reprint, 1992 (2+699 pages):, (book) 13th reprint, 1994 (2+699 pages): , (book) Serbo-Croatian editions (1964–1975) Editor: Blanuša, Danilo. Translators: Vistrička, Zvonko; Uremović, Ivan , Zagreb : 1st edition, 1964 (695 pages, based on 9th Russian edition, 1962) 1975 (696 pages) English editions (1964–1973, 2013) Translators: Jaworowski, Jan W.; Bleicher, Michael N. Pergamon Press, Oxford / The Macmillan Company, New York A Guide-Book to Mathematics for Technologists and Engineers: 1st edition, 1964 (783 pages, based on German edition): (book) 1971 (783 pages + 2 page inlet) Verlag Harri Deutsch / Springer Verlag New York, Inc. A Guide Book to Mathematics: 1st edition, 1971 (783 pages + 1 inlet sheet, based on enlarged German edition): (book) Verlag Harri Deutsch / Springer Verlag New York, Inc. A Guide Book to Mathematics: Formulas, Tables, Graphs, Methods: 1973 (783 pages + 2 page inlet sheet "Proportional parts", based on enlarged German edition): (book, Harri Deutsch, 1973); (book, Springer, 1973); , (book, reprint 2013); (ebook 2013) Spanish editions (1971–1988, 2001–2004) Editor: Aparicio Bernardo, Emiliano. Translator: Harding Rojas, Inés. Cultura popular, Mexico 1st edition, 1971 (696 pages) Editorial MIR, Moscow (based on Russian edition, 1973): 2nd edition (694 pages) 1988 (695 pages): 2004 (4th reprint by Rubiños-1860) of 1988 edition (696 pages): (paperback) Rubiños-1860, S.A., Madrid / Editorial MIR, Moscow : 1993 (696 pages): Quinto Sol : 2001: (reprint) 1979–1991: Grosche and Ziegler editions German editions (1979–1991) Editors: Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea. Authors: ; Belger, Martin; Benker, Hans; Denkmann, Norbert; Deweß, Monika; Erfurth, Horst; Gentemann, Helmut; Göthner, Peter; Gottwald, Siegfried; Grosche, Günter; Hilbig, Harald; Hofmann, Reinhard; ; ; ; Semendjajew, Konstantin Adolfowitsch; Vettermann, Theodor; Wünsch, Volkmar; Zeidler, Eberhard. BSB B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft / Verlag Harri Deutsch (yearly print run of 10 000 for Teubner and Harri Deutsch each): 19th completely revised edition, 1979 [December 1978] (xi+860 pages, based on 18th German edition, 1978): (soft plastic cover) 20th edition, 1981 (ix+840 pages): (soft plastic cover) 21st edition, 1983 [April 1982] (ix+840 pages): (soft plastic cover) 22nd edition, 1985 (ix+840 pages): (soft plastic cover) 23rd edition, 1987 (xii+840 pages): / (soft plastic cover) 24th edition, 1989 (xii+840 pages): (soft plastic cover) 25th edition, 1991 (xii+824 pages): (soft plastic cover) Editors: Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea. Authors: Bär, Gunter; Deweß, Günter; Deweß, Monika; ; Göhde, Dietrich; Jentsch, Lothar; Miller, Maximilian; Piehler, Joachim; Zeidler, Eberhard. BSB B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft / Verlag Harri Deutsch : 1st edition, 1980 [1979] (v+218 pages): 2nd edition, 1981 (v+218 pages): 3rd edition, 1984 (v+218 pages): 4th edition, 1986 (vi+218 pages): / 5th edition, 1988 (v+234 pages): 6th edition, 1990 (vi+234 pages): Russian editions (1980–1986) Editors: Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea. Nauka () / Tec-Theor-Lit : 12th completely revised edition, 1980 (retranslation from 19th German edition) 12th edition, 1981 (718 pages, retranslation from 19th German edition, 1979) Nauka (), Moscow / GFML () : 13th corrected edition, 1986 (544 pages, two-color print, 250 000 units): (book) 13th edition, 1986 (544 pages) English editions (1985, 1998) Editor: . Translator: Hirsch, Kurt August Verlag Harri Deutsch / Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Handbook of Mathematics: 3rd completely revised edition, 1985 (xv+973 pages, based on 19th/20th German edition, licensed from Edition Leipzig): (soft plastic cover) 3rd completely revised edition, 1985 (xv+973 pages, based on 19th/20th German edition, licensed from Edition Leipzig): (soft plastic cover) Springer Handbook of Mathematics: reprint of 3rd edition, 1997/1998 (978 pages): (book) reprint of 3rd edition, 1998 (xxx+973 pages): , (ebook) Japanese editions (1985–1987) Translators: Miyamoto, Toshio (); Matsuda, Nobuyuki (). Morikita Publications (), Tokyo (literally: "Handbook of mathematics"): November 1985 (1226 pages, based on German edition): (paperback) Morikita Publications (), Tokyo (, literally: "Basic handbook of mathematics"): 1986 (721 pages): (hardcover) 1987 (685 pages): ISBN ? (hardcover) 1995–2013: Zeidler editions German editions (1995–2013) Editor (part I): Zeidler, Eberhard. Authors (part I): Hackbusch, Wolfgang; Schwarz, Hans Rudolf; Zeidler, Eberhard. Editors (part II): Grosche, Günter; Ziegler, Viktor; Ziegler, Dorothea; Zeidler, Eberhard. Authors (part II): ; Deweß, Günter; Deweß, Monika; Diekert, Volker; Fuchssteiner, Benno; Gottwald, Siegfried; Gündel, Susanne; Hoschek, Josef; Olderog, Ernst-Rüdiger; Richter, Michael M.; Schenke, Michael; Widmayer, Peter; Zeidler, Eberhard. Teubner, Stuttgart : part I, 1st edition, 1996 [1995] (xxvi+1298 pages, based on 25th German edition, 1990): (soft plastic cover) part II, 7th completely reworked and extended edition, 1st printing, 1995 (xvi+830 pages, based on 6th German edition, 1990): (soft plastic cover); (ebook) part II, 7th edition, 2nd printing, 1996 [1995] (xvi+830 pages): (soft plastic cover) Vieweg+Teubner Verlag : part I, 2nd reviewed edition, 2003 (xxv+1298 pages): (book); (ebook) part II, 8th reviewed edition, 1st printing, 2003 (xvi+830 pages): (book); (ebook) part II, 8th reviewed edition, 2nd printing, 2012 [2003] (xvi+830 pages): (book); (softcover / paperback) Editors: Zeidler, Eberhard. Authors: Hackbusch, Wolfgang; Hromkovič, Juraj; ; Schwarz, Hans Rudolf; Blath, Jochen; Schied, Alexander; Dempe, Stephan; ; Gottwald, Siegfried; Zeidler, Eberhard. Springer Spektrum, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden) / Springer Vieweg : 3rd reworked and extended edition, 2013 [2012] (xx+1310 pages): (softcover); (ebook with additional content) Editors: Zeidler, Eberhard. Authors: Hackbusch, Wolfgang; Hromkovič, Juraj; ; Schwarz, Hans Rudolf; Blath, Jochen; Schied, Alexander; Dempe, Stephan; ; Gottwald, Siegfried; Zeidler, Eberhard. Springer Spektrum, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden : part I, 1st edition, 2013 [Summer 2012] (xii+635 pages): (hardcover); (ebook) part II, 1st edition, 2013 [Summer 2012] (xi+329 pages): (hardcover); (ebook) part III, 1st edition, 2013 [Summer 2012] (xiii+529 pages): (hardcover); (ebook) part IV, 1st edition, 2013 [Summer 2012] (xvii+622 pages): (hardcover); (ebook) English editions (2004–2013) Editor: Zeidler, Eberhard. Authors: Hackbusch, Wolfgang; Schwarz, Hans Rudolf; Zeidler, Eberhard. Translator: Hunt, Bruce. Oxford University Press Oxford Users' Guide to Mathematics: 2004 (xxii+1284 pages, based on German , part I, 2003): (soft plastic cover) 2013: (book) Chinese edition (2012) Editor: Zeidler, Eberhard () Translator: Li Wenlin () (), Beijing: - [Math guide - handbook of practical mathematics] (based on the 2nd German edition of and the English edition of Oxford Users' Guide to Mathematics) 1st edition, 2012 (1303? pages): , [https://www.wenjiangs.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/mathematical-guide.zip] 1992–2020: Musiol and Mühlig editions German editions (1992–2020) Editors: ; Mühlig, Heiner. Authors: Baumann, Ulrike; Brunner, Jürgen; ; Fleischer, Norbert Mozesovich (); Grauel, Adolf; Reif, Roland; Reitmann, Volker (); Steinert, I.; Marsolek, Lothar; ; Mühlig, Heiner; Nickel, Heinz; Weber, Matthias; . Verlag Harri Deutsch : 1st edition, 1993 [1992] (xxvi+848 pages, based on the Russian 1967 or 1977 revision): (book) (white/blue soft plastic cover) 2nd edition, 1995: (book) (white/blue soft plastic cover) 3rd edition, 1997/1998: (book) (white/blue soft plastic cover) 4th edition, 1999 (1151 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (soft plastic cover) 5th edition, 2000 (1234 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) 6th edition, 2005 (ca. 1242 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) Editors: ; Mühlig, Heiner. Authors: Baumann, Ulrike; Bernstein, Swanhild; Brand, Joachim; Brunner, Jürgen; Buchleitner, Andreas (CD-ROM only); ; Fleischer, Norbert Mozesovich (); Grauel, Adolf; Reif, Roland; Reitmann, Volker (); Rumpf, Benno (CD-ROM only); Steinert, I.; Tiersch, Markus (CD-ROM only); Marsolek, Lothar; Mulansky, Bernd; ; Mühlig, Heiner; Nickel, Heinz; Weber, Matthias; Wellens, Thomas (CD-ROM only); . Verlag Harri Deutsch : 7th edition, 2008 (1268 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) 8th edition, 2012 (1235 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) Europa-Lehrmittel (Edition Harri Deutsch) : 9th corrected edition, 2013 (1280? pages, based on 8th German edition by Verlag Harri Deutsch, 2012, incorporating corrections after 5th English edition by Springer): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) 10th edition, 2016 (xli+1233 pages): (book); (book with CD-ROM) (white/red/black soft plastic cover) 11th edition, 2020-07-28 (ca. 1280 pages): (soft plastic cover); (HTML download) Slovenian editions (1997–2020) Contributors: Barbič, Janez; Dolinar, Gregor; Jurčič-Zlobec, Borut; Mramor Kosta, Neža. Translator: Barbič, Janez. , Ljubljana : 2nd reworked edition, 1997 (xxvii+967 pages, based on German edition): , 1st reprint of 2nd reworked edition, 1997 (xxvii+967 pages): , (soft plastic cover) 1st corrected reprint of 2nd reworked edition, 2009 (xxvii+967 pages): , 2nd corrected reprint of 2nd reworked edition, 2012 (xxvii+967 pages): , 3rd corrected edition (xxvii+967 pages): Hungarian editions (2000–2009) Typotex, Budapest: (based on German edition by Verlag Harri Deutsch, 1999) 1st edition, 2000 (1188 pages): 8th edition, 2002 (1210 pages): 8th corrected and revised edition, 2006 (1209 pages): 9th edition, 2009 (1209 pages): English editions (2002–2015) Editors: ;Mühlig, Heiner. Authors: Baumann, Ulrike; Brunner, Jürgen; ; Fleischer, Norbert Mozesovich (); Grauel, Adolf; Reif, Roland; Reitmann, Volker (); Steinert, I.; Marsolek, Lothar; ; Mühlig, Heiner; Nickel, Heinz; Weber, Matthias; . Translator: Szép, Gabriella. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg Handbook of Mathematics: 4th edition, 2002 (1000? pages, based on 5th German edition, 2000): (book) 4th edition, 2004 (lxxxiv+1158 pages, based on 5th German edition, 2000): , (ebook) 5th edition, 2007 (lxxxvi+1164 pages, based on 6th German edition, 2005): (book); , , (ebook) Editors: ; Mühlig, Heiner. Authors: Baumann, Ulrike; Bernstein, Swanhild; Brand, Joachim; Brunner, Jürgen; Buchleitner, Andreas (CD-ROM only); ; Fleischer, Norbert Mozesovich (); Grauel, Adolf; Reif, Roland; Reitmann, Volker (); Rumpf, Benno (CD-ROM only); Steinert, I.; Tiersch, Markus (CD-ROM only); Tóth, János; Marsolek, Lothar; Mulansky, Bernd; ; Mühlig, Heiner; Nickel, Heinz; Weber, Matthias; Wellens, Thomas (CD-ROM only); . Springer Verlag, Heidelberg Handbook of Mathematics: 6th edition, 2015 (xliv+1207 pages, based on 9th German edition, 2013): , , (book); (ebook) Croatian edition (2004) Translator: Uremović, Ivan Golden marketing, : 4th edition, 2004 (xliv+1168 pages, based on the 5th German edition, 2000): Serbian edition (2004) Translators: Šućur, Miljenko; Valčić Trkulja, Milena. Soho Graph, Belgrade : 1st edition, 2004 (xxxviii+1191 pages, based on the 5th German edition, 2000): Polish editions (2007–2020) PWN, Warsaw: 2007 (1258 or 1260 pages) 2013 (1259 pages): 2015 2020 Chinese edition (2020) Editors: Bronstein (), Semendyayev (), Musiol (), Mühlig () Translators: Li Wenlin () et al. (), Beijing: - [Mathematics Handbook] (based on the 10th German edition of ) 1st edition, 2020-12 (1547? pages): Bronshtein-integrability Due to Bronshtein and Semendyayev containing a comprehensive table of analytically solvable integrals, integrals are sometimes referred to as being "Bronshtein-integrable" in German universities if they can be looked up in the book (in playful analogy to terms like Riemann-integrability and Lebesgue-integrability). See also Hütte Korn (KK) Abramowitz and Stegun (AS) Gradshteyn and Ryzhik (GR) Notes References External links (Web site of Europa-Lehrmittel) 1945 non-fiction books 20th-century Russian literature 20th-century German literature 21st-century German literature Handbooks and manuals Mathematics books Mathematical tables	7,154
doc-en-10857_0	Original Stories from Real Life; with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections, and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness is the only complete work of children's literature by the 18th-century English feminist author Mary Wollstonecraft. Original Stories begins with a frame story that sketches out the education of two young girls by their maternal teacher Mrs. Mason, followed by a series of didactic tales. The book was first published by Joseph Johnson in 1788; a second, illustrated edition, with engravings by William Blake, was released in 1791 and remained in print for around a quarter of a century. In Original Stories, Wollstonecraft employed the then-burgeoning genre of children's literature to promote the education of women and an emerging middle-class ideology. She argued that women would be able to become rational adults if they were educated properly as children, which was not a widely held belief in the 18th century, and contended that the nascent middle-class ethos was superior to the court culture represented by fairy tales and to the values of chance and luck found in chapbook stories for the poor. Wollstonecraft, in developing her own pedagogy, also responded to the works of the two most important educational theorists of the 18th century: John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Historical and biographical context Wollstonecraft's oeuvre shows "a keen and vital concern with education, especially the education of girls and women". One year before she published Original Stories, she wrote a conduct book (a popular 18th-century genre, akin to the modern self-help book) entitled Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), which describes how to raise the ideal middle-class woman. In 1789, she assembled The Female Speaker, a text meant to edify the minds of young women by exposing them to literature; she modelled it after William Enfield's anthology The Speaker, which was designed specifically for men. Just one year later, she translated Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's Elements of Morality, a popular German pedagogical text. Wollstonecraft continued writing on educational issues in her most famous work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), which is largely a defence of female education. She also devotes an entire chapter to outlining a national education plan—she envisioned a half-public, half-private, co-educational system. She also directly challenged Rousseau's Emile (1762), which claimed that women should not be taught to reason since they were formed for men's pleasure and that their abilities lay in observation rather than reason. When Wollstonecraft died in 1797, she was working on two more educational works: "Management of Infants", a parenting manual; and "Lessons", a reading primer inspired by Anna Laetitia Barbauld's Lessons for Children (1778–79). Wollstonecraft was not alone in focusing her revolutionary writings on education; as Alan Richardson, a scholar of the period, points out, "most liberal and radical intellectuals of the time viewed education as the cornerstone of any movement for social reform". One reason these thinkers emphasized the training of the young mind was the pervasive acceptance during the 18th century of Locke's theory of mind. He posited that the mind is a "blank slate" or tabula rasa, free from innate ideas, and that because children enter the world without preconceived notions; whatever ideas they absorb early in life will fundamentally affect their later development. Locke explained this process through a theory he labelled the association of ideas; the ideas that children connect, such as fear and darkness, are stronger than those ideas adults associate, therefore instructors, according to Locke, must carefully consider what they expose children to early in life. Plot summary Modelled on Madame de Genlis's Adèle et Théodore (1782) and Tales of the Castle (1785), both of which have frame stories and a series of inset moral tales, Original Stories narrates the re-education of two young girls, fourteen-year-old Mary and twelve-year-old Caroline, by a wise and benevolent maternal figure, Mrs. Mason. (Wollstonecraft probably named these characters after people in her own life. She became acquainted with a Miss Mason while teaching in Newington Green, whom she greatly respected, and she taught two girls named Mary and Caroline while she was a governess for the Kingsborough family in Ireland. Margaret King, who was greatly affected by her governess, saying she "had freed her mind from all superstitions, later adopted "Mrs Mason" as a pseudonym.) After the death of their mother, the girls are sent to live with Mrs. Mason in the country. They are full of faults, such as greediness and vanity, and Mrs. Mason, through stories, real-world demonstrations, and her own example, cures the girls of most of their moral failings and imbues them with a desire to be virtuous. Mrs. Mason's amalgam of tales and teaching excursions dominates the text; although the text emphasizes the girls' moral progress, the reader learns very little about the girls themselves. The work consists largely of personal histories of people known to Mrs. Mason and of moral tales for the edification of Mary and Caroline and the reader. For example, "The History of Charles Townley" illustrates the fatal consequences of procrastination. Mrs. Mason takes the girls to Charles Townley's ruined mansion to tell them the cautionary tale of a "boy of uncommon abilities, and strong feelings"; unfortunately, "he ever permitted those feelings to direct his conduct, without submitting to the direction of reason; I mean, the present emotion governed him ... He always indeed intended to act right in every particular to-morrow; but to-day he followed the prevailing whim" (emphasis Wollstonecraft's). Charles wants to help those in need, but he is easily distracted by novels and plays. He eventually loses all of his money but his one remaining friend helps him regain his fortune in India. Yet even when this friend needs assistance, Charles cannot act quickly enough and, tragically, his friend is imprisoned and dies and his friend's daughter is forced to marry a rake. When Charles returns to England, he is overcome with guilt. He rescues the daughter from her unhappy marriage, but both she and he have gone slightly insane by the end of the story, she from her marriage and he from guilt. Original Stories is primarily about leaving the imperfections of childhood behind and becoming a rational and charitable adult; it does not romanticise childhood as an innocent and ideal state of being. The inset stories themselves emphasise the balance of reason and emotion required for the girls to become mature, a theme that permeates Wollstonecraft's works, particularly A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Literary analysis Original Stories gained a reputation in the 20th century as an oppressively didactic book and was derided by early scholars of children's literature such as Geoffrey Summerfield. Recent scholars, particularly Mitzi Myers, have re-evaluated Wollstonecraft's book and 18th-century children's literature in general, assessing it within its historical context rather than judging it according to modern tastes. Myers suggests, in her series of seminal articles, that women writers of children's literature such as Mary Wollstonecraft and Maria Edgeworth were not only using the genre of children's literature to teach but also to promote visions of society distinct from those of the Romantics. These authors believed that they could effect great change by exposing young children to their ideas of a better society, even though they were "only" writing stories about seemingly insignificant topics such as small animals or little girls. Myers argues that because scholars have traditionally paid more attention to Romantic poetry and prose (the works of William Wordsworth and Percy Bysshe Shelley, for example) than to children's literature, they have missed the social critique that these women writers of children's literature were offering. Pedagogical theory The two most influential pedagogical works in 18th-century Europe were John Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile. In Original Stories and her other works on education, Wollstonecraft responds to these two works and counters with her own pedagogical theory. Wollstonecraft follows Locke in emphasising the role of the senses in learning; for her, as Myers writes, "ideally, children should learn not from direct teaching but from living examples apprehended through the senses." Wollstonecraft's Mrs. Mason takes Mary and Caroline out into the world in order to instruct them—their very first lesson is a nature walk that teaches them not to torture but rather to respect animals as part of God's creation. Mrs. Mason uses the experiences of everyday life as a teaching tool because they are grounded in concrete realities and easily absorbed through the senses; she will seize on "a bad habit, a passerby, a visit, a natural scene, a holiday festivity" and then apply them to a moral lesson that she wants to inculcate into her pupils. Mrs. Mason also tells Mary and Caroline the unfortunate or tragic histories of people she has known, such as that of Jane Fretful, who died because of her bad behaviour; Jane was an angry and selfish little girl and eventually her anger affected her health and killed her. Her misbehaviour "broke her mother's heart" and "hastened her death"; Jane's guilt over this event and: her peevish temper, preyed on her impaired constitution. She had not, by doing good, prepared her soul for another state, or cherished any hopes that could disarm death of its terrors, or render that last sleep sweet—its approach was dreadful!—and she hastened her end, scolding the physician for not curing her. Her lifeless countenance displayed the marks of convulsive anger; and she left an ample fortune behind her to those who did not regret her loss. They followed her to the grave on which no one shed a tear. She was soon forgotten; and I [says Mrs. Mason] only remember her, to warn you to shun her errors. Mrs. Mason also takes her charges to visit models of virtue, such as Mrs. Trueman, who, though poor, still manages to be charitable and a comfort to her family. At the end of one visit, Mrs. Mason reminds the girls that Mrs. Trueman "loves truth, and she is ever exercising benevolence and love—from the insect, that she avoids treading on, her affection may be traced to that Being who lives for ever.—And it is from her goodness her agreeable qualities spring." Wollstonecraft also adheres to the Lockean conception of the mind as a "blank slate": in Original Stories, Mrs. Mason describes her own mind using these same terms. Wollstonecraft was not as receptive to Rousseau's ideas as she was to Locke's; she appropriated the aesthetic of the sublime to challenge Rousseau's ideas regarding the education of women (discussed in more detail below). During the 18th century, "the sublime" was associated with awe, fear, strength and masculinity. As Myers writes, "to convey her message for female readers that achievement comes from within, Wollstonecraft substitutes the strength, force, and mental expansion associated with heroic sublime for the littleness, delicacy, and beauty that Rousseau and aestheticians such as Edmund Burke equate with womanhood". Unlike writers such as Rousseau and Burke, who portray women as innately weak and silly, Wollstonecraft argues that women can indeed achieve the intellectual heights associated with the sublime. Although Wollstonecraft disagreed with much of Rousseau's fundamental philosophy, she did agree with many of his educational methods, including his emphasis on teaching through example and experience rather than through precept. In this, she was following children's writers such as Thomas Day who, in his popular The History of Sandford and Merton (1783–89), also emphasised learning by experience rather than by rote and rules. Gary Kelly, in his book on Wollstonecraft's thought, explains how this idea and others important to Wollstonecraft are reflected in the title to her work—Original Stories from Real Life; with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections, and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness: The first part of the title indicates that the ‘stories’ are not merely fictitious but have a factual basis in domestic, quotidian life, though readers would understand ‘from real life’ to mean ‘based on’ or ‘adapted from real ‘life’, and not necessarily ‘representation of actual events’. The ‘stories’ are ‘original’ because narratives for children should start afresh in order to avoid continued ideological contamination from vulgar chapbooks or courtly ‘fairy tales’. The phrase ‘real life’ strengthens ‘original’, excluding both the artificial and the fictional or imaginary. ‘Conversations’ suggests familiar, familial discourse rather than formal moralising. ‘Calculated’ suggests a programme rationally determined. These ‘conversations’ and ‘stories’ are also to construct the youthful self in a particular way, by regulating ‘the affections’ or emotional self and forming ‘the mind’ or rational and moral self ‘to truth and goodness’—understood in terms of professional middle-class culture. As Richardson explains, in Original Stories adulthood is defined by the ability to discipline oneself by "constructing moral tales" out of one's life. Wollstonecraft's extensive use of inset tales encourages her readers to construct a moral narrative out of their own lives, with a predetermined ending. At the end of the book, Mary and Caroline no longer require a teacher because they have learnt the storylines which Mrs. Mason has taught them—they know the stories that they are supposed to enact. Gender As in the Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft does not highlight the differences between men and women as much as she emphasizes the importance of virtue in Original Stories. Moreover, she defines virtue in such a way that it applies to both sexes. Traditionally, as Kelly explains, virtue was tied to femininity and chastity, but Wollstonecraft's text rejects this definition and argues instead that virtue should be characterized by reason and self-control. Myers has also pointed out that Mrs. Mason's desire to instill rationality in her charges is potentially liberating for women readers and their daughters as such a pedagogy was in direct contrast to much that was being written at the time by conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and philosophers such as Rousseau, who asserted the intellectual weakness of women and the secondary status of their gender. But it was against Rousseau's depiction of femininity and female education that Wollstonecraft was most vigorously reacting in Original Stories. Rousseau argued in Emile that women were naturally cunning and manipulative, but he viewed these traits positively: [G]uile is a natural talent with the fair sex, and since I am persuaded that all the natural inclinations are good and right in themselves, I am of the opinion that this one should be cultivated like the others... This peculiar cleverness given to the fair sex is a very equitable compensation for their lesser share of strength, a compensation without which women would be not man’s companion but his slave. It is by means of this superiority in talent that she keeps herself his equal and that she governs him while obeying him... She has in her favor only her art and her beauty. For Rousseau, women possessed "guile" and "beauty" that allowed them to control men while men possessed "strength" and "reason" that allowed them to control women. In contrast to Rousseau's presentation of Sophie, the fictional figure he employs in Book V of Emile to represent the ideal woman, who is enamoured of her own image in a mirror and who falls in love with a character in a novel, Wollstonecraft depicts Mrs. Mason as a rational and sincere teacher who attempts to pass those traits on to Mary and Caroline. Class Original Stories encourages its readers to develop what were at the time coming to be labelled middle-class values: industry, self-discipline, economy, and charity. As Andrew O’Malley points out in his analysis of 18th-century children's books, "middle-class writers wanted children to associate happiness with morality and social utility instead" of "the trappings of wealth and status". The end of the 18th century saw the development of what is now referred to as the "middle-class ethos", and "children’s literature became one of the crucial mechanisms for disseminating and consolidating middle-class ideology" throughout British and American society. Works by children's writers such as Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Ellenor Fenn, Sarah Trimmer, and Dorothy Kilner all embrace this ethos, although they differ radically in their opinions on other political issues, such as the French Revolution. One way that writers such as Wollstonecraft helped to shape the new genre of children's literature at the end of the 18th century was by attempting to remove its chapbook and fairy tale associations and replace them with a middle-class ideology. Many of these writers considered chapbooks and fairy tales to be associated with the poor and the rich, respectively. As Kelly explains, "traditional chapbook literature embodies a lottery mentality of carpe diem, belief in fortune, wish for lucky gifts (such as great strength, cleverness or beauty), a view of time as cyclical or repetitive and an avid interest in predicting the future." In contrast, 18th-century children's literature "embodies an investment mentality. This meant saving for the future, ‘proper’ distribution of personal resources, avoiding extravagance, conceiving of time and one's own life as cumulative and progressive, and valuing self-discipline and personal development for a better future under one's own control." Sarah Trimmer, for example, contends in her Guardian of Education, the first successful periodical dedicated to reviewing children’s books, that children should not read fairy tales precisely because they will lead to slothfulness and superstition. Illustrations William Blake, who often did illustrative work for Wollstonecraft's publisher Joseph Johnson, was engaged to design and engrave six plates for the second edition of Original Stories. Blake scholars tend to read these plates as challenges to Wollstonecraft’s text. For example, Orm Mitchell, basing his interpretation on Blake's personal mythology (which is elaborated in his other works) argues that in the frontispiece to the work: The two girls gaze out wistfully from beneath the outstretched arms of Mrs. Mason. The hats that the children wear are drawn in such a way that they form halos around their heads, a touch Blake also uses in Songs of Innocence and of Experience to indicate the innate and divine visionary capacity of the child (see for example "The Ecchoing Green" and "The Little [B]oy Found"). The children’s eyes are open—they are looking at what a fine morning it is and longing to take part in it. They cannot participate, however, for they are under the suffocating influence of Mrs. Mason. In contrast to the children’s halo-like hats Mrs. Mason wears a large cumbrous bonnet. Her eyes are downcast to such an extent that they appear to be shut. Blake often draws Urizen's eyes in this way to signify the blindness of his rational and materialist ‘Single vision.’ See for example plates 1, 9 and 22 of The Book of Urizen and plate 11 of For Children: The Gates of Paradise where Urizenic 'Aged Ignorance,’ wearing large spectacles, blindly clips the wings of a child thus preventing its imaginative flight in the morning sunrise. Ironically then, Mrs. Mason is the only individual in the illustration who is not seeing what a fine morning it is. She looks down at the hard factual earth, ignoring the infinite and holy life around her. (emphasis Mitchell's) Myers, in contrast, relying on a more traditional art historical interpretation of the image, reads it more positively. She agrees that the children's hats resemble halos but she identifies Mrs. Mason's position as one of a "protective cruciform", evoking a "heroic, even Christlike ... female mentorial tradition". Myers views Mrs. Mason as a sacrificial hero rather than as an oppressive adult who cannot see the glories of nature. Publication and reception history Original Stories was first published anonymously in 1788, the same year as Wollstonecraft's first novel Mary: A Fiction, and cost two shillings. When the second edition came out in 1791, Wollstonecraft's name was printed on the title page; after the publication in 1790 of her Vindication of the Rights of Men, she had become well known and her name would have boosted sales. Joseph Johnson, the publisher of Original Stories and all of Wollstonecraft's other works, commissioned William Blake to design six illustrations for the second edition, which cost two shillings and six pence. It is not entirely clear how long the book remained continuously in print. According to Gary Kelly, a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar, the last edition of Original Stories was published in 1820, but without Wollstonecraft's name on the title page; by that time she had become a reviled figure in Britain because her husband, William Godwin, had revealed her unorthodox lifestyle in his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). According to Alan Richardson and the editors of the Masterworks of Children's Literature series, Original Stories was published until 1835. It was also printed in Dublin in 1791 and 1799 and translated into German in 1795. By the time C. M. Hewins, a librarian for the Hartford Library Association who wrote children's books herself, wrote a "History of Children's Books" in The Atlantic Monthly in 1888, Original Stories was more famous for its plates by Blake than it was for its text by Wollstonecraft. The bulk of the article's discussion is dedicated to Blake, although, strangely enough, not to his work on Original Stories. Hewins does mention that the book was "new and in demand in the autumn of that year [1791], [but is] now unknown to the bookstalls". Original Stories is now primarily reprinted for scholars, students, and those interested in the history of children's literature. See also Timeline of Mary Wollstonecraft Notes Modern reprints Full Bator, Robert, ed. Masterworks of Children's Literature: The Middle Period, c.1740 – c.1836. Vol. 3. New York: Stonehill Publishing Company, 1983. . Todd, Janet and Marilyn Butler, eds. The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 7 vols. London: William Pickering, 1989. . (in volume 4) Wollstonecraft, Mary. Original Stories from Real Life. London: Printed for Joseph Johnson, 1788. Available from Eighteenth Century Collections Online. (by subscription only) Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Wollstonecraft, Mary. Original Stories from Real Life. 2nd ed. London: Printed for Joseph Johnson, 1791. Available from Eighteenth Century Collections Online. (by subscription only) Retrieved on 13 October 2007. Partial Carpenter, Humphrey and Mari Prichard, eds. Oxford Companion to Children's Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. . Demmers, Patricia, ed. From Instruction to Delight: An Anthology of Children's Literature to 1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. . Zipes, Jack, Lissa Paul, Lynne Vallone, Peter Hunt and Gillian Avery, eds. The Norton Anthology of Children's Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2005. . Bibliography Chandler, Anne. "Wollstonecraft’s Original Stories: Animal Objects and the Subject of Fiction". Eighteenth-Century Novel 2 (2002): 325–51. Darton, F. J. Harvey. Children's Books in England: Five Centuries of Social Life. 3rd ed. Rev. by Brian Alderson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. . Jackson, Mary V. Engines of Instruction, Mischief and Magic: Children's Literature in England from Its Beginnings to 1839. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. . Kelly, Gary. Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Macmillan, 1992. . Myers, Mitzi. "Impeccable Governesses, Rational Dames, and Moral Mothers: Mary Wollstonecraft and the Female Tradition in Georgian Children’s Books". Children’s Literature 14 (1986): 31–59. Mitchell, Orm. "Blake’s Subversive Illustrations to Wollstonecraft’s Stories". Mosaic 17.4 (1984): 17–34. O'Malley, Andrew. The Making of the Modern Child: Children's Literature and Childhood in the Late Eighteenth Century. London: Routledge, 2003. Pickering, Samuel, F. Jr. John Locke and Children’s Books in Eighteenth-Century England. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981. . Richardson, Alan. Literature, Education, and Romanticism: Reading as Social Practice, 1780–1832. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Richardson, Alan. "Mary Wollstonecraft on education". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. . Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Emile: Or, On Education. Trans. Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1979. . Summerfield, Geoffrey. Fantasy and Reason: Children’s Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1984. . Wardle, Ralph M. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1951. Welch, Dennis M. "Blake’s Response to Wollstonecraft’s Original Stories". Blake: An Illustrated Quarterly 13 (1979): 4–15. External links A 1906 reprint of the 1791 edition at Google Books High Quality Scans of the Blake Illustrations at the William Blake Archive Mary Wollstonecraft: A 'Speculative and Dissenting Spirit' by Janet Todd at www.bbc.co.uk 18th-century British children's literature 1788 books Books by Mary Wollstonecraft British children's books Books about education Works by Mary Wollstonecraft Art by William Blake	5,708
doc-en-10868_0	Events Pre-1600 1091 – Battle of Levounion: The Pechenegs are defeated by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. 1386 – Battle of the Vikhra River: The Principality of Smolensk is defeated by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and becomes its vassal. 1429 – Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orléans. 1483 – Gran Canaria, the main island of the Canary Islands, is conquered by the Kingdom of Castile. 1521 – Swedish War of Liberation: Swedish troops defeat a Danish force in the Battle of Västerås. 1601–1900 1624 – French king Louis XIII names Cardinal Richelieu chief minister of France. 1760 – French forces commence the siege of Quebec which is held by the British. 1770 – James Cook arrives in Australia at Botany Bay, which he names. 1781 – American Revolutionary War: British and French ships clash in the Battle of Fort Royal off the coast of Martinique. 1826 – The galaxy Centaurus A or NGC 5128 is discovered by James Dunlop. 1852 – Roget's Thesaurus, created by Peter Roget, was released to the public. 1861 – Maryland in the American Civil War: Maryland's House of Delegates votes not to secede from the Union. 1862 – American Civil War: The Capture of New Orleans by Union forces under David Farragut. 1864 – Theta Xi fraternity is founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the only fraternity to be founded during the American Civil War. 1901–present 1903 – A landslide kills 70 people in Frank, in the District of Alberta, Canada. 1910 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the People's Budget, the first budget in British history with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the British public. 1911 – Tsinghua University, one of mainland China's leading universities, is founded. 1916 – World War I: The UK's 6th Indian Division surrenders to Ottoman Forces at the Siege of Kut in one of the largest surrenders of British forces up to that point. 1916 – Easter Rising: After six days of fighting, Irish rebel leaders surrender to British forces in Dublin, bringing the Easter Rising to an end. 1944 – World War II: New Zealand-born SOE agent Nancy Wake, a leading figure in the French Resistance and the Gestapo's most wanted person, parachutes back into France to be a liaison between London and the local maquis group. 1945 – World War II: The Surrender of Caserta is signed by the commander of German forces in Italy. 1945 – World War II: Airdrops of food begin over German-occupied regions of the Netherlands. 1945 – World War II: HMS Goodall (K479) is torpedoed by U-286 outside the Kola Inlet, becoming the last Royal Navy ship to be sunk in the European theatre of World War II. 1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: Adolf Hitler marries his longtime partner Eva Braun in a Berlin bunker and designates Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor; Hitler and Braun both commit suicide the following day. 1945 – Dachau concentration camp is liberated by United States troops. 1945 – The Italian commune of Fornovo di Taro is liberated from German forces by Brazilian forces. 1946 – The International Military Tribunal for the Far East convenes and indicts former Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tojo and 28 former Japanese leaders for war crimes. 1951 – Tibetan delegates arrive in Beijing and sign a Seventeen Point Agreement for Chinese sovereignty and Tibetan autonomy. 1953 – The first U.S. experimental 3D television broadcast shows an episode of Space Patrol on Los Angeles ABC affiliate KECA-TV. 1965 – Pakistan's Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) successfully launches its seventh rocket in its Rehber series. 1967 – After refusing induction into the United States Army the previous day, Muhammad Ali is stripped of his boxing title. 1968 – The controversial musical Hair, a product of the hippie counter-culture and sexual revolution of the 1960s, opens at the Biltmore Theatre on Broadway, with some of its songs becoming anthems of the anti-Vietnam War movement. 1970 – Vietnam War: United States and South Vietnamese forces invade Cambodia to hunt Viet Cong. 1974 – Watergate scandal: United States President Richard Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of White House tape recordings relating to the scandal. 1975 – Vietnam War: Operation Frequent Wind: The U.S. begins to evacuate U.S. citizens from Saigon before an expected North Vietnamese takeover. U.S. involvement in the war comes to an end. 1975 – Vietnam War: The North Vietnamese army completes its capture of all parts of South Vietnamese-held Trường Sa Islands. 1986 – A fire at the Central library of the City of Los Angeles Public Library damages or destroys 400,000 books and other items. 1986 – The United States Navy aircraft carrier becomes the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier to transit the Suez Canal, navigating from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to relieve the . 1986 – Chernobyl disaster: American and European spy satellites capture the ruins of the 4th Reactor at the Chernobyl Power Plant. 1991 – A cyclone strikes the Chittagong district of southeastern Bangladesh with winds of around , killing at least 138,000 people and leaving as many as ten million homeless. 1991 – The 7.0 Racha earthquake affects Georgia with a maximum MSK intensity of IX (Destructive), killing 270 people. 1992 – Riots in Los Angeles, following the acquittal of police officers charged with excessive force in the beating of Rodney King. Over the next three days 63 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed. 1997 – The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 enters into force, outlawing the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons by its signatories. 2004 – The final Oldsmobile is built in Lansing, Michigan, ending 107 years of vehicle production. 2011 – The Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton takes place at Westminster Abbey in London. 2013 – A powerful explosion occurs in an office building in Prague, believed to have been caused by natural gas, and injures 43 people. 2013 – National Airlines Flight 102, a Boeing 747-400 freighter aircraft, crashes during takeoff from Bagram Airfield in Parwan Province, Afghanistan, killing seven people. 2015 – A baseball game between the Baltimore Orioles and the Chicago White Sox sets the all-time low attendance mark for Major League Baseball. Zero fans were in attendance for the game, as the stadium was officially closed to the public due to the 2015 Baltimore protests. Births Pre-1600 912 – Minamoto no Mitsunaka, Japanese samurai (d. 997) 1469 – William II, Landgrave of Hesse (d. 1509) 1587 – Sophie of Saxony, Duchess of Pomerania (d. 1635) 1636 – Esaias Reusner, German lute player and composer (d. 1679) 1665 – James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, Irish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1745) 1667 – John Arbuthnot, Scottish-English physician and polymath (d. 1735) 1686 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1742) 1601–1900 1727 – Jean-Georges Noverre, French actor and dancer (d. 1810) 1745 – Oliver Ellsworth, American lawyer and politician, 3rd Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1807) 1758 – Georg Carl von Döbeln, Swedish general (d. 1820) 1762 – Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, French general and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1833) 1780 – Charles Nodier, French librarian and author (d. 1844) 1783 – David Cox, English landscape painter (d. 1859) 1784 – Samuel Turell Armstrong, American publisher and politician, 14th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1850) 1810 – Thomas Adolphus Trollope, English journalist and author (d. 1892) 1814 – Sadok Barącz, Galician religious leader, historian, folklorist, archivist (d. 1892) 1818 – Alexander II of Russia (d. 1881) 1837 – Georges Ernest Boulanger, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1891) 1842 – Carl Millöcker, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1899) 1847 – Joachim Andersen, Danish flautist, composer, conductor, and co-founder of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (d. 1907) 1848 – Raja Ravi Varma, Indian painter and academic (d. 1906) 1854 – Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, physicist, and engineer (d. 1912) 1858 – Georgia Hopley, American journalist, temperance advocate, and the first woman prohibition agent (d. 1944) 1863 – Constantine P. Cavafy, Egyptian-Greek journalist and poet (d. 1933) 1863 – William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (d. 1951) 1863 – Maria Teresia Ledóchowska, Austrian nun and missionary (d. 1922) 1872 – Harry Payne Whitney, American businessman and lawyer (d. 1930) 1872 – Forest Ray Moulton, American astronomer and academic (d. 1952) 1875 – Rafael Sabatini, Italian-English novelist and short story writer (d. 1950) 1878 – Friedrich Adler, German academic, artist and designer (d.1945) 1879 – Thomas Beecham, English conductor (d. 1961, March 8) 1880 – Fethi Okyar, Turkish military officer, diplomat and politician (d. 1943) 1882 – Auguste Herbin, French painter (d. 1960) 1882 – Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer, typographer, and Nazi resister (d. 1945) 1891 – Bharathidasan, Indian poet and activist (d. 1964) 1894 – Marietta Blau, Austrian physicist and academic (d. 1970) 1885 – Egon Erwin Kisch, Czech journalist and author (d. 1948) 1887 – Raymond Thorne, American swimmer (d. 1921) 1893 – Harold Urey, American chemist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1895 – Vladimir Propp, Russian scholar and critic (d. 1970) 1895 – Malcolm Sargent, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1967) 1899 – Duke Ellington, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1974) 1899 – Mary Petty, American illustrator (d. 1976) 1900 – Concha de Albornoz, Spanish feminist and intellectual, exiled during the Spanish Civil War (d. 1972) 1900 – Amelia Best, Australian politician, one of the first women elected to the Tasmanian House of Assembly (d. 1979) 1901–present 1901 – Hirohito, Japanese emperor (d. 1989) 1907 – Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-American director and producer (d. 1997) 1908 – Jack Williamson, American author and academic (d. 2006) 1909 – Tom Ewell, American actor (d. 1994) 1912 – Richard Carlson, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1977) 1915 – Henry H. Barschall, German-American physicist and academic (d. 1997) 1917 – Maya Deren, Ukrainian-American director, poet, and photographer (d. 1961) 1917 – Celeste Holm, American actress and singer (d. 2012) 1918 – George Allen, American football player and coach (d. 1990) 1919 – Gérard Oury, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006) 1920 – Edward Blishen, English author and radio host (d. 1996) 1920 – Harold Shapero, American composer (d. 2013) 1922 – Helmut Krackowizer, Austrian motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 2001) 1922 – Toots Thielemans, Belgian guitarist and harmonica player (d. 2016) 1923 – Irvin Kershner, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2010) 1924 – Al Balding, Canadian golfer (d. 2006) 1924 – Zizi Jeanmaire, French ballerina and actress (d. 2020) 1925 – John Compton, Saint Lucian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (d. 2007) 1925 – Iwao Takamoto, American animator, director, and producer (d. 2007) 1926 – Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (d. 2009) 1927 – Dorothy Manley, English sprinter (d. 2021) 1927 – Bill Slater, English footballer (d. 2018) 1928 – Carl Gardner, American singer (d. 2011) 1928 – Heinz Wolff, German-English physiologist, engineer, and academic (d. 2017) 1929 – Walter Kempowski, German author and academic (d. 2007) 1929 – Mickey McDermott, American baseball player and coach (d. 2003) 1929 – Peter Sculthorpe, Australian composer and conductor (d. 2014) 1929 – Maurice Strong, Canadian businessman and diplomat (d. 2015) 1929 – Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1929 – April Stevens, American pop singer 1930 – Jean Rochefort, French actor and director (d. 2017) 1931 – Frank Auerbach, British-German painter 1931 – Lonnie Donegan, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) 1931 – Chris Pearson, Canadian politician, 1st Premier of Yukon (d. 2014) 1932 – Joy Clements, American soprano and actress (d. 2005) 1932 – David Tindle, English painter and educator 1933 – Ed Charles, American baseball player and coach (d. 2018) 1933 – Mark Eyskens, Belgian economist and politician, 61st Prime Minister of Belgium 1933 – Rod McKuen, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2015) 1933 – Willie Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor 1934 – Luis Aparicio, Venezuelan-American baseball player 1934 – Peter de la Billière, English general 1934 – Erika Fisch, German sprinter and hurdler 1934 – Pedro Pires, Cape Verdean politician, 3rd President of Cape Verde 1935 – Otis Rush, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018) 1936 – Zubin Mehta, Indian bassist and conductor 1936 – Adolfo Nicolás, Spanish priest, 13th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 2020) 1936 – Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, English banker and philanthropist 1937 – Arvo Mets, Estonian-Russian poet and translator (d. 1997) 1937 – Jill Paton Walsh, English author (d. 2020) 1938 – Bernie Madoff, American businessman, financier and convicted felon (d. 2021) 1938 – Klaus Voormann, German artist, bass player, and producer 1940 – Stephanos of Tallinn, Estonian metropolitan 1940 – Brian Taber, Australian cricketer 1941 – Jonah Barrington, English-Irish squash player 1941 – Dorothy Edgington, British philosopher 1941 – Hanne Darboven, German painter (d. 2009) 1942 – Lynda Chalker, Baroness Chalker of Wallasey, English politician, Minister of State for Europe 1942 – Rennie Fritchie, Baroness Fritchie, English civil servant and academic 1942 – Galina Kulakova, Russian skier 1943 – Duane Allen, American country singer 1943 – Brenda Dean, Baroness Dean of Thornton-le-Fylde, English union leader and politician (d. 2018) 1943 – Ruth Deech, Baroness Deech, English lawyer and academic 1944 – Francis Lee, English footballer and businessman 1945 – Brian Charlesworth, English biologist, geneticist, and academic 1945 – Hugh Hopper, English bass guitarist (d. 2009) 1945 – Catherine Lara, French singer-songwriter and violinist 1945 – Tammi Terrell, American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1970) 1946 – Aleksander Wolszczan, Polish astronomer 1947 – Serge Bernier, Canadian ice hockey player 1947 – Tommy James, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Johnny Miller, American golfer and sportscaster 1947 – Jim Ryun, American runner and politician 1948 – Bruce Cutler, American lawyer 1950 – Paul Holmes, New Zealand journalist (d. 2013) 1950 – Phillip Noyce, Australian director and producer 1950 – Debbie Stabenow, American social worker and politician 1951 – Rick Burleson, American baseball player 1951 – Dale Earnhardt, American race car driver (d. 2001) 1951 – John Holmes, English diplomat, British Ambassador to France 1952 – Nora Dunn, American actress and comedian 1952 – David Icke, English footballer and sportscaster 1952 – Bob McClure, American baseball player and coach 1952 – Rob Nicholson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 11th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1952 – Ron Washington, American baseball player and manager 1954 – Jake Burton Carpenter, American snowboarder and businessman, founded Burton Snowboards 1954 – Jerry Seinfeld, American comedian, actor, and producer 1955 – Don McKinnon, Australian rugby league player 1955 – Kate Mulgrew, American actress 1956 – Karen Barad, American physicist and philosopher 1957 – Daniel Day-Lewis, British-Irish actor 1958 – Michelle Pfeiffer, American actress 1958 – Eve Plumb, American actress 1958 – Gary Cohen, American baseball play-by-play announcer 1958 – Kevin Moore, English footballer (d. 2013) 1960 – Bill Glasson, American golfer 1960 – Robert J. Sawyer, Canadian author and academic 1962 – Bruce Driver, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1962 – Rob Druppers, Dutch runner 1962 – Stephan Burger, German Catholic archbishop 1963 – Mike Babcock, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1964 – Federico Castelluccio, Italian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Radek Jaroš, Czech mountaineer and author 1965 – Michel Bussi, French geographer, author, and academic 1965 – Peter Rauhofer, Austrian-American disc jockey and producer (d. 2013) 1965 – Larisa Turchinskaya, Russian-Australian heptathlete and coach 1965 – Brendon Tuuta, New Zealand rugby league player 1966 – Christian Tetzlaff, German violinist 1966 – Phil Tufnell, English cricketer and radio host 1967 – Marcel Albers, Dutch race car driver (d. 1992) 1967 – Curtis Joseph, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1968 – Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, 4th President of Croatia 1968 – Carnie Wilson, American singer-songwriter 1969 – Jack Mackenroth, American swimmer, model, and fashion designer 1970 – Andre Agassi, American tennis player 1970 – Uma Thurman, American actress 1972 – Dustin McDaniel, American lawyer and politician, 55th Arkansas Attorney General 1974 – Jasper Wood, Canadian violinist and educator 1974 – Anggun, Indonesian-born French singer-songwriter 1975 – Rafael Betancourt, Venezuelan baseball player 1975 – Artem Yashkin, Ukrainian footballer 1976 – Fabio Liverani, Italian footballer and manager 1976 – Chiyotaikai Ryūji, Japanese sumo wrestler 1977 – Zuzana Hejdová, Czech tennis player 1977 – Claus Jensen, Danish international footballer and manager 1977 – Titus O'Neil, American football player and wrestler 1977 – Attila Zsivoczky, Hungarian decathlete and high jumper 1978 – Tony Armas, Jr., Venezuelan baseball player 1978 – Bob Bryan, American tennis player 1978 – Mike Bryan, American tennis player 1978 – Javier Colon, American singer-songwriter and musician 1978 – Craig Gower, Australian rugby player 1978 – Tyler Labine, Canadian actor and comedian 1979 – Lee Dong-gook, South Korean footballer 1979 – Ryan Sharp, Scottish race car driver and manager 1980 – Mathieu Biron, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Kelly Shoppach, American baseball player 1981 – Lisa Allen, English chef 1981 – George McCartney, Northern Irish footballer 1981 – Émilie Mondor, Canadian runner (d. 2006) 1983 – Jay Cutler, American football player 1983 – Tommie Harris, American football player 1983 – David Lee, American basketball player 1984 – Kirby Cote, Canadian swimmer 1984 – Paulius Jankūnas, Lithuanian basketball player 1984 – Lina Krasnoroutskaya, Russian tennis player 1984 – Vassilis Xanthopoulos, Greek basketball player 1985 – Jean-François Jacques, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Byun Yo-han, South Korean actor 1986 – Lee Chae-young, South Korean actress 1986 – Viljar Veski, Estonian basketball player 1986 – Sisa Waqa, Fijian rugby league player 1986 – Monique Alfradique, Brazilian actress 1987 – Knut Børsheim, Norwegian golfer 1987 – Sara Errani, Italian tennis player 1987 – Andre Russell, Jamaican cricketer 1988 – Elías Hernández, Mexican footballer 1988 – Alfred Hui, Hong Kong singer 1988 – Taoufik Makhloufi, Algerian athlete 1988 – Jonathan Toews, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Younha, South Korean singer-songwriter and record producer 1990 – James Faulkner, Australian cricketer 1990 – Chris Johnson, American basketball player 1991 – Adam Smith, English footballer 1991 – Jung Hye-sung, South Korean actress 1992 – Emilio Orozco, American soccer player 1992 – Alina Rosenberg, German Paralympic equestrian 1994 – Christina Shakovets, German tennis player 1995 – Victoria Sinitsina, Russian ice dancer 1996 – Katherine Langford, Australian actress 1998 – Kimberly Birrell, Australian tennis player 1998 – Mallory Pugh, American soccer player 2007 – Infanta Sofía of Spain, Spanish princess Deaths Pre-1600 643 – Hou Junji, Chinese general and politician, Chancellor of the Tang dynasty 926 – Burchard II, Duke of Swabia (b. 883) 1380 – Catherine of Siena, Italian mystic, philosopher, and saint (b. 1347) 1417 – Louis II of Anjou (b. 1377) 1594 – Thomas Cooper, English bishop, lexicographer, and theologian (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1630 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French soldier and poet (b. 1552) 1658 – John Cleveland, English poet and author (b. 1613) 1676 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (b. 1607) 1688 – Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1620) 1698 – Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk (b. 1655) 1707 – George Farquhar, Irish-English actor and playwright (b. 1678) 1743 – Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre, French theorist and author (b. 1658) 1768 – Georg Brandt, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (b. 1694) 1771 – Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, French-Italian architect, designed Winter Palace and Catherine Palace (b. 1700) 1776 – Edward Wortley Montagu, English explorer and author (b. 1713) 1793 – John Michell, English geologist and astronomer (b. 1724) 1798 – Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus, Austrian entomologist and author (b. 1723) 1833 – William Babington, Anglo-Irish physician and mineralogist (b. 1756) 1854 – Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1768) 1901–present 1903 – Paul Du Chaillu, French-American anthropologist and zoologist (b. 1835) 1905 – Ignacio Cervantes, Cuban pianist and composer (b. 1847) 1916 – Jørgen Pedersen Gram, Danish mathematician and academic (b. 1850) 1920 – William H. Seward Jr., American general and banker (b. 1839) 1921 – Arthur Mold, English cricketer (b. 1863) 1933 – Constantine P. Cavafy, Greek poet and journalist (b. 1863) 1937 – William Gillette, American actor and playwright (b. 1853) 1944 – Bernardino Machado, Portuguese academic and politician, 3rd President of Portugal (b. 1851) 1945 – Matthias Kleinheisterkamp, German SS officer (b. 1893) 1947 – Irving Fisher, American economist and statistician (b. 1867) 1951 – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (b. 1889) 1954 – Kathleen Clarice Groom, Australian-English author and screenwriter (b. 1872) 1956 – Harold Bride, English soldier and operator (b. 1890) 1956 – Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, German field marshal (b. 1876) 1959 – Kenneth Anderson, India-born English soldier and Governor of Gibraltar (b. 1891) 1964 – Rae Johnstone, Australian jockey (b. 1905) 1966 – William Eccles, English physicist and engineer (b. 1875) 1966 – Paula Strasberg, American actress, acting coach, and member of the Communist Party (b. 1909) 1967 – J. B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929) 1968 – Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident and Christian executed during the Cultural Revolution (b. 1932) 1976 – Edvard Drabløs, Norwegian actor and director (b. 1883) 1978 – Theo Helfrich, German race car driver (b. 1913) 1979 – Muhsin Ertuğrul, Turkish actor and director (b. 1892) 1979 – Hardie Gramatky, American author and illustrator (b. 1907) 1980 – Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (b. 1899) 1982 – Raymond Bussières, French actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1907) 1992 – Mae Clarke, American actress (b. 1910) 1993 – Michael Gordon, American actor and director (b. 1909) 1993 – Mick Ronson, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1946) 1997 – Mike Royko, American journalist and author (b. 1932) 1998 – Hal Laycoe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1922) 2000 – Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1906) 2001 – Arthur B. C. Walker Jr., American physicist and academic (b. 1936) 2002 – Bob Akin, American race car driver and journalist (b. 1936) 2003 – Janko Bobetko, Croatian Army general and Chief of the General Staff (b. 1919) 2004 – Sid Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1925) 2005 – William J. Bell, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1927) 2005 – Louis Leithold, American mathematician and academic (b. 1924) 2006 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to India (b. 1908) 2007 – Milt Bocek, American baseball player and soldier (b. 1912) 2007 – Josh Hancock, American baseball player (b. 1978) 2007 – Dick Motz, New Zealand cricketer and rugby player (b. 1940) 2007 – Ivica Račan, Croatian politician, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (b. 1944) 2008 – Chuck Daigh, American race car driver (b. 1923) 2008 – Albert Hofmann, Swiss chemist and academic (b. 1906) 2010 – Sandy Douglas, English computer scientist and academic, designed OXO (b. 1921) 2011 – Siamak Pourzand, Iranian journalist and critic (b. 1931) 2011 – Joanna Russ, American writer, academic and radical feminist (b. 1937) 2012 – Shukri Ghanem, Libyan politician, Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1942) 2012 – Joel Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (b. 1957) 2012 – Roland Moreno. French engineer, invented the smart card (b. 1945) 2012 – Kenny Roberts, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926) 2013 – Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (b. 1992) 2013 – Pesah Grupper, Israeli politician, 13th Israel Minister of Agriculture (b. 1924) 2013 – Parekura Horomia, New Zealand politician, 40th Minister of Māori Affairs (b. 1950) 2013 – John La Montaine, American pianist and composer (b. 1920) 2013 – Ernest Michael, American mathematician and scholar (b. 1925) 2013 – Kevin Moore, English footballer (b. 1958) 2013 – Marianna Zachariadi, Greek pole vaulter (b. 1990) 2014 – Iveta Bartošová, Czech singer and actress (b. 1966) 2014 – Al Feldstein, American author and illustrator (b. 1925) 2014 – Bob Hoskins, English actor (b. 1942) 2014 – Michael Kadosh, Israeli footballer and manager (b. 1940) 2015 – François Michelin, French businessman (b. 1926) 2015 – Jean Nidetch, American businesswoman, co-founded Weight Watchers (b. 1923) 2015 – Calvin Peete, American golfer (b. 1943) 2015 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (b. 1922) 2016 – Renato Corona, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (b. 1948) 2019 – Josef Šural, Czech footballer (b. 1990) 2021 – Cate Haste, English author (b. 1945) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Catherine of Siena (Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Church) Endelienta Hugh of Cluny Robert of Molesme Torpes of Pisa April 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations) International Dance Day (UNESCO) Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on April 29 Today in Canadian History Days of the year April	7,281
doc-en-6018_0	Events Pre-1600 2457 BC – Gaecheonjeol, Hwanung (환웅) purportedly descended from heaven. South Korea's National Foundation Day. 52 BC – Gallic Wars: Vercingetorix, leader of the Gauls, surrenders to the Romans under Julius Caesar, ending the siege and battle of Alesia. 42 BC – Liberators' civil war: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight a decisive battle with Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius. 382 – Roman Emperor Theodosius I concludes a peace treaty with the Goths and settles them in the Balkans. 1392 – Muhammed VII becomes the twelfth sultan of the Emirate of Granada. 1574 – The Siege of Leiden is lifted by the Watergeuzen. 1601–1900 1683 – Qing dynasty naval commander Shi Lang receives the surrender of the Tungning kingdom on Taiwan after the Battle of Penghu. 1712 – The Duke of Montrose issues a warrant for the arrest of Rob Roy MacGregor. 1739 – The Treaty of Niš is signed by the Ottoman Empire and Russia ending the Russian–Turkish War. 1789 – George Washington proclaims a Thanksgiving Day for that year. 1792 – A militia departs from the Spanish stronghold of Valdivia to quell a Huilliche uprising in southern Chile. 1863 – The last Thursday in November is declared as Thanksgiving Day by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. 1873 – Chief Kintpuash and companions are hanged for their part in the Modoc War of northern California. 1901–present 1912 – U.S. forces defeat Nicaraguan rebels at the Battle of Coyotepe Hill. 1918 – King Boris III of Bulgaria accedes to the throne. 1919 – Cincinnati Reds pitcher Adolfo Luque becomes the first Latin American player to appear in a World Series. 1929 – The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is renamed to Yugoslavia by King Alexander I. 1930 – The German Socialist Labour Party in Poland – Left is founded. 1932 – The Kingdom of Iraq gains independence from the United Kingdom. 1935 – Second Italo-Abyssinian War: Italy invades Ethiopia. 1942 – A German V-2 rocket reaches a record 85 km (46 nm) in altitude. 1943 – World War II: German forces murder 92 civilians in Lingiades, Greece. 1949 – WERD, the first black-owned radio station in the United States, opens in Atlanta. 1951 – Korean War: The First Battle of Maryang San pits Commonwealth troops against communist Chinese troops. 1952 – The United Kingdom successfully tests a nuclear weapon in the Montebello Islands, Western Australia, to become the world's third nuclear power. 1957 – The California State Superior Court rules that the book Howl and Other Poems is not obscene. 1962 – Project Mercury: US astronaut Wally Schirra, in a Sigma 7, is launched from Cape Canaveral for a six-orbit flight. 1963 – A violent coup in Honduras begins two decades of military rule. 1981 – The hunger strike at the Maze Prison in Northern Ireland ends after seven months and ten deaths. 1985 – The Space Shuttle Atlantis makes its maiden flight. 1986 – TASCC, a superconducting cyclotron at the Chalk River Laboratories in Canada, is officially opened. 1989 – A coup in Panama City is suppressed and 11 participants are executed. 1990 – The German Democratic Republic is abolished and becomes part of the Federal Republic of Germany; the event is afterwards celebrated as German Unity Day. 1991 – Nadine Gordimer is announced as the winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1993 – An American attack against a warlord in Mogadishu fails; eighteen US soldiers and over 350 Somalis die. 1995 – O. J. Simpson murder case: O. J. Simpson is acquitted of the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman. 2008 – The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 for the U.S. financial system is signed by President George W. Bush. 2009 – Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey join in the Turkic Council. 2013 – At least 360 migrants are killed when their boat sinks near the Italian island of Lampedusa. 2015 – Forty-two people are killed and 33 go missing in the Kunduz hospital airstrike in Afghanistan. 2021 – Eight people are killed in an airplane crash near Milan, Italy. Births Pre-1600 85 BC – Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman politician (d. 42 BC) 1292 – Eleanor de Clare, English noblewoman (d. 1337) 1390 – Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (d. 1447) 1458 – Saint Casimir, Prince of Poland and Duke of Lithuania (d. 1484) 1554 – Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke, English poet (d. 1628) 1601–1900 1610 – Gabriel Lalemant, French-Canadian missionary and saint (d. 1649) 1631 – Sebastian Anton Scherer, German organist and composer (d. 1712) 1637 – George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen, Lord Chancellor of Scotland (d. 1720) 1713 – Antoine Dauvergne, French violinist and composer (d. 1797) 1716 – Giovanni Battista Beccaria, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1781) 1720 – Johann Uz, German poet and judge (d. 1796) 1790 – John Ross, American tribal chief (d. 1866) 1797 – Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1870) 1800 – George Bancroft, American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1891) 1804 – Townsend Harris, American merchant, politician, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 1878) 1804 – Allan Kardec, French author, translator, educator and founder of modern Spiritism (d. 1869) 1828 – Woldemar Bargiel, German composer and educator (d. 1897) 1837 – Nicolás Avellaneda, Argentinian journalist and politician, 8th President of Argentina (d. 1885) 1846 – James Jackson Putnam, American neurologist and academic (d. 1918) 1848 – Henry Lerolle, French painter and art collector (d. 1929) 1858 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (d. 1924) 1862 – Johnny Briggs, English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1902) 1863 – Pyotr Kozlov, Russian archaeologist and explorer (d. 1935) 1865 – Gustave Loiseau, French painter (d. 1935) 1866 – Josephine Sabel, American singer and comedian (d. 1945) 1867 – Pierre Bonnard, French painter (d. 1947) 1869 – Alfred Flatow, German gymnast (d. 1942) 1875 – Dr. Atl, Mexican painter (d. 1964) 1879 – Warner Oland, Swedish-American actor and singer (d. 1938) 1882 – A. Y. Jackson, Canadian painter and academic (d. 1974) 1885 – Sophie Treadwell, American playwright and journalist (d. 1970) 1886 – Alain-Fournier, French soldier, author, and critic (d. 1914) 1888 – Wade Boteler, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1943) 1889 – Carl von Ossietzky, German journalist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1938) 1890 – Emilio Portes Gil, Mexican politician, President of Mexico (d. 1978) 1894 – Elmer Robinson, American lawyer and politician, 33rd Mayor of San Francisco (d. 1982) 1894 – Walter Warlimont, German general (d. 1976) 1895 – Giovanni Comisso, Italian author and poet (d. 1969) 1895 – Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet (d. 1925) 1896 – Auvergne Doherty, Australian businesswoman (d. 1961) 1896 – Gerardo Diego, Spanish poet and critic (d. 1987) 1897 – Louis Aragon, French author and poet (d. 1982) 1898 – Leo McCarey, American director and screenwriter (d. 1969) 1898 – Adolf Reichwein, German economist and educator (d. 1944) 1899 – Gertrude Berg, American actress, screenwriter and producer (d. 1966) 1900 – Thomas Wolfe, American novelist (d. 1938) 1901–present 1901 – Jean Grémillon, French director, composer, and screenwriter (d. 1959) 1904 – Ernst-Günther Schenck, German colonel and physician (d. 1998) 1905 – Tekin Arıburun, Turkish soldier and politician, President of Turkey (d. 1993) 1906 – Natalie Savage Carlson, American author (d. 1997) 1908 – Johnny Burke, American songwriter (d. 1964) 1911 – Michael Hordern, English actor (d. 1995) 1912 – Charles Wood, 2nd Earl of Halifax, British peer, Conservative politician (d. 1980) 1915 – Ray Stark, American film producer (d. 2004) 1916 – James Herriot, English veterinarian and author (d. 1995) 1919 – James M. Buchanan, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1921 – Ray Lindwall, Australian cricketer and soldier (d. 1996) 1923 – Edward Oliver LeBlanc, Dominican lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Dominica (d. 2004) 1924 – Harvey Kurtzman, American cartoonist (d. 1993) 1924 – Arkady Vorobyov, Russian weightlifter and coach (d. 2012) 1925 – Simone Segouin (also known as Nicole Minet), French Resistance fighter and partisan 1925 – Gore Vidal, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2012) 1925 – George Wein, American pianist and producer, co-founded the Newport Folk Festival (d. 2021) 1928 – Erik Bruhn, Danish dancer and choreographer (d. 1986) 1928 – Edward L. Moyers, American businessman (d. 2006) 1928 – Shridath Ramphal, Guyanese academic and politician, 2nd Commonwealth Secretary-General 1931 – Glenn Hall, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1932 – Terence English, South African-English surgeon and academic 1933 – Neale Fraser, Australian tennis player 1934 – Benjamin Boretz, American composer and theorist 1934 – Miguel-Ángel Cárdenas, Colombian-Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 2015) 1934 – Harold Henning, South African golfer (d. 2004) 1934 – Simon Nicholson, English sculptor and painter (d. 1990) 1935 – Charles Duke, American general, pilot, and astronaut 1935 – Armen Dzhigarkhanyan, Soviet Russian-Armenian actor (d. 2020) 1936 – Steve Reich, American composer 1938 – Eddie Cochran, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1960) 1938 – David Hart Dyke, English captain 1938 – Jack Hodgins, Canadian author and academic 1938 – Dave Obey, American lawyer and politician 1939 – Bob Armstrong, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2020) 1940 – Alan O'Day, American singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1940 – Jean Ratelle, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1940 – Mike Troy, American swimmer (d. 2019) 1941 – Chubby Checker, American singer-songwriter 1941 – Andrea de Adamich, Italian race car driver and sportscaster 1941 – John Elliott, Australian businessman (d. 2021) 1943 – Jeff Bingaman, American soldier and politician, 25th Attorney General of New Mexico 1943 – Baki İlkin, Turkish civil servant and diplomat 1944 – Pierre Deligne, Belgian mathematician and academic 1945 – Tony Brown, English footballer and sportscaster 1945 – Christopher Bruce, English dancer and choreographer 1945 – Jo Ritzen, Dutch economist and politician, Dutch Minister of Education 1946 – P. P. Arnold, American soul singer 1947 – John Perry Barlow, American poet, songwriter, blogger, and activist (d. 2018) 1947 – Ben Cauley, American trumpet player and songwriter (d. 2015) 1947 – Fred DeLuca, American businessman (d. 2015) 1947 – Anne Dorte of Rosenborg (d. 2014) 1947 – Takis Michalos, Greek water polo player and coach (d. 2010) 1949 – Lindsey Buckingham, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1949 – J. P. Dutta, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter 1949 – Aleksandr Rogozhkin, Russian director and screenwriter 1949 – Laurie Simmons, American photographer and director 1950 – Ronnie Laws, American jazz, R&B, and funk saxophone player 1951 – Keb' Mo', American blues musician and songwriter 1951 – Kathryn D. Sullivan, American geologist and astronaut 1951 – Dave Winfield, American baseball player and sportscaster 1952 – Bruce Arians, American football coach 1952 – Gary Troup, New Zealand cricketer 1954 – Eddie DeGarmo, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1954 – Dennis Eckersley, American baseball player and sportscaster 1954 – Al Sharpton, American minister, talk show host, and political activist 1954 – Stevie Ray Vaughan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1990) 1955 – Moshe Kam, American engineering educator 1955 – John S. Lesmeister, American educator and politician, 30th North Dakota State Treasurer (d. 2006) 1955 – Allen Woody, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2000) 1955 – Buket Uzuner, Turkish author 1956 – Hart Bochner, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – Roberto Azevêdo, Brazilian engineer and diplomat, 6th Director-General of the World Trade Organization 1957 – Tim Westwood, English radio and television host 1958 – Chen Yanyin, Chinese sculptor 1958 – Louise Lecavalier, Canadian dancer and choreographer 1959 – Craig Bellamy, Australian rugby league player and coach 1959 – Fred Couples, American golfer 1959 – Greg Proops, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1959 – Jack Wagner, American actor and singer 1961 – Rebecca Stephens, English journalist and mountaineer 1961 – Ludger Stühlmeyer, German cantor, composer, and musicologist 1962 – Tommy Lee, Greek-American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1962 – Simon Scarrow, Nigerian-English novelist 1963 – Benny Anders, American basketball player 1963 – Dan Goldie, American tennis player 1964 – Clive Owen, English actor 1965 – Annemarie Verstappen, Dutch swimmer 1965 – Jan-Ove Waldner, Swedish table tennis player 1966 – Darrin Fletcher, American baseball player and sportscaster 1967 – Rob Liefeld, American author and illustrator 1967 – Chris Collingwood, English-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Paul Crichton, English footballer and manager 1968 – Greg Foster, American basketball player and coach 1968 – Marko Rajamäki, Finnish footballer and manager 1968 – Donald Sild, Estonian javelin thrower 1969 – Garry Herbert, English rower and sportscaster 1969 – Gwen Stefani, American singer-songwriter, actress, and fashion designer 1969 – Tetsuya, Japanese singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer 1970 – Elmar Liitmaa, Estonian guitarist and songwriter 1970 – Jimmy Ray, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Wil Cordero, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach 1971 – Kevin Richardson, American singer-songwriter and actor 1972 – Komla Dumor, Ghanaian-English journalist (d. 2014) 1972 – G. Love, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and harmonica player 1972 – Guy Oseary, Israeli–American talent manager and businessman 1973 – Neve Campbell, Canadian actress and producer 1973 – Angélica Gavaldón, American-Mexican tennis player and coach 1973 – Lena Headey, British actress 1973 – Eirik Hegdal, Norwegian saxophonist and composer 1974 – Mike Johnson, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Marianne Timmer, Dutch speed skater 1975 – India Arie, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1975 – Phil Greening, English rugby player and coach 1975 – Satoko Ishimine, Japanese singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1976 – Herman Li, Hong Kong-English guitarist and producer 1976 – Seann William Scott, American actor and producer 1977 – Daniel Hollie, American wrestler 1977 – Eric Munson, American baseball player and coach 1977 – Luca Tognozzi, Italian footballer 1978 – Gerald Asamoah, Ghanaian-German footballer 1978 – Neil Clement, English footballer 1978 – Claudio Pizarro, Peruvian footballer 1978 – Jake Shears, American singer-songwriter 1979 – Josh Klinghoffer, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1979 – John Morrison, American wrestler and actor 1980 – Anquan Boldin, American football player 1980 – Sheldon Brookbank, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Lindsey Kelk, English journalist and author 1980 – Danny O'Donoghue, Irish singer-songwriter and producer 1980 – Héctor Reynoso, Mexican footballer 1980 – Ivan Turina, Croatian footballer (d. 2013) 1981 – Danny Coid, English footballer 1981 – Zlatan Ibrahimović, Swedish footballer 1981 – Andreas Isaksson, Swedish footballer 1981 – Jonna Lee, Swedish singer and musician 1981 – Ronald Rauhe, German kayaker 1981 – Matt Sparrow, English footballer 1983 – Fred, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Thiago Alves, Brazilian mixed martial artist 1983 – Andreas Papathanasiou, Cypriot footballer 1983 – Tessa Thompson, American actress 1984 – Yoon Eun-hye, South Korean singer and actress 1984 – Bruno Gervais, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Jessica Parker Kennedy, Canadian actress 1984 – Anthony Le Tallec, French footballer 1984 – Ashlee Simpson, American singer-songwriter and actress 1985 – Courtney Lee, American basketball player 1986 – Lewis Brown, New Zealand rugby league player 1986 – Jackson Martínez, Colombian footballer 1987 – Robert Grabarz, English high jumper 1987 – Martin Plowman, English race car driver 1987 – Starley, Australian pop singer 1988 – Alicia Vikander, Swedish actress 1988 – Dustin Gazley, American ice hockey player 1988 – ASAP Rocky, American rapper and songwriter 1989 – Nate Montana, American football player 1989 – Alex Trimble, Irish singer 1990 – Johan Le Bon, French cyclist 1991 – Jenny McLoughlin, English sprinter 1991 – Aki Takajo, Japanese singer 1993 – Raffaele Di Gennaro, Italian footballer 1994 – Victoria Bosio, Argentinian tennis player 1995 – Lil Tracy, American rapper 1997 – Jin Boyang, Chinese figure skater 2004 – Noah Schnapp, American actor Deaths Pre-1600 42 BC – Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman politician (b. 85 BC) 723 – Elias I of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch. 818 – Ermengarde, queen of the Franks 900 – Muhammad ibn Zayd, Tabaristan emir 959 – Gérard of Brogne, Frankish abbot 1078 – Iziaslav I of Kiev (b. 1024) 1226 – Francis of Assisi, Italian friar and saint (b. 1181 or 1182) 1283 – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince (b. 1238) 1369 – Margaret, Countess of Tyrol (b. 1318) 1399 – Eleanor de Bohun, English noble (b. 1360) 1568 – Elisabeth of Valois (b. 1545) 1596 – Florent Chrestien, French poet (b. 1541) 1601–1900 1611 – Charles, Duke of Mayenne (b. 1554) 1629 – Giorgi Saakadze, Georgian commander and politician (b. 1570) 1649 – Giovanni Diodati, Swiss-Italian clergyman and theologian (b. 1576) 1653 – Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, Dutch linguist and academic (b. 1612) 1656 – Myles Standish, English captain (b. 1584) 1690 – Robert Barclay, Scottish theologian and politician, 2nd Governor of East Jersey (b. 1648) 1701 – Joseph Williamson, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1633) 1795 – Tula, Curaçao slave leader (date of birth unknown; executed) 1801 – Philippe Henri, marquis de Ségur, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (b. 1724) 1833 – François, marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat, French general and engineer (b. 1754) 1838 – Black Hawk, American tribal leader (b. 1767) 1860 – Rembrandt Peale, American painter and curator (b. 1778) 1867 – Elias Howe, American engineer, invented the sewing machine (b. 1819) 1873 – Kintpuash, American tribal leader (b. 1837) 1877 – James Roosevelt Bayley, American archbishop (b. 1814) 1877 – Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, Mexican general and president (1855) (b. 1800) 1881 – Orson Pratt, American mathematician and religious leader (b. 1811) 1890 – Joseph Hergenröther, German historian and cardinal (b. 1824) 1891 – Édouard Lucas, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1842) 1896 – William Morris, English author and poet (b. 1834) 1901–present 1907 – Jacob Nash Victor, American engineer (b. 1835) 1910 – Lucy Hobbs Taylor, American dentist (b. 1833) 1911 – Rosetta Jane Birks, Australian suffragist (b. 1856) 1917 – Eduardo Di Capua, Neapolitan composer, singer and songwriter (b. 1865) 1929 – Jeanne Eagels, American actress (b. 1894) 1929 – Gustav Stresemann, German politician, Chancellor of Germany, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1878) 1931 – Carl Nielsen, Danish violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1865) 1936 – John Heisman, American football player and coach (b. 1869) 1953 – Arnold Bax, English composer and poet (b. 1883) 1959 – Tochigiyama Moriya, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 27th Yokozuna (b. 1892) 1963 – Refet Bele, Turkish general (b. 1877) 1965 – Zachary Scott, American actor (b. 1914) 1966 – Rolf Maximilian Sievert, Swedish physicist and academic (b. 1896) 1967 – Woody Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1912) 1967 – Malcolm Sargent, English organist, composer, and conductor (b. 1895) 1969 – Skip James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1902) 1979 – Nicos Poulantzas, Greek-French sociologist and philosopher (b. 1936) 1980 – Friedrich Karm, Estonian footballer (b. 1907) 1981 – Anna Hedvig Büll, Estonian-German missionary (b. 1887) 1986 – Vince DiMaggio, American baseball player and manager (b. 1912) 1987 – Jean Anouilh, French playwright and screenwriter (b. 1910) 1987 – Kalervo Palsa, Finnish painter (b. 1947) 1988 – Franz Josef Strauss, Bavarian lieutenant and politician, Minister President of Bavaria (b. 1915) 1990 – Stefano Casiraghi, Italian-Monegasque businessman (b. 1960) 1990 – Eleanor Steber, American soprano and educator (b. 1914) 1993 – Katerina Gogou, Greek actress, poet, and author (b. 1940) 1993 – Gary Gordon, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1960) 1993 – Randy Shughart, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1958) 1994 – John C. Champion, American producer and screenwriter (b. 1923) 1994 – Dub Taylor, American actor (b. 1907) 1995 – Ma. Po. Si., Indian author and politician (b. 1906) 1997 – Michael Adekunle Ajasin, Nigerian politician, 3rd Governor of Ondo State (b. 1908) 1998 – Roddy McDowall, English-American actor (b. 1928) 1999 – Akio Morita, Japanese businessman, co-founded Sony (b. 1921) 2000 – Benjamin Orr, American singer-songwriter and bass player (b. 1947) 2001 – Costas Hajihristos, Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921) 2002 – Bruce Paltrow, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1943) 2003 – Florence Stanley, American actress (b. 1924) 2003 – William Steig, American sculptor, author, and illustrator (b. 1907) 2004 – John Cerutti, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1960) 2004 – Janet Leigh, American actress (b. 1927) 2005 – Ronnie Barker, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1929) 2005 – Nurettin Ersin, Turkish general (b. 1918) 2006 – Lucilla Andrews, Egyptian-Scottish nurse and author (b. 1919) 2006 – John Crank, English mathematician and physicist (b. 1916) 2006 – Peter Norman, Australian runner (b. 1942) 2006 – Alberto Ramento, Filipino bishop (b. 1937) 2007 – M. N. Vijayan, Indian journalist, author, and academic (b. 1930) 2009 – Vladimir Beekman, Estonian poet and translator (b. 1929) 2010 – Ben Mondor, Canadian-American businessman (b. 1925) 2010 – Abraham Sarmiento, Filipino lawyer and jurist (b. 1921) 2012 – Abdul Haq Ansari, Indian theologian and scholar (b. 1931) 2012 – Robert F. Christy, American physicist and astrophysicist (b. 1916) 2012 – Albie Roles, English footballer (b. 1921) 2013 – Sari Abacha, Nigerian footballer (b. 1978) 2013 – Sergei Belov, Russian basketball player and coach (b. 1944) 2013 – Joan Thirsk, English cryptologist, historian, and academic (b. 1922) 2014 – Ewen Gilmour, New Zealand comedian and television host (b. 1963) 2014 – Benedict Groeschel, American priest, psychologist, and talk show host (b. 1933) 2014 – Jean-Jacques Marcel, French footballer (b. 1931) 2014 – Kevin Metheny, American businessman (b. 1954) 2014 – Ward Ruyslinck, Belgian author (b. 1929) 2015 – Denis Healey, English soldier and politician, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1917) 2015 – Muhammad Nawaz Khan, Pakistani historian and author (b. 1943) 2015 – Javed Iqbal, Pakistani philosopher and judge (b. 1925) 2021 – Todd Akin, American politician (b. 1947) 2021 – Dan Petrescu, Romanian businessman and billionaire (b. 1953) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Abd-al-Masih Adalgott Blessed Szilárd Bogdánffy Dionysius the Areopagite Ewald the Black and Ewald the Fair Francis Borgia George Bell and John Raleigh Mott (Episcopal Church) Gerard of Brogne Hesychius of Sinai Théodore Guérin Maximian of Bagai October 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) 3 October Festival (Leiden, Netherlands) German Unity Day (Germany) Mean Girls Day Morazán Day (Honduras) National Day, celebrates the independence of Iraq from the United Kingdom in 1932. National Foundation Day or Gaecheonjeol (South Korea) References External links Days of the year October	6,741
doc-en-8556_0	The characters from The Mistmantle Chronicles series. Main character Urchin Urchin is a young, honey-colored red squirrel that is orphaned from birth and is not from the island of Mistmantle. His parents were Candle from Whitewings and Almond, originally from Ashfire, but then moved to Whitewings. Urchin looks up to Crispin and becomes his page but after Crispin is sent into exile, he becomes Padra's page, then to Companion to the King after bringing back Crispin from exile and finally a member of The Circle(a superior body of animals, who act as the King's advisors) in book three. In Urchin & the Raven War, Urchin has grown up and is a figure of respect in the circle, when the ravens attack he is sent to defend Curlingshell bay but the ravens manage to take it over anyway and Urchin is captured. But, he is rescued and helps to free Crispin, Cedar, Padra and Catkin who were also captured. He is badly injured at the end of the book and falls into a coma but is woken when given some of Apple's cordial and soon recovers. Corr the Voyager becomes his page. In Urchin & the Rage Tide Urchin becomes a captain and proposes to Sepia at the end of the book. Other characters Fir In his younger days Fir was in the guard, but he was a keen scholar and a deep thinker with a great love for the Heart and a gentle spirit. He soon realized his calling as a priest and has been the priest of Mistmantle for many years now. He limps, due to an old injury, and he has remarkable eyes, deep and joyful. Sometimes people ask for his blessing so they stay safe. He is a happy old priest and lives in his simply furnished turret at the highest point of the Mistmantle tower. He dies in his sleep of old age in book four. The old squirrel has a limp, and his favorite catchphrase is "Hm." (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Crispin Crispin is an excellent sword-squirrel, but rarely uses one except for practical purposes like cutting through ivy in the woods. Crispin rose quickly from a young tower squirrel to a member of the Circle, then to a Captain as his qualities of integrity, kindness, courage and resourcefulness were recognized and encouraged. He became king after defeating Husk in Book 1. He returned from exile with both sorrow and glee; sorrow because his lovely wife Whisper was killed by Gloss the mole. He has become the King of Mistmantle and his queen is Cedar, from Whitewings. He leads an army to Swan Isle and is badly injured in the fight. The old wound sustained at Swan Isle badly injures him, leaving his heart damaged. In Book 5, he sacrifices himself to let Sepia, who is trapped beyond the mists, come home to Mistmantle. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Whisper The squirrel that Crispin met on Swan Isle. She was the only one who was nice to Crispin and befriended him. Later on, she married Crispin. But then, she was slayed by a mole named Gloss. She died in book one. Urchin realizes in book two who Cedar had reminded him of: Whisper. She was quite unlike the chatty, rude squirrels on her island. Crispin gave her his Captain's circlet as a sign of their marriage. Arran Arran is an extremely sensible otter, one who sees what needs doing and does it with great efficiency. She reacts to a crisis with commonsense rather than emotion - but she cries when Crispin is exiled, and repeatedly risks her own safety to protect the young. She doesn't like to let Padra know how much she cares about him, because she's not altogether sure of his feelings for her. Whenever anyone says she should ask him to marry her, she just says 'He'd only laugh.' She later marries Padra and becomes a Captain of Mistmantle. She is the mother of Tide and Swanfeather. She is described as being a lighter color, like Urchin, with spiky, tufty fur on the top of her head. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Padra An otter captain. Padra is Crispin's best friend, and they share the same outlook of life. Padra's presence is reassuring, and if his responsibilities are sometimes heavy, he doesn't let it show. He dislikes injustice, especially towards the young, and can't stay away from the water for long. Padra has a long-term lover, Arran, but hasn't asked her to marry him because he's not convinced that she'll have him. When ever any one says he should ask her, he just says 'She'd only hit me.' When he does finally ask her she hits him and he laughs, but they do get married and have three children, Tide, Swanfeather, and Fionn. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Hope His real name is Hoppen, and he's much loved by the animals in charge of the Old Palace nursery. Because he's short-sighted, he's brought up in secret. He has very good manners, adores his mother Thripple, and is a brave little soul determined to get places, even if he bumps into everything in his way. He found the Heartstone in book two. In book one, He is the reason for Husk's death, as Husk was running to the dark prison that had been blessed by Brother Fir, and Hope and Urchin were in the tunnels leading towards it. Hope tried to eat crushed berries, making a blood-like stain on his chest, plus for his short-sightedness, he was wandering around like he was searching for Husk, terrifyingly like Prince Tumble, making Husk flee and fall to his death. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Needle Needle works at the tower, especially on the Threadings - the woven, stitched and painted pictures showing the history of Mistmantle. Needle is a young hedgehog and is fiercely loyal to her friends and family. She is a close friend of Urchin's. Later in book one she is promoted to "Companion to the King" and afterwards, in book three, she is promoted to the Circle. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Lugg Lugg is an old soldier, graying at the muzzle, who later becomes a Captain of Mistmantle. Like most moles he says little, and what he does say is brief and down-to-earth. He is a good judge of character and a no-nonsense, dependable animal with a dry sense of humor. He dies in book three while attempting to rescue Princess Catkin. He has a wife, Cott, and three daughters, Wing, the mother of Tip and Todd, Wren, who is married, and Moth, a member of the circle and now married to Twigg. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle) Tay Tay took an interest in the history of Mistmantle from a very early age, and then turned to a study of the law. She became expert in every aspect of the law and traditions of the island, and felt very strongly that they must always be upheld, however inconvenient. Dignity is important to her, and it is said that nobody has ever seen her laugh. She is very disapproving of silliness and play for an otter. She was held captive in book one after discovering the secret nursery. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Fingal Captain Padra sent his younger brother Fingal to live on a different part of the island, preferring to keep him as far away from Husk as possible. We don't meet him until the ending of the first book, but he comes in a lot more in the next two. He is extremely carefree and talkative, and Urchin quickly realizes why Padra sent him away while Husk was in power. Throughout the second and third book, especially the third book, he matures noticeably, but is still the fun-loving and courageous otter that threw rocks at Husk's army in the first book. He is known for ridding the island of the cause of foul-drought and for his love of his own boat. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Crackle Crackle is a tower squirrel who works at the kitchen. She is determined and tries to do everything herself. She wants to be recognized and praised. She has good-intentions but sometimes is misled. In the first book Crackle was Gleaner's best friend but Gleaner decided that she was too good for Crackle and Crackle desperately tries to become Urchin and Needle's friend. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Gleaner Gleaner was once the squirrel maid in charge of Lady Aspen. Gleaner adores Lady Aspen and refuses to believe she had anything to do with Husk's tyranny. Gleaner cares about Aspen in the afterlife and is always seen bringing things to her grave. She gets very angry with those who talk badly about Aspen and easily jumps to conclusions. She is badly injured by the Silver Prince in book four. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Apple Apple is the foster-mother of Urchin. Apple has a good heart and loves Urchin like a real son. At times she can get overexcited and she loves to chat. She always makes an impression wearing strange hats and making bitter cordial. She marries Filbert in book four. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Sepia Sepia has the most beautiful singing voice on the island. She is in charge of the island choir and is always heard singing on special occasions. She is loving and kind and tries to comfort everyone in need. Sepia also has her "singing cave". She goes there to listen to the sound of her voice. She rescues Catkin in book three and is like an aunt to Catkin. In book four, there is evidence of a budding romance between Sepia and Urchin. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Thripple Thripple is Hope's mum. She cares about everything and worries about everyone. Thripple looks strange but her kind eyes conceal her strange appearance. She is very protective of her children. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Mother Huggen Mother Huggen is a gentle, sweet and kind hedgehog. She cares about everyone and is kind to everyone she meets. She especially takes care and worries about the young ones. She was in charge of the secret nursery in book one, and was promoted to the Circle. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Moth A maid at the Mistmantle Tower. She is understanding and comforts those in need. She is in charge of the queen and is sometimes seen helping Mother Huggen. She is the daughter of Lugg and marries the carpenter Twigg. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Lord Marshall Granite Granite was originally a captain on Mistmantle and in charge of the armory. Then after the followers of Lord Husk were exiled he went to Whitewings and became Lord Marshall Granite. He liked it on Whitewings because he had his way and he could kill any animal for no big reason. He died in an earthquake on Whitewings after the Fortress collapsed. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone) Cedar Cedar is a red squirrel from the island of Whitewings and is an accomplished healer. She is the color of firelight. She was a friend of Urchin's parents and explains his origins to him. Cedar is instrumental in an undercover rescue of Urchin, and accompanies him back to Mistmantle. On Mistmantle she marries Crispin, making her the queen of Mistmantle. She is kind and gentle and mother of Catkin, Oakleaf, and Almondflower. In book two, it is revealed that she was originally, with Almond, from Ashfire, a volcanic island. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Scufflen Scufflen is Needle's baby brother. He was going to be culled due to his curled paw but was rescued by Urchin, Lugg, and Captain Padra. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Juniper Juniper is a novice-priest in training under Brother Fir. He is fostered by Damson and cares very much about her. He is a close friend of Urchin's, but struggles with jealousy of Urchin. He becomes The priest in book four after Fir dies. His real father was Husk. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War, Urchin and the Rage Tide) Damson Damson is the foster-mother of Juniper. She found Juniper in the water one night. She was almost drowned but she saved Juniper just in time. She is well-meaning and independent and hates to get in Juniper's way. She is very proud of Juniper. She dies after being affected by foul-drought. She was a close friend of Apple. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle) Docken Docken is Thripple's husband and Hope's father. He is very serious about the things he has to do and very loyal to Crispin and Cedar. He, like Thripple, is very protective of his young. He is a Captain in book four but thinks it's only temporary until they find someone better. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Whittle Whittle is studying Mistmantle's history and traditions under Tay. Whittle is very serious about his duties. He is very hard-working and tries to do the best he can at everything. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Scatter Scatter is another squirrel from the island of Whitewings and is always trying to be helpful. Scatter always wants to feel important. She is a bit childish and loves playing. When Scatter stays on Mistmantle for a while she realizes she doesn't want to go back to Whitewings and asks Crispin if she can stay. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Tide Tide is the son of Arran and Padra. He is more sensible than Swanfeather and is more quiet and thoughtful and takes more from Arran and her personality. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Swanfeather Swanfeather is the daughter of Arran and Padra. She is more childish of the two otter siblings and has adapted many bad habits from their uncle Fingal. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Tipp and Todd Twin mole brothers who love to play and joke around. They are the grandsons of Captain Lugg. They have a hard time taking anything seriously and love action and adventure. Twigg is always happy to make them new toys out of wood. (Urchin and the Heartstone, The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Arcneck Lord Arcneck is the lord of Swan Isle. He was very temperamental towards Crispin and called him a 'Tree Rat'. He and Lady Arcneck carried Urchin and Crispin home to Mistmantle. In book four, he seeks help from Mistmantle in his War against the ravens. He is the father of Prince Crown. (Urchin of the Riding Stars, Urchin and the Raven War) Larch Larch is from Whitewings. Larch is the rightful Queen of Whitewings but had to go into hiding after King Silverbirch took power. She is restored to power when Silverbirch is defeated. In book four, she comes to the aid of Mistmantle against the ravens. (Urchin and the Heartstone, Urchin and the Raven War) Quill A young hedgehog who hangs around Hobb and Yarrow. He listens to them talk about Crispen and Cedar but has different opinions than them, though he is afraid to speak as they are older than he is. (The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) Catkin The Heir of Mistmantle and daughter of Crispin and Cedar. She was kidnapped by Linty leaving others to believe there is a curse on the Heir of Mistmantle. In book four, she is captured by ravens and nearly drowns. She is described as strong-willed and bossy, but she desperately desires to be a good princess. (The Heir of Mistmantle, Urchin and the Raven War) From 'Urchin of the Riding Stars' Husk As a young squirrel, Husk had many great qualities - he was strong, brave, resourceful and clever. But he was too much aware of all this, and too ready to consider himself superior to other animals. He wanted to impress, and learned to conceal anything in himself which would meet with disapproval. He tried to take over Mistmantle by killing Prince Tumble, and seeing to Queen Spindle's death as well (through Aspen and Gleaner; Gleaner thought she was giving the Queen medicine, but it was poison) and framing Crispin for Prince Tumble's murder. Later, he falls off a sort of cliff in the dark ancient dungeon and dies. Some animals think they see him in book three, but it is only Juniper. When he was younger, he reasoned that his weak brother was a drain on society, and murdered him by pushing him off of a cliff. He was responsible for the death of Juniper's real mother and attempted to kill Juniper (his son) in order to avoid political complications. He married Aspen. Aspen Aspen was the eldest of three sisters - the younger ones both married 'off the island', leaving Mistmantle for ever. She realized early in life that she had beauty, intelligence, and charm, and was determined to use these to the greatest advantage. She marries Lord Husk. She fell out of a window with the king and died. Gleaner was her personal maid and is still convinced that Aspen was good and sweet. Aspen most probably poisoned the Queen, as she refuses to talk to Husk about it, and the "special medicine" that was only for the Queen was given to her by Gleaner after she fell. Gleaner said "She didn't want it, her being all honorable, but I gave it to her and it didn't help!" Gloss Gloss is a mole from Mistmantle. He is one of Husk and Aspen's supporters; he is killed by Lord Arcneck in the first book after murdering Whisper (thinking Whisper was Crispin because she wore his circlet) and attacking Crispin. King Brushen The hedgehog King of Mistmantle, was under heavy influence from Husk. He died when he fell out a window with Aspen. Queen Spindle The hedgehog queen of Mistmantle. She died from grief when her son was murdered. Prince Tumble The prince of Mistmantle. Husk stabbed him in the night and killed him. He continued to haunt his dreams, until Husk died, convinced that Prince Tumble (who was really Hope) was looking for him. From 'Urchin and the Heartstone' King Silverbirch King Silverbirch is a tall, thin, long-clawed hedgehog who is the communist-like ruler of the isle of Whitewings. He was regent of Whitewings while his niece, Larch, was still young. He then took over. He is crazed about silver. Smokewreath Smokewreath is Silverbirch's sorcerer. He is a red squirrel. He is one of the main reasons that Silverbirch is in control of Whitewings. He uses the bodies of animals to create magic to find silver for King Silverbirch. He often senses beings of similar power and says that he needs them for his magic in order to kill them. Lord Treeth Lord Treeth goes to Mistmantle to try and convince Urchin to go to Whitewings but later gets caught and becomes a prisoner on Mistmantle. Bronze Bronze is a young hedgehog captain of sorts. He was on the ship that captured Urchin and took him to Whitewings. Like many hedgehogs he believes that hedgehogs are better than otters, moles, and squirrels. He was murdered by the spy Creeper. Creeper Creeper is a very small, dark-furred hedgehog. He came to Mistmantle with Lord Treeth in a sea chest, then snuck back to Whitewings and warned the King that moles were going to attack. He is a very silent spy that can creep up upon anybody. Flame Flame used to be the priest of Whitewings before King Silverbirch ruled. He was trained by Brother Candle. Flame went into hiding with Larch. From 'The Heir of Mistmantle' Hobb Hobb is a rude and an untrusting mole. He doesn't believe in the newly appointed royal family of Crispin and Cedar. He has his own ideas on how Mistmantle should be run and acts upon this persistently. Yarrow Yarrow is a squirrel. He is a friend of Hobb and the uncle of Gleaner. He shares the same ideas as Hobb does and greatly dislikes the queen. Hammily Hammily is Yarrow's wife. She is greatly concerned about Yarrow even when she doesn't understand his actions. She is very-down to earth and polite. Linty A psychologically damaged squirrel. She had 2 children and both were sent away to be culled. This causes her to be very cautious and kidnap Catkin believing she is in danger of Husk. She later deludes herself into thinking that Catkin is one of her former children, Daisy, and attempts to leave Mistmantle with her, fearing that "Daisy" will die if she is returned to her family. From 'Urchin and the Raven War' Myrtle A young apprentice hedgehog working on the Threadings. Sews prophetic pictures into the Threadings without knowing she's doing it. Oakleaf The prince, Crispin and Cedar's second child. Very like Crispin. Almondflower Catkin and Oakleaf's little sister. Crown Lord and Lady Arcneck's son, the swan prince. Pitter A young female squirrel from Swan Isle. Brought Mendingmoss to Mistmantle. She protects the 'princess's grave' fiercely, which is really Whisper's grave that Crispin made. Corr A young otter, the Voyager. Urchin's first page. Lives in a large family. Filbert A squirrel. Likes Apple's cordial; he says it's how his mother used to make cordial. Marries Apple in book 4. Grith Gloss's brother. He betrays Urchin and Catkin to the ravens, trying to avenge his brother's death, but is killed by ravens. Archraven The king raven who leads the other ravens in their attack on Swan Isle. He is killed by Crispin in battle on Swan Isle, but badly injures Crispin. Silver Prince Archraven's son. He is the ravens' justification for attack on Swan Isle. He has gray feathers that only look silver in the sunlight, hence his name. He is very cocky, yet foolish. Taloness Archraven's sister. She leads the attack on Mistmantle to avenge her brother whom Crispin killed. She is killed by her nephew, the Silver Prince, who leads a revolt against her. References Urchin of the Riding Stars, by M.I. McAllister Urchin and the Heartstone, by M.I. McAllister The Heir of Mistmantle, by M.I. McAllister Urchin and the Raven War, by M.I. McAllister Mismantle Chronicles	5,862
doc-en-10971_0	Kathleen Mary Griffin (born November 4, 1960) is an American comedian and actress who has starred in television comedy specials and has released comedy albums. In 2007 and 2008, Griffin won Primetime Emmy Awards for her reality show Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List. She has also appeared in supporting roles in films. Griffin was born in Oak Park, Illinois. In 1978, she moved to Los Angeles, where she studied drama at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute and became a member of the improvisational comedy troupe The Groundlings. In the 1990s, Griffin began performing as a stand-up comedian and appeared as a guest star on television shows, including the NBC sitcom Suddenly Susan (1996–2000). The Bravo reality show Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List (2005–2010) became a ratings hit for the network and earned her two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Reality Program. Griffin has released six comedy albums, all of which received Grammy Award nominations. Her first album For Your Consideration (2008) made her the first female comedian to debut at the top of the Billboard Top Comedy Albums chart. In 2009, she released her autobiography Official Book Club Selection: A Memoir According to Kathy Griffin. After being nominated for six years in a row for the Grammy for Best Comedy Album, she won the award in 2014. Griffin has recorded numerous standup comedy specials for HBO and Bravo. For the latter network, she has recorded sixteen television specials, breaking the Guinness World record for the number of aired television specials on any network. In 2011, she also became the first comedian to have four specials televised in a year. Griffin is an LGBTQ activist who supports same-sex marriage and the repeal of "Don't ask, don't tell". She has participated in two United Service Organizations (USO) tours. Griffin is known for her conversational style and statements about celebrities, religion and sexuality, including holding a mask stylized as Donald Trump's severed head in 2017, which provoked a United States Secret Service investigation and later became the basis of her concert film A Hell of a Story (2019). Early life Kathleen Mary Griffin was born on November 4, 1960, in the Chicago suburb Oak Park, Illinois, to Mary Margaret "Maggie" Griffin ( Corbally, 1920 – 2020) and John Patrick Griffin, both of whom were first-generation Irish-Americans. Kathy Griffin has four older siblings; Kenny, Joyce (died 2017), Gary (died 2014), and John. Griffin described herself during her early years as "a kid who needed to talk, all the time". Her brother Gary and her sister Joyce both died from cancer. She would often visit her neighbors to tell them stories about her family; she has referred to those visits as her first live shows where she learned "the power of juicy material". After most of her siblings had moved, Griffin developed a binge eating disorder. In her 2009 autobiography Official Book Club Selection, Griffin said she "still suffers [from food issues]" but has learned to "deal with them". Griffin's eldest brother Kenny was a drug addict and homeless at various times; she said she was "afraid of him until the moment he died" because of his violent, abusive nature. When Kathy was seven, Kenny—who was thirty—would climb into her bed and whisper into her ears; Kathy did not tell her parents until she was in her twenties, at which point he admitted his pedophilia to them. At elementary school, Griffin began to develop a dislike for organized religion because of the punishments she and other "vulnerable" students received from the nuns. At her high school, she sought refuge in musical theater, playing roles such as Rosemary in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying and Hodel in Fiddler on the Roof. During her senior year, she wanted to become a professional actor. Her first appearance on television was as an extra on a Chicago White Sox commercial, and she was signed with several Chicago talent agencies. At 18, Griffin persuaded her parents to move to Los Angeles to help her become famous. At 19, Griffin attended a performance by the improvisational group The Groundlings. She said, "I thought this is where I want to be. This is the greatest thing in the world." Career Stand-up comedy, television and film Griffin began performing in the early 1980s in the Los Angeles improvisational comedy troupe The Groundlings. She went on to perform standup comedy and became part of the alternative comedy scene in Los Angeles. With Janeane Garofalo, she created a standup act called "Hot Cup of Talk", which became the title of her 1998 solo HBO special. Griffin earned a number of television and film credits during the 1990s. She appeared in Julie Brown's Medusa: Dare to Be Truthful, a Showtime parody of the 1991 Madonna film Truth or Dare. Griffin twice appeared as Susan Klein, a reporter on NBC's The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air; it was her television sitcom debut. On June 12, 2008, Griffin hosted the first Bravo! Canada A-List Awards, which included a parody of the "wardrobe malfunction" experienced by Janet Jackson in the Super Bowl halftime show in 2004. She also hosted the 2009 Bravo A-List Awards, which aired on April 15, 2009, and her Bravo special Kathy Griffin: She'll Cut a Bitch aired beforehand. Shout! Factory released an extended version of the show on DVD in early 2010. On September 8, 2009, Ballantine Books published Griffin's memoir, titled Official Book Club Selection: A Memoir According to Kathy Griffin, which debuted at number one on The New York Times Best Seller list. A week prior, she released her second comedy album Suckin' It for the Holidays; it was her second bid to win a Grammy Award. It was announced on November 3, 2009, that Griffin was to host ABC's new show Let's Dance, on which celebrity contestants would have re-enacted famous dance routines while competing for a $250,000 grand prize for their favorite charity. Griffin hosted CNN's New Year's Eve broadcast on December 31, 2009, along with Anderson Cooper. As Cooper talked about the Balloon boy hoax, Griffin said "fucking". Although Griffin was rumored to have been banned from future CNN broadcasts, she co-hosted the show with Cooper until 2017. In 2017, CNN terminated Griffin from its New Year's Eve Broadcast after Griffin showed pictures of herself holding a bloody, model decapitated head resembling President Donald Trump. Griffin has also guest-starred in a 2009 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, playing a lesbian activist. Since the 2008 presidential election, Griffin has made frequent jokes about Republican vice-presidential contender Sarah Palin and her family. On US television program Glee, Griffin parodied Palin posing as a judge at a regional singing competition. Griffin also made fun of Christine O'Donnell in the show by stating, "Before we start, I would like to say I am not a witch". On January 7, 2012, it was announced that Griffin would host a weekly one-hour talk show on the channel Kathy, which would consist of standup routines, "rant about pop culture", and celebrity interviews. On April 8, 2013, during a live standup performance in Cincinnati, Ohio, Griffin announced that her show would not be renewed for a third season. She later confirmed it on her Twitter account. According to FOX 411, Bravo was planning to film several comedy specials starring Griffin after the show ended. On June 13, 2014, it was announced that Griffin would host the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards. For the first time in the event's four-decade history, the show bypassed a network television airing for a live online streaming media event. The ceremony took place on June 22, 2014. Griffin's performance was well received by critics. Guest co-host of The View Kathy Griffin served as a co-host of The View from May 2007 to September 2007, replacing the recently departed Rosie O'Donnell. According to Griffin she is banned from The View after talking about the show on her televised comedy special, Kathy Griffin: Straight to Hell. She declined to discuss the ban on Access Hollywood As of August 2009, Griffin had been un-banned from The View and was a guest on September 18, 2009, and June 15, 2010. In an interview on The Talk, Griffin stated she has been re-banned from The View due to an argument with its co-host Elisabeth Hasselbeck. Laugh Your Head Off World Tour 2017–2018 In August 2017, Griffin announced a worldwide comedy tour. The title "Laugh Your Head Off" was a reference to her depiction of an effigy of U.S. President Donald Trump's severed head. The tour visited major cities in Singapore, Australia, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and many more European, and Asian cities. Several shows sold out within minutes of going on sale, leading to Griffin adding several shows to the lineup. She continued with a North America leg of the tour, commencing May 23, 2018, in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, and including both Radio City Music Hall and Carnegie Hall in New York City. Controversies Various talk shows bans Griffin said she was banned from appearing on several television shows including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The View. She was re-banned from The View after making a joke about Barbara Walters. She says Ellens producers told her they cannot have her "trashing celebrities" but she appeared as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 11, 2007. Griffin made a joke during a 2005 E! televised event saying eleven-year-old actor Dakota Fanning had entered drug rehabilitation. Emmy Awards controversy The second season of My Life on the D-List, which premiered June 2006, earned Griffin the 2007 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program, non-competition. She received it during the Creative Arts Emmy Awards, which was hosted by Carlos Mencia and aired on E! in September. Griffin said, Griffin later said she meant this remark as a satire of celebrities who thank Jesus for their awards, especially artists who are controversial in their speech and actions, rather than as a slight on Jesus. The academy said her "offensive remarks will not be part of the E! telecast on Saturday night". Griffin said she was fired from an appearance on the Hannah Montana show because of her Emmy acceptance speech. Ban from Apollo Theater In a July 2009 episode of My Life on the D-List, Griffin used profanity in an Octomom joke during her routine at New York's Apollo Theater. Griffin said she received a letter banning her from the venue. Depiction of Donald Trump On May 30, 2017, Griffin posted a video of herself holding "a mask styled to look like the severed, bloody head" of U.S. President Donald Trump, which was posted on her Instagram and Twitter accounts. She wrote: "I caption this 'there was blood coming out of his eyes, blood coming out of his ... wherever'", referencing a comment Trump had made about Megyn Kelly. The video was from a session with photographer Tyler Shields, who is known for producing "shocking" imagery. Griffin later took down the image and apologized for posting the image, saying she went too far and adding, "I beg for your forgiveness". On June 2, 2017, an attorney for Griffin, Lisa Bloom, stated, "Like many edgy works of artistic expression, the photo could be interpreted different ways. But Griffin never imagined that it could be misinterpreted as a threat of violence against Trump. That was never what she intended. She has never threatened or committed an act of violence against anyone." Griffin said the Trump family was "trying to ruin my life forever". In May 2017, Griffin was dropped by Squatty Potty as a spokesperson. CNN fired her from its New Year's Eve broadcast with Anderson Cooper. Cooper said, "For the record, I am appalled by the photo shoot Kathy Griffin took part in. It is clearly disgusting and completely inappropriate." All of Griffin's remaining scheduled tour dates were canceled by their venues. During an interview on Australian television in August 2017, Griffin talked about the photo, saying, "Stop acting like my little picture is more important than talking about the actual atrocities that the president of the United States is committing". In November 2017, she appeared on Skavlan, where she said, "I take that apology back by the way. I take it back big time". Griffin said she had received a lot of bad advice at the time. On October 28, 2017, Griffin uploaded a YouTube video titled "Kathy Griffin: A Hell of a Story", which is about the backlash she received for the Trump photo controversy. It was the basis for her A Hell of a Story concert film. She said she was under a federal investigation by the Justice Department for two months and was on the No Fly List during that time. She also said she was put on the Interpol list, the Five Eyes list, and had been detained at every airport during her Laugh Your Head Off World Tour. On November 4, 2020 (her 60th birthday and the day after the 2020 United States presidential election), Griffin once again posted a photo of her posing with a model of Donald Trump's bloody, decapitated head. Style of humor Griffin developed her love of popular culture through her immediate and extended family, who were frequently commenting about the latest news. She said; "I may have been into The Brady Bunch like every other kid, but I also wanted to watch John Lennon and Yoko Ono on The Dick Cavett Show, and every minute of the Watergate hearings. It was fear of the dinner table that got me hooked." She has also named her mother Maggie as influential in her consumption of pop culture, calling her "the ideal audience for the Hollywood dish". Griffin named the character Rhoda Morgenstern of 1970s sitcom The Mary Tyler Moore Show as an influence. Griffin established her career with candid observations of everyday life and her dating experiences, later focusing on mocking celebrities; her act currently consists of embellished stories involving celebrities. Griffin hopes people understand that no malice is intended by her humor. "I'm genuinely a fan of most of the people I trash in the act", she said; "I really, really try and focus on making fun of people for their behavior. I'm not so into making fun of someone for the way they look, or something that's out of their control." Griffin is sometimes the object of her own humor, particularly with regard to her D-list status. She portrays herself as a Hollywood outsider and has a group of close celebrity friends such as Rosie O'Donnell, Joan Rivers, Jerry Seinfeld, Gloria Estefan, and Lance Bass. Her longtime friendship with Bass was the catalyst for a feud between Griffin and gossip blogger Perez Hilton. In 2007, Griffin commented on her aversion to making fun of celebrity friends; "There's nothing I won't do, but on the other hand I'm full of shit because that changes". Griffin and Hilton ended their feud after the death of Griffin's father, and Hilton appeared on an episode of Griffin's show in 2007. LGBT rights and political advocacy Griffin is a supporter for LGBT rights, including same-sex marriage. She has protested with fellow proponents in West Hollywood, California, and included the footage from protests on her reality show Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List. Her mother is also a supporter of LGBT rights and is seen on the same show protesting alongside her daughter. Prior to the Proposition 8 ballot results, Griffin volunteered for the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center's "Vote for Equality" campaign, going door-to-door asking Los Angeles residents for their opinion of LGBT marriage rights. In March 2010, Griffin helped organize a rally in Washington, D.C., to advocate the repeal of "Don't ask, don't tell". She stated she organized the rally after meeting with several closeted gay people serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. Griffin held meetings with several Members of Congress to encourage its repeal; she also organized a rally in Freedom Plaza. Griffin caused controversy when she confronted Republican Congresswoman Michele Bachmann over her views on homosexuality at the 2010 Radio and Television Correspondents' Association Dinner; according to Griffin, she asked Bachmann "were you born a bigot or did you grow into it", a reference to Bachmann's belief homosexuality is strictly environmental. Griffin said Bachmann replied, "That's a good question, I'll have to think about that". Bachmann's office confirmed the exchange but said Griffin confronted Bachmann after Bachmann approached Griffin to compliment her appearance. Griffin is a long-time supporter of the Aid for AIDS annual fundraiser Best in Drag Show in Los Angeles, and hosted the opening of the show for more than five years. In November 2009, Aid For AIDS presented Kathy Griffin with an AFA Angel Award at their silver anniversary celebration. Griffin is a long-time critic of Sarah Palin and has made fun of Palin's daughter, Bristol Palin, using the Palin family as material for her comedy routines. In March 2011, Sarah Palin responded to Griffin by calling her a "bully". In her reality television show, Griffin visited the Palin family home in Wasilla, Alaska, and invited Palin to attend her stand-up show in Anchorage, Alaska. Griffin has also poked fun at Willow Palin as a result of Palin's Facebook statements on homosexuality. In 2020, Griffin hosted the Str8Up Gay Porn Awards. Personal life Griffin is an atheist. Speaking to Sacramento's Outword Magazine, Griffin said; " ...I think I'm getting more atheist because of the way the country is getting more into bible-thumping". She also describes herself as a "non-believer". In her book Official Book Club Selection: A Memoir According to Kathy Griffin, Griffin said that while in high school, she fell away from the Roman Catholic Church. She considered becoming a Unitarian but was not sure what that would involve. On March 9, 2008, Kathy Griffin became an ordained minister with the Universal Life Church. In a 2006 interview, Griffin said she does not drink alcohol. Griffin is an opponent of LASIK eye surgery, having had a series of operations that left her partially blind in one eye with a visible eyeball deformity. Griffin's only sister, Joyce Patricia Griffin, died in September 2017, from an undisclosed form of cancer. Kathy had shaved her head in solidarity with her in late July. Her brother Gary died of esophageal cancer in 2014. Her estranged eldest brother, Kenny, died in the 2000s in their mother's arms. Her father, John Patrick Griffin, died of heart failure on February 17, 2007; he was 91 years old. The episode related to his death was aired on June 19, 2007. Her mother, Maggie Griffin, who was featured in her reality show, died on March 17, 2020. In a post on her social media accounts, Griffin stated, "I am gutted. My best friend. I am shaking. I won't ever be prepared. I'm so grateful you guys got to be part of her life. You knew her. You loved her. She knew it. Oh, and OF COURSE she went on St. Patrick's Day." She placed 17th on Oxygen's 2007 list of "The 50 Funniest Women Alive". In 2009, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to her. In August 2021, Griffin announced that she had been diagnosed with lung cancer and needed to have half of her left lung removed. She underwent surgery the same month. Marriage and relationships Griffin and Matt Moline divorced in May 2006. On Larry King Live, Griffin accused her husband of stealing $72,000 from her; Moline did not respond to the allegation publicly but stated he was saddened by it. In July 2007, rumors that Griffin was dating Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak circulated. Griffin and Wozniak attended the 2007 Emmy Awards together. On Tom Green's House Tonight on February 6, 2008, Griffin confirmed her relationship with Wozniak. Wozniak and Griffin served as King and Queen of the Humane Society of Silicon Valley Fur Ball on April 5, 2008, in Santa Clara, California. In June 2008, it was confirmed that Griffin and Wozniak were no longer dating. On August 9, 2009, Griffin attended the Teen Choice Awards with Levi Johnston and subsequently interviewed him on Larry King Live. In the interview, Griffin and Johnston joked that they were in a serious relationship. On March 7, 2011, while appearing on The Howard Stern Show, Griffin announced she was romantically involved with actor and former NFL practice-squad player Isaiah Mustafa. Mustafa later stated he was single. In the same interview, she stated the previous July, she had ended a four-year relationship with a man she did not identify but said he is "a regular guy with a regular job", and that it was a "messy breakup". It was later revealed the man is Griffin's tour manager, who had appeared on several seasons of My Life on the D List. From 2012 until November 2018, Griffin was in a relationship with marketing executive Randy Bick. They reconciled in April 2019. She resided in the Hollywood Hills from 2004 to 2016. She has resided in Bel Air since. Griffin married Bick at her home on January 1, 2020, in a ceremony officiated by comedian Lily Tomlin. Filmography Other Stand-up specials HBO Comedy Half-Hour (1996) Kathy Griffin: Hot Cup of Talk (1998) Kathy Griffin: The D-List (2004) Kathy Griffin: Allegedly (2004) Kathy Griffin Is...Not Nicole Kidman (2005) Kathy Griffin: Strong Black Woman (2006) Kathy Griffin: Everybody Can Suck It (2007) Kathy Griffin: Straight to Hell (2007) Kathy Griffin: She'll Cut a Bitch (2009) Kathy Griffin: Balls of Steel (2009) Kathy Griffin: Does the Bible Belt (2010) Kathy Griffin: Whores on Crutches (2010) Kathy Griffin: 50 and Not Pregnant (2011) Kathy Griffin: Gurrl Down! (2011) Kathy Griffin: Pants Off (2011) Kathy Griffin: Tired Hooker (2011) Kathy Griffin: Seaman 1st Class (2012) Kathy Griffin: Kennedie Center On-Hers (2013) Kathy Griffin: Calm Down Gurrl (2013) Kathy Griffin: Record Breaker (2013) Kathy Griffin: A Hell of a Story (2019) Discography On June 10, 2008, Griffin released a comedy CD titled For Your Consideration. The disc was recorded at the ETK Theatre at the Grand Theatre Center For The Arts in Tracy, California on February 17, 2008. Griffin stated she decided to release the CD to try to win a Grammy award. On August 25, 2009, Griffin released a second comedy album, Suckin' It for the Holidays, in another bid for a Grammy. Griffin received her third Grammy nomination for Kathy Griffin: Does the Bible Belt in 2010,. On May 4, 2012, the full length version of "I'll Say It", the theme song of her show Kathy, was released to iTunes as a single. On August 20, 2012, Griffin released a seven-track EP containing dance remixes of "I'll Say It". Bibliography Awards and nominations Primetime Emmy Awards Emmy Awards source: \|- \| 2006 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \| 2007 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \| 2008 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \|2008 \| Kathy Griffin: Straight to Hell \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Special \| \|- \| 2009 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \|2009 \|Kathy Griffin: She'll Cut A Bitch \| Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Special \| \|- \| 2010 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \| 2011 \|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \|Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program \| \|- \| 2012 \| Kathy Griffin: Tired Hooker \| Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Special \| \|} Grammy Awards Grammy Awards source: \|- \| 2008 \| For Your Consideration \| rowspan="6" style="text-align:left;"\|Best Comedy Album \| \|- \| 2009 \| Suckin' It for the Holidays \| \|- \| 2010 \| Kathy Griffin Does the Bible Belt \| \|- \| 2011 \| Kathy Griffin: 50 and Not Pregnant \| \|- \| 2012 \| Kathy Griffin: Seaman 1st Class \| \|- \| 2013 \| Calm Down Gurrl \| \|- \|} GLAAD Media Awards \|- \| 2009 \| Kathy Griffin \| Vanguard Award \| \|} PGA Awards \|- \| 2008 \| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"\|Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"\|Television Producer of the Year Award in Non-Fiction Television \| \|- \| 2009 \| \|- \| 2010 \| \|} Gracie Awards \|- \| 2009 \| Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List \| Outstanding Female Lead – Comedy Series \| \|} References Citations Bibliography External links Kathy Griffin Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America 1960 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American women writers Actors from Oak Park, Illinois Actresses from Chicago American atheists American autobiographers American women non-fiction writers American women singers American film actresses Activists from Illinois American women activists American people of Irish descent American political activists American stand-up comedians American television actresses American voice actresses American women comedians Critics of the Catholic Church California Democrats CNN people Former Roman Catholics Grammy Award winners HIV/AIDS activists Late night television talk show hosts Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni LGBT rights activists from the United States Shorty Award winners Participants in American reality television series People from Bel Air, Los Angeles Primetime Emmy Award winners Reality show winners Writers from Chicago Women autobiographers	5,975
doc-en-10975_0	A draw or tie occurs in a competitive sport when the results are identical or inconclusive. Ties or draws are possible in some, but not all, sports and games. Such an outcome, sometimes referred to as deadlock, can also occur in other areas of life such as politics, business, and wherever there are different factions regarding an issue. In some sports, such as cricket, a tie and a draw have different meanings. Terminology The word Tie is usually used in North America, whereas the word draw is usual elsewhere. In cricket, a draw and a tie are two different results. Resolving ties or draws In instances where a winner must be determined, several methods are commonly used. Across various sports: Some other measure may be used, such as aggregate point difference. A game may continue on in extra time. To ensure a quick result, some form of sudden death rule may apply. In some sports, a penalty shootout or bowl-out may occur. A rematch may occur at a later date, especially if a winner must be selected (in a final). The result might be decided by chance (e.g. a toss of a coin) when no objective method of determining a result remains. The rules governing the resolution of drawn matches are rarely uniform across an entire sport, and are usually specified by the rules of the competition. In other areas, such as in a vote, there may be a method to break the tie. Having an odd number of voters is one solution—after the election of the Doge of Venice by a committee of 40 was deadlocked in a tie, the number of electors was increased to 41—but may not always be successful, for example, if a member is absent or abstains, or if there are more than two candidates. In many cases one member of an assembly may by convention not normally vote, but will exercise a casting vote in case of deadlock. Sometimes some method of random choice, such as tossing a coin, may be resorted to even in a formal vote. Examples American football Tie games, which were commonplace in the National Football League (NFL) through the 1960s, have become exceedingly rare with the introduction of sudden death overtime, which first applied to the regular season in 1974. The first game this new rule applied to ended in a tie between the Denver Broncos and Pittsburgh Steelers. The most recent NFL tie happened on 14 November 2021, when a game between the Detroit Lions and the Pittsburgh Steelers ended in a 16-16 tie. In the NFL, if the team having first possession in overtime scores only a field goal, the other team receives the ball and can either tie the game with a field goal resulting in continuation of overtime (which then becomes sudden death) or score a touchdown, thereby winning the game. This modified sudden death rule was instituted during the 2010 playoffs and adopted for the 2012 regular season. If the overtime period ends with the score tied, either because both teams scored field goals on their initial possessions and failed to score again or neither team scored throughout the duration of the overtime period, then the game ends in a tie. Tie games are listed as part of a team's official record, counting in the team's winning percentage as half a win and half a loss. A game ending in a scoreless tie has never occurred since the introduction of overtime. The exception to this rule is the playoffs. In the playoffs additional overtime periods are played until a winner is determined. Ties are so rare in the modern league that after Donovan McNabb and other Philadelphia Eagles players said—when the team and the Cincinnati Bengals tied 1313 in 2008—that they did not know that a game could end in a tie, Ben Roethlisberger estimated that 50% of players did not know. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) college football, overtime was introduced in 1996, eliminating ties. When a game goes to overtime, each team is given one possession from its opponent's twenty-five-yard line with no game clock, despite the one timeout per period and use of play clock. The team leading after both possessions is declared the winner. If the teams remain tied, overtime periods continue, with a coin flip determining the first possession. Possessions alternate with each overtime, until one team leads the other at the end of the overtime. Starting with the second overtime, a one-point PAT field goal after a touchdown is no longer allowed, forcing teams to attempt a two-point conversion after a touchdown. If the game continues past the second overtime, the teams alternate attempting two-point conversions (a single play from the 3 yard line) until the tie is resolved. The unpopularity of ties in American sports is reflected in the saying, "A tie is like kissing your sister." The earliest known use of the phrase was by Navy football coach Eddie Erdelatz after a scoreless tie against Duke in 1953. The 1968 Yale vs. Harvard football game ended in a 29–29 tie, but the Harvard Crimson student newspaper famously printed the headline "Harvard Beats Yale 29-29". 6 October 1990: Kansas and Iowa State end their game in a 34–34 tie, giving KU the all-time NCAA Division I-A record for number of tie games with 57. Illinois State holds the Division I-AA record for ties with 66. Since then, NCAA football games have a tie-breaking rule, so only an extenuating circumstances game suspended on account of weather, or a rule change reinstating ties would allow this record to be broken. The 1995/96 school year was the last to feature non-weather curtailed tie games. NCAA Rule 3-3-3, Suspending the Game, permits tie games primarily on weather. NCAA rules on inclement weather include policies on lightning, requiring a minimum 30-minute delay upon the first detected lightning strike within of the venue, and each lightning strike detected at the venue results in an automatic resetting of the clock. Officially, a tie game can only be declared if the teams agree to, or the conference declares the game, a draw, because of severe weather conditions if the game cannot continue at a reasonable time (curfew, travel logistics, weather warnings), it is an official game, and the game is tied. Official tie games can take place if the score is tied at any time when the game is suspended, tied at the end of regulation, or at any overtime period. If one team has scored in their overtime period, but the second team has yet to complete its overtime period when the game is forced to end early because of weather, as in baseball, the score is wiped out and the game ends in a tie. Association football If both sides have scored an equal number of goals within regulation time (90 minutes), the game is usually counted as a draw. In elimination games, where a winner must be determined to progress to the next stage of the tournament, two periods of extra time are played. If the score remains even after this time, the match technically remains a draw; however, a penalty shootout (officially called "kicks from the penalty mark") is used to determine which team is to progress to the next stage of the tournament. The team who wins the shootout is the winner of the match. In less important competitions, the extra time may be skipped and the match goes straight to penalties after a drawn 90 minutes. Some competitions, such as the FA Cup employ a system of replays where the drawn match is repeated at the ground of the away team in the first game. Although this was a widely used tiebreaker, it fell out of favour after excessive replays caused organisational and practicality issues. In two-leg, home-and-away fixtures in which a winner must be determined at the end of the second leg, the away goals rule may be employed if teams' aggregate scores over two legs are level; the rule gives victory to whichever team scored more in its respective away leg. Typically the rule may be invoked both to obviate extra time and after extra time to obviate a penalty shootout. All UEFA (European) club competitions used away goals until 2021; by contrast, CONMEBOL (South America) competitions did not use this rule until 2005. Major League Soccer, the Tier One league in the United States and Canada, did not adopt the away goals rule until 2014. Australian rules football Draws in Australian rules football have occurred at an average of two per season (under the current fixture). If a draw occurs during a regular season match, the result stands as a draw, and both teams earn premiership points equivalent to half of a win (two points, or one in South Australian competition). Traditionally, when a draw occurred during a finals match, the match would be replayed the following week, but the Australian Football League introduced extra time to finals (except for the Grand Final) in 1991 following the logistical difficulties that arose after the 1990 Qualifying Final between Collingwood and West Coast was drawn, and introduced extra time to Grand Finals in 2016. Where used, extra time typically consists of two periods, each five minutes long (plus time-on if applicable), with winner being the team ahead after both periods; if scores are still level at the end of extra time, the game continues under sudden death rules, where the siren will not sound until a team next scores. Baseball Ties are relatively rare in baseball, since the practice dating back to the earliest days of the game is to play extra innings until one side has the lead after an equal number of innings played. Nonetheless a game can be called a tie in some situations, usually in a case where one or both teams have used all available pitchers. Games can be called after fifth innings in extenuating circumstances, such as suspension due to bad weather. For some amateur and international games, tiebreakers are used prompting an earlier conclusion during extra innings: If a tiebreaker is used, after a certain extra innings (usually 3 or 4, determined by organizer before the tournament), the innings will start with the previous two batters loaded. In Major League Baseball, a game may end in a tie only due to weather or, historically, darkness (a called game due to darkness is unlikely to happen now that all Major League parks have floodlights; darkness also means reaching the curfew prohibiting innings from starting after 1 am local time). While any game that has reached 5 full innings is statistically official, a tie game does not count in the standings. Before 2007, tie games ended by weather were replayed from the start, but since 2007, the games are continued from where they left off. A tie game may also be declared if a game is tied, the two teams are not scheduled to play again for the remainder of the year, and the game does not affect playoff implications; a recent example occurred on 29 September 2016, between the Chicago Cubs and the Pittsburgh Pirates. The 2002 All-Star Game was declared a tie after eleven innings, due to a lack of pitchers; this decision was considered controversial, and from the following season onward, MLB awarded home field advantage in the World Series to the league that won the game to prevent such a situation in the future. In Japan, a game in regular season (including interleague) or Climax Series (the 3-team stepladder playoff to determine the team playing Japan Series) tied after nine innings may continue for up to three extra innings, after which the game is called a tie if the score is still even after 12 innings. Ties do not count against a team, however, and are "discarded" for purposes of winning percentage. If teams are tied in the won-loss percentage at the end of the season, the team with the better record the previous season wins the tiebreaker. If a tie occurred in the Climax Series (tied series in the first round or 2–3–1 with the first-place team winning two games, the team winning the first round winning three, and one game is tied), the team with better standing in that regular season advances. During the Japan Series, prior to 1993, up to nine extra innings could be played, and from 1994 until 2018, up to six extra innings could be played, for a limit of 15 innings in the first seven games. The maximum game length was reduced to 12 innings for the 2018 Series; thus Game 1 between the Hiroshima Carp and the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks ended in a 2-2 12 inning draw. If no team has won the series after seven games, all subsequent games starting with game eight will be played without an innings limit. During the 2011 season and 2012 regular season, the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami resulted in special rule changes for energy conservation. All night games had a 3-hour, 30-minute limit, and the result was an automatic tie game if it was tied after the 9th inning and the time limit was reached. The rule did not apply to the 2011 Japan Series, and was later lifted before the beginning of the 2012 Climax Series. Unlike MLB, NPB's All-star games do not include extra innings. Therefore, a tie will be declared if 9 innings have been played if neither side is leading. In Taiwan's CPBL, the same rule as NPB applies in the regular season. In the Taiwan Series, there is no limit to the number of innings in a game, but any game that has reached official game status and is tied when a game is called because of weather is an official tie game. (Amended in 2011). In America's college baseball, a conference will declare a game may be tied in extenuating circumstances, usually in the final game of a series only, or in non-conference midweek games: The game reaches curfew time, to allow the visiting team to travel home for classes the next day. Often, the curfew time will be early, forcing the game to be started early. In the Southeastern Conference, for example, the visiting team shall post travel details and a designated departure time to the home team prior to the start of the season, with no game starting later than 1 pm local time if a team is using commercial air travel. No half-inning may start within 15 minutes of the designated departure time. If an inning begins, and the visiting team has scored at least one run to take the lead, but the home team has not finished its turn to bat in the extra inning, the entire inning can be wiped off and the game declared a tie. This is typically used in extra innings. However, if a game starts late, and the trailing team is at bat at the 15-minute point, and ties the game, the game can be declared a tie. Many amateur baseball leagues include tie games in the standing if an official game is called for darkness or rain with a tie score. Oftentimes a point system is used for standings, with two points being awarded for a win, and one for a tie. For Japanese's High-School level baseball, which they are held in form of single-elimination knockout tournaments, prior to a 2018 rule adopting the WBSC tiebreaker, a tie was declared after 15 innings (18 innings before 2001) with a replayed game the next day. Starting with the 2018 tournament, all games will adopt the WBSC tiebreakers in 13th inning with the exception of both Koushien finals: those games can still declare as tie (and rematched) like previous rule, and only during the replayed game will the tiebreaker be in effect starting with the 13th inning. In International level games, tiebreaker rule are introduced in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The finals of the 2009 World Baseball Classic is the first international game using under this rule. Basketball Ties are somewhat rare in basketball due to the high-scoring nature of the game: if the score is tied at the end of regulation, the rules provide that as many extra periods as necessary will be played until one side has a higher score. If a game is non-competitive (such as an exhibition game), a draw may be declared if the scores are tied at the end of regulation. Draws are also possible in any competition such as European major competitions where knockout stages in that league are contested as a two-legged tie. If the first leg is tied, or the second leg is tied but there is a definitive winner in the two-game aggregate score, then no extra period is played. Boxing When a match ends with completion of the specified maximum number of rounds, and the judges of the match have awarded an equal number of points to both boxers, or if there are three judges (as is the custom) and one judge awards the fight to one fighter, another awards the fight to the opposing fighter, and the third scores it a draw (split draw), the match is declared a draw. The contest would be scored a draw even if two of three judges score it a draw and the third does not (a majority draw). Draws are relatively rare in boxing: certain scoring systems make it impossible for a judge to award equal points for a match. If a championship bout ends in a draw, the champion usually retains the title. If there is a draw in a quarterfinal or a semifinal match of a tournament, a tiebreaker round is played instead. Chess There are various ways a game of chess can end in a draw: stalemate, agreement between the players, the fifty-move rule, threefold repetition, or neither player having sufficient material to checkmate. At top-level play, roughly half of games end in a draw. Cricket Cricket distinguishes between a tie and a draw, which are two possible results of a game: A tie is the identical result that occurs when each team has scored the same total number of runs after their allotted innings, all innings being completed. This is very rare in Test cricket and has happened only twice in its long history, but they are slightly more commonplace in first-class and limited-overs matches. In some forms of one-day cricket, such as Twenty20, a Super Over or a bowl-out is used as a tiebreaker to decide a result that would otherwise be a tie. See this list of tied games. A draw is the inconclusive result that occurs when the allotted playing time for the game expires without the teams having completed their innings. This is relatively common, occurring in 20–30% of Test Matches. A team with little hope of victory will try to play out the remaining time and cause a draw. The principal purpose of a declaration is for a team who are leading to avoid consuming time and increasing the chances of a draw. Limited-overs matches cannot be drawn, although they can end with a no result if abandoned because of weather or other factors. Ice hockey If the score is even after three periods, the game may end in a tie, or overtime may be played. In most North American professional leagues, the regular-season tie-breaker is five minutes long, with each side playing at least one man short. Starting with the 2015–16 NHL season, the National Hockey League went from playing one man short to two men short in overtime. Should a team have two players penalised during the overtime, the team on the power play will play with a fifth player. In the Southern Professional Hockey League, each side plays only three players, with a minor penalty in the first three minutes resulting in a team on the power play earning an extra man; a minor penalty in the final two minutes, or a major penalty, results in the awarding of a penalty shot. A goal wins the game in sudden death; otherwise, a shootout will occur, with three players participating for each side. If the score is still tied, the shootout will go into sudden death. In North American minor leagues, the same procedure is used except shootouts are five players. In each case, the winner of the shootout is awarded credit for a regulation win (two points), and the loser of the overtime is marked with an overtime loss (OTL) and receives credit equal to half of one win (one point). In the National Hockey League, shootout wins are still counted as two points, but for breaking a tie in terms of points at the end of the season, the team with more regulation and overtime wins (ROW) takes the higher position in the standings. The Swedish Hockey League (SHL) uses a 3–2–1–0 point system in the regular season, where a regulation win is worth three points, a win in the five-minute sudden death overtime period or a shootout win two points, and an overtime loss as well as a shootout loss one point in the standings. In the National Hockey League, in the playoffs, in general unlimited 20 minute sudden death periods are played, making a tie impossible. An exception occurred during the 1988 Finals, when a power failure forced the early abandonment of Game 4 between the Boston Bruins and the Edmonton Oilers with the score tied 3-3. The game was later replayed in its entirety, with the Oilers winning and sweeping the Finals except for the one shortened tie game. Tournament poker Ties rarely occur, since multiple simultaneous player eliminations will rank the eliminated players by chip counts. However, if two or more players are eliminated in one hand, and both players started the hand with identical chip counts, the players will be tied in official rankings. It is impossible for poker tournaments to end in a tie (since one player must end up with all the chips), though multiple players may be tied for second (or lower) place. Racing sports In racing sports, if competitors appear to finish simultaneously and no technology (such as a photo finish) can separate them, this is considered a "dead heat" and in most cases the competitors tie for the place. Horse racing The term "dead heat" originally came from when horse racing from when horses used to race in matches consisting of multiple heats, rather than single races, with the total number of wins for horses determining winner of the match. When the judges could not determine the first horse over the finish line, the heat was declared "dead", and did not count. If there is a dead heat, wagers are paid on all winning horses, but against half the original stake (or one-third if there were three tied horses, and so on). See List of dead heat horse races. Motorsport Ties in motor racing almost never occur. Nearly all modern racing cars and motorcycles carry electronic transponders which relay precise timing information down to the thousandths of a second. However, a photo-finish camera is used at the finish line, and if the two vehicles cross the line together, the position may be declared a tie. The 1974 Firecracker 400 is the only case in modern NASCAR history where a tie has occurred in a position; Cale Yarborough and Buddy Baker tied for third after 160 laps. At the 2002 United States Formula One Grand Prix, Ferrari's Michael Schumacher attempted to stage a dead heat with teammate Rubens Barrichello but failed, finishing 0.011 seconds behind Barrichello. The F1 Sporting Regulations provide that in the event of a dead heat in a race, points and prizes will be added together and shared equally among the tying drivers. In Grand Prix motorcycle racing, dead heats are avoided by fastest lap times being a tiebreaking measure. This rule resulted in Héctor Faubel winning the 125cc classification of the 2011 German motorcycle Grand Prix after a photo finish could not separate him and Johann Zarco. Rugby league In the premier Australasian rugby league competition, the National Rugby League, draws are possible but first are subject to golden point overtime. Golden point also applies to the State of Origin series and Four Nations matches. In rugby league in the United Kingdom, draws can also occur, as in league games, if the score of both teams remain level by the end of 80 minutes play, the game ends a draw, and each team is awarded one point in the league rather than two for a win. Rugby union Draws are uncommon in rugby union due to the variety of different ways to score and different values for each type of score. Draws are allowed to stand in league play. In the knockout stages of the Rugby World Cup, two 10-minute periods of extra time are played. If there is still no winner, a 10-minute period of sudden death is played where any score wins the game. Should the result still be tied a place-kicking competition is held where 5 players from each side take one kick each from anywhere on the 22-metre line (usually straight in front of the posts). The semi-final of the Heineken Cup between Cardiff Blues and Leicester Tigers at the Millennium Stadium was decided by a "kick-off". After five kicks per team, the scores were level at 4–4 after Johne Murphy (Leicester) and Tom James (Cardiff) had missed their kicks. Moving now to sudden death, the score continued to 6–6 but, after Martyn Williams pulled his kick wide, Leicester number eight Jordan Crane scored to send Leicester Tigers to the Heineken Cup Final in Edinburgh. In certain knockout competitions, if the scores are drawn after 80 minutes, the teams that have scored the most tries are considered the victors. However, if the number of tries scored are equal, the teams proceed to play overtime. Sumo In professional sumo, draws were once common place but are no longer used in any situation. In situations that would have resulted in draws (such as close results, exhaustion, or injury) are currently resolved with immediate rematches, temporary breaks, or forfeiture. Tennis In most professional tennis matches, a tiebreaker rule applies in each set to avoid lengthy matches, as happens quite frequently if the traditional tennis rule for winning a set is followed. When players reach a score of 6–6 in a set, instead of continuing the set until one opponent wins with a two-game difference, a special game is played to decide the winner of the set; the winner is the first to reach at least seven points with a difference of two over the opponent. This however does not apply to the final set of matches at the French Open, allowing the total number of games in a match to be virtually unlimited (for example, the final set of the Isner–Mahut match at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships ended only when John Isner beat Nicolas Mahut 70–68). The Australian Open and Wimbledon Championships did not use a final set tiebreaker through the 2018 tournaments, but will begin to use a tiebreaker in 2019 (For Wimbledon, the final set tiebreaker will only occur after 24 games in the final set). Video games In versus-fighting games, a draw occurs when both players end the match through a double KO; or via time over, with the same percentage of life bar. For example, some of these games, such as Street Fighter and Tekken, require two rounds to win the match, and if after a third round the score ends in a 1–1 draw, the players have to fight again in an extra round. If this extra round ends in a draw, the game will end for both players. In Mortal Kombat, if a round ends when the time runs out and both players have complete life bars, the game ends for both players, because due to Mortal Kombats gameplay (in which every common hit takes block damage) it is virtually impossible for a round to end tied, and that means the players were not playing for real. In the Super Smash Bros. series, if two or more players have equal lives or points at the end of a match, a sudden death period begins with each fighter having 300% damage, essentially making it so a single hit can win the match. Ties in tournament play See also Weak ordering, a mathematical formulation of a ranking that allows ties (such as in the outcome of a horse race) References American football terminology Baseball terminology Basketball terminology Cricket terminology Association football terminology Ice hockey statistics	5,909
doc-en-10997_0	John Aaron Rawlins (February 13, 1831 September 6, 1869) was a general officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War and a cabinet officer in the Grant administration. A longtime confidant of Ulysses S. Grant, Rawlins served on Grant's staff throughout the war, rising to the rank of brevet major general, and was Grant's chief defender against allegations of insobriety. He was appointed Secretary of War when Grant was elected President of the United States. Rawlins was a self-made man who overcame an impoverished family background, scanty education, and an absentee father who was prone to drink. After studying law, Rawlins passed the bar in 1854 and started a practice in Galena, Illinois. He was a Douglas Democrat at the outbreak of the Civil War; a noted public speaker, he gave a notable pro-Union speech at the start of hostilities, and he soon became close friends with Ulysses S. Grant, a Galena resident, United States Military Academy graduate, and Mexican–American War veteran who had served in the Army for 11 years. Rawlins persuaded Grant to drill and muster a local volunteer militia company and send them to the state capital in Springfield so they could be inducted into federal service. After brief service in the Illinois militia as a mustering officer, Grant was soon recommissioned in the Army to serve under Union General John C. Frémont, commander of Union Army forces in the western United States. Rawlins also joined the Union Army and served primarily as an officer on Grant's staff; his promotions were linked to Grant's success on the battlefields and Grant's advancement in the Union Army under President Abraham Lincoln. Rawlins contracted tuberculosis in 1863, but continued to serve on Grant's staff during Reconstruction. After Grant won the 1868 election and assumed the presidency in March 1869, he named Rawlins as his Secretary of War. With the exception of his approving the height of the Brooklyn Bridge, before construction, Rawlins' brief tenure was mostly controversial. Rawlins supported insurrection against Spanish rule in Cuba, established an anti-Mormon policy for the Utah Territory, and reduced the authority of General William Tecumseh Sherman, Grant's successor as commander of the Army. Rawlins' tuberculosis continued to worsen, and he died in September 1869, five months into his term. Except for a 1916 biography, The Life of John A. Rawlins, by James Harrison Wilson, Rawlins' short life is not well known, while Grant, perhaps protecting his own reputation, rarely mentioned him in his popular Memoirs, published in 1885. With Rawlins' death, strong cabinet-level support for an independent Cuba ended, and did not become a priority until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Early years John Aaron Rawlins was born on February 13, 1831 in East Galena, Illinois, the second of ten children born to James Dawson and Lovisa Collier Rawlins, both of Scotch-Irish descent, whose ancestors originally settled in Culpeper County, Virginia. James Rawlins was a descendant of Robert Rawlins, who originally settled in Maryland, and he became a farmer and charcoal maker in Missouri and Illinois. In 1849, James Rawlins migrated to California during the Gold Rush, and he stayed for three years. While his father was absent, Rawlins became the primary caretaker of his mother, sister, and six brothers. James did not strike gold, and upon returning home he halfheartedly devoted his time to his family farm and timber lands, while John Rawlins took on increasing responsibility as the head of the family. Rawlins blamed his father James' carefree lifestyle and lack of attention to his family on strong drink. His father's behavior affected Rawlins' own attitudes and fears concerning alcohol, and he became a teetotaler. According to historian Bruce Catton, Rawlins' abstention was caused by his belief that if he took even one drink, he would not be able to stop. Rawlins' early education was scanty; he attended local schools in Illinois and spent a year and a half at Rock River Seminary in Mount Morris, Illinois. Rawlins attracted notice locally as a "self-made man" by going through a period of self-directed study to make up for his lack of formal education. He then studied law in the office of Isaac P. Stevens of Galena, and attained admission to the bar in 1854. Rawlins practiced in partnership with Stevens, and later with David Sheean, who had studied under Rawlins. Politically Rawlins aligned himself with the Democratic Party and supported the presidential campaigns of Stephen A. Douglas. Marriages, family, health On June 5, 1856, Rawlins married Emily Smith, daughter of Hiram Smith of Goshen, New York. Their marriage produced three children including son James, and daughters Jennie and Emily. Mrs. Rawlins died of tuberculosis in August, 1861, shortly after Rawlins began his service with the Union Army. According to historian Bruce Catton, her death left Rawlins with the fear he would one day die of the same disease. On December 23, 1863 Rawlins married Mary Emma Hurlburt, the daughter of S. A. Hurlburt of Danbury, Connecticut. During the Winter of 1863 Rawlins developed a persistent cough that was later diagnosed as tuberculosis. American Civil War Galena Union loyalty speech After Fort Sumter fell, at the outbreak of the American Civil War, Galena's residents held a town meeting; the featured speakers were U.S. Congressman Elihu B. Washburne and Rawlins. Rawlins made his pro-Union sentiments clear when he stated: "I have been a Democrat all my life; but this is no longer a question of politics; It is simply country or no country; I have favored every honorable compromise; but the day for compromise is passed; only one course is left us. We will stand by the flag of our country, and appeal to the god of battles." Union Army military promotions In 1861, Rawlins took an active role in the organization of the 45th Illinois Infantry, in response to President Abraham Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers, and Grant volunteered to help train the regiment. He was soon appointed commander of the 21st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and requested that Rawlins become his aide-de-camp. Rawlins accepted and on August 30 he was appointed a captain in the regular Army and Assistant Adjutant-General of Volunteers. On September 14, Rawlins reported to Grant's headquarters in Cairo. From this time forward, Rawlins remained by Grant's side and became Grant's most influential staff officer, advisor, and closest friend. Like most men at the beginning of the Civil War, Rawlins was not formally military trained, however, he was naturally suited for his position. As Grant rose in rank and responsibility, Rawlins was likewise promoted in roles of increasing responsibility and rank, including Chief of Staff of the Army of the Tennessee and Chief of Staff of the Military Division of the Mississippi. He was known for his great attention to detail, as well as being a stickler for proper protocol. On May 14, 1862 Rawlins was promoted to major, and on November 1 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Just before joining his staff, he exacted a pledge from Grant, who had a history of alcohol problems, not to drink during the war. He forbade the use of alcohol at headquarters and a year after joining the staff signed a pledge himself not to consume alcohol. During the war, Rawlins frequently scolded Grant for perceived derelictions with an impunity that often surprised onlookers. Rawlins was promoted to brigadier general of Volunteers on August 11, 1863. When Grant was promoted to general in chief of all the Union armies, Rawlins became Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters of the United States Army. He was promoted to brevet major general on February 24, 1865, to brigadier general in the regular army on March 3, and brevet major general in the regular army on April 9. Petitioned for Sheean release (1862) In the fall of 1862, Rawlins' law partner David Sheean, an outspoken critic of Lincoln's war policy, was arrested; he was an outspoken Democrat, and because habeas corpus had been suspended by President Abraham Lincoln in 1861, Sheean's Republican political enemies worked to have him detained without charges at Fort Lafayette, New York. Rawlins took a leave of absence to aid Sheean, and petitioned in person to both Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Congressman Elihu B. Washburne. Sheean was finally released in December, 1862. Objected to General Order No. 11 (1862) During the Vicksburg Campaign, on December 17, 1862, Grant issued General Order No. 11 expelling Jews, as a class, from Grant's military district. Grant was upset over an illegal cotton trade that he believed funded the Confederate Army. Grant blamed Jewish traders for breaking Treasury Department regulations. Jewish persons who did not obey the order were to be arrested and forcibly removed as prisoners. Rawlins, Grant's attorney and Asst. Adjt. Gen., strongly warned Grant not to issue the order. Grant refused to take Rawlin's advise concerning the order and told him: "Well, they can countermand this from Washington if they like, but we will issue it anyhow." The controversial order was revoked by President Abraham Lincoln. Grant's Washington D.C. emissary (1863) During the Summer of 1863, Grant sent Rawlins east to Washington D.C. as his emissary. At this time Grant was relatively unknown in political circles, having fought far from Washington D.C. in the Western Theater. Rawlins arrived in Washington D.C. on July 30 and talked with General-In-Chief Henry W. Halleck at the War Department and the Army's assistant adjutant general, Colonel J.C. Kelton. Halleck cordially received Rawlins and told Rawlins he was pleased with Grant's victory and endorsed Grant's Vicksburg surrender terms, including releasing 31,000 Confederate prisoners on parole. Rawlins then went to the White House and met President Abraham Lincoln and his Cabinet. He handed Lincoln a letter from Grant that asked for Rawlins to be given an interview with Lincoln so Rawlins could brief him on the successful results of the Vicksburg Campaign and explain why the Confederate soldiers were paroled. Special observer Charles A. Dana and Secretary of Navy Gideon Welles gave Rawlins high praise for his industrious nature and his intelligence. Dana stated that Rawlins was a "very industrious, conscientious man." Welles stated that he was pleased by Rawlins' "frank, intelligent, and interesting description of men and of army operations." Chattanooga letter to Grant (1863) During the Chattanooga Campaign in November 1863, Grant was alleged to have been drinking excessively among other generals and subordinates who had access to bottles of whiskey and a bottle of wine received from Grant's mother Hannah. Rawlins heard of this, and considering himself to be Grant's protector when it came to alcohol, wrote him a letter on November 15 or 16, which was never sent; it demanded that Grant "immediately desist from further tasting of liquors of any kind". Rawlins' concerns were unfounded; According to General David Hunter, who had the opportunity to observe Grant closely during this period, Grant had only two drinks in three weeks during the month of November. On November 14, Grant had actually broken up a drinking party between his subordinate Colonel Clark Lagow and Lagow's friends at four in the morning. Rawlins kept this unsent letter in his records, where it was later found by historians. This unsent letter was one of several items which created the impression that Grant routinely drank to excess. Dodge expedition and attempted health recovery (1867) In 1867, during Reconstruction, Rawlins accompanied the military escort that traveled with Grenville M. Dodge's expedition to explore the proposed route of the Union Pacific Railroad. Dodge was chief engineer for the Union Pacific, which was responsible for building the railroad from east to west, while the Central Pacific Railroad built from west to east. Rawlins had accompanied Dodge as far as Salt Lake City, Utah in hopes that the dry air of the plains would help cure his tuberculosis. Dodge later named one of the expedition's Wyoming campsites Rawlins; this site was later incorporated as a town. After four months of travel with Dodge, Rawlins returned to Washington D.C., but his health had not substantially improved. Secretary of War (1869) Overview When Grant became President, Rawlins' doctors recommended that he go to Arizona, where they believed the dry desert climate would allow him to live longer. To accommodate their medical advice, Grant wanted to appoint Rawlins military commander of the Southwest; Rawlins refused, wishing to stay at Grant's side. Grant acquiesced and appointed Rawlins as Secretary of War. During his five months in office, Rawlins was at odds with Secretary of State Hamilton Fish over whether to recognize and support a revolution against the Spanish government in Cuba; Rawlins favored providing military aid and other assistance; Fish was opposed. Both competed for Grant's support and that of the other cabinet secretaries. Grant finally sided with Fish and the U.S did not intervene. On the question of dealing with the Mormons located primarily in Utah Territory, Rawlins convinced Grant to adopt a confrontational approach to ending their practice of polygamy, including the use of the military if necessary. Rawlins' health continued to deteriorate; he was bedridden before he died in office on September 6, 1869. One of his last acts as Secretary of War was his approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Sherman controversy When Grant became President he promoted William T. Sherman his friend and fellow general during the Civil War the top command of General of the Armies in March 1869. During this time General John M. Schofield was Grant's interim Secretary of War, a carry-over from the Andrew Johnson administration. Initially, Grant had given Sherman broad powers over the U.S. Military, including having authority over bureau chiefs, causing Sherman to believe his relationship to Grant during Grant's presidency would be the same as his close relationship to Grant during the Civil War. When Rawlins became Secretary of War his first actions were to significantly reduce General Sherman's authority in the U.S. military. Rawlins had requested to Grant to give him authority over bureau chiefs and Grant complied, knowing Rawlins was in ill health. Sherman hurried to the White House and asked that Grant rescind his orders that reduced Sherman's authority. Knowing that Rawlins was gravely ill Grant told Sherman that he would not rescind his orders. This upset Sherman, and after a disagreement over military and presidential protocol, Sherman stood up and walked out of the meeting saying "Good day Mister President!". Grant and Sherman had formerly been on first name familiarity. After this incident, Grant and Sherman were not on the same friendly manner they had been during the Civil War. Rawlins' successor, William W. Belknap, also continued this trend and reduced Sherman's authority in the U.S. military, taking away Sherman's authority to appoint post-trader commissions. Anti-Mormon policy In 1869, Grant sent Rawlins to Utah Territory in hopes he would recover from his declining health and in part to observe the condition of Mormons there. This was Rawlins second time in Utah, having traveled with Dodge to Salt Lake City, in 1867. Rawlins was very cool to his reception of Mormons in Utah including Mormon leader Brigham Young, whom he met twice, who was surrounded by a Mormon military escort. Inwardly, Rawlins was hostile to Young and the Mormon polygamists. When Rawlins returned to Washington he convinced Grant to develop a harsh policy against the religious sect. Rawlins also convinced Grant to appoint J. Wilson Shaffer Governor of Utah Territory. Shaffer implemented a strict policy that was designed to keep the Mormons from rebelling from the United States. The Mormons, according to Grant, were in a militant state of rebellion over the issue of polygamy. Grant went on to arrest many Mormons, including Young, in a crackdown by federal marshals Grant believed would keep the Mormons from separating from the United States and to disrupt their practice of polygamy. Cuban insurrection In 1868, the Cuban Revolution began when rebels on Cuba tried to overthrow Spanish rule. Many Americans rallied behind the rebellion and began to sell war bonds in support of the recognition of Cuban belligerency. In 1869, President Grant's Secretary of State Hamilton Fish was unwilling to support the Cuban rebels since the United States had recently gone through the Civil War. Also at stake was negotiations for settlement of the Alabama Claims, that included the claim the British had recognized Confederate belligerency during the Civil War. The recognition of Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized negotiations between Britain and the United States. Secretary Rawlins, however, was strongly in favor of the recognition of Cuban belligerency and even advocated war with Spain, if necessary. Rawlins went to the press and stated the reasons why the United States needed to aid the Cuban rebels. Rawlins himself had accepted $28,000 in Cuban War bonds that would have been given face value if the Cuban rebels were recognized by the United States. Political infighting over recognizing Cuban belligerency took place in Grant's Cabinet. Secretary Fish, however, was able to convince Grant over Rawlins' impassioned arguments not to intervene in the Cuban insurrection. At this time Rawlins was becoming increasingly ill and was confined to his bed. Approval of Brooklyn Bridge construction One of Rawlins' last and most complicated acts as Secretary of War was the approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a steel suspension bridge to connect the borough of Manhattan and the then independent city of Brooklyn over the East River. Controversy ensued when shipping interests demanded a high grade of the bridge to allow large ships to pass under, while the bridge construction company demanded a lower bridge span. Although Rawlins was severely ill, he took several days minutely and carefully going over the construction plans to settle the matter. The bridge company desired a maximum 130 feet height while the shipping interests wanted a minimal 140 feet height. In front of both shipping and bridge representatives, Rawlins fixed the maximum height of the Brooklyn Bridge at 135 feet above the East's high water mark. The bridge company was prohibited from giving a different order of approval of the bridge's construction. Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge followed several months later, but Rawlins condition was terminal and he did not have long to live. The Brooklyn Bridge was finally completed in 1883 under much celebration and is one of the oldest working bridges in the United States. Last cabinet meeting and death By late August 1869, Rawlins' "consumption" had progressed, and while he was staying at his home in Danbury, Connecticut with his wife and children, he hemorrhaged. Called to the capital for a cabinet meeting, his wife and children stayed behind, while Rawlins set off for Washington. In New York, Rawlins hemorrhaged again, but he continued his journey to see the President. Making it to the capital he hemorrhaged again, but he made it to the cabinet meeting and sat at his regular chair. Grant and Secretary Fish were surprised to see him there. The next day Rawlins had a long meeting with Grant at the White House, whereupon Grant said goodbye to his friend, who left Washington for Saratoga to join his wife Julia. Rawlins was left alone without wife or family in Washington, but another close wartime friend and Native American, Ely Parker, cared for him. The following day, Sunday, September 5, Grant was informed of Rawlins' declining health, and he set back to Washington determined to see his friend before he died, but his trip was delayed. Sherman and Grant's Secretary of Interior Jacob D. Cox stayed with Rawlins at his bedside waiting for Grant to arrive. When Rawlins asked when Grant was going to arrive Sherman gently lied to him and said "about 10 minutes". Rawlins, however, persisted on asking his doctor, D. Willard Bliss, when Grant was coming to see him. The following day on Monday, September 6, 1869, Secretary of War Rawlins died in office at 4:12 PM. Grant arrived at Rawlins' at 5:15 PM, too late to see his friend. Historian William McFeely said concerning Grant missing Rawlins' death that no one "could replace John Rawlins. Now in the first year of the frightening business of the presidency, Rawlins was stolen from Grant, and he had not even been on hand to protest the theft." Rawlins was initially buried in a friend's vault at Congressional Cemetery; his remains were later relocated to Arlington National Cemetery. Rawlins was survived by his second wife Mary Hurlburt and two children. Rawlins was succeeded as Secretary of War by Sherman on an interim basis, and permanently by William W. Belknap. Honors and historical evaluations A statue, General John A. Rawlins was erected in Washington, D.C. in 1874. Rawlins Township, Jo Daviess County, Illinois, the town of Rawlins, county seat of Carbon County, Wyoming, as well as Rawlins County, Kansas are all named after him. Rawlins devoted his efforts to maintaining Grant's public image during the war. Grant was known before the war for trouble with alcoholism, but it was revealed, in a letter from Rawlins to Grant (which Grant never saw), that Grant maintained his sobriety during his command of the Army. In this letter, made public in 1891—several years after Grant's death—Rawlins wrote, "I find you where the wine bottle has been emptied, in company with those who drink, and urge you not to do likewise." Rawlins noted that this advice was "heeded, and all went well", thus proving that Grant was not impaired by drink when his decision-making was critical. There was speculation that by the time Rawlins died, he and Grant had grown distant and that Grant no longer needed Rawlins's constant fussing over his image. When Rawlins died, only his temporary successor as Secretary of War, General William Tecumseh Sherman, was at his bedside. In his memoirs, written shortly before his death, Grant only mentioned Rawlins a few times, and essentially ignored their professional and personal relationship. Surviving members of Grant's former staff were outraged at the fact that Grant would snub someone who had been so useful and as loyal to him—literally to the death—as Rawlins had been. The most likely explanation for this is given by historian E.B. Long, who wrote, "It might be that Grant did not wish to praise Rawlins too profusely because of the current reports picturing Rawlins as the protector of Grant from his own bad habits." Rawlins's anti-Mormon policy was part of a general latter half of the 19th-century hysteria campaign against Mormons. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act that outlawed polygamy. This law was not enforced until Secretary of War Rawlins, appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869, had convinced Grant to set up an anti-Mormon policy in the Utah Territory. To further prosecution of Mormon polygamy, including the arrest of Mormons, President Grant signed into law the Poland Act (1874) that allowed the federal government to choose juries that could prosecute polygamists. The law put all Mormons in the Utah Territory under control of the U.S. Marshal and U.S. Attorney. Two more anti-Mormon bills were passed including the Edmunds Act (1882), signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur, and the Edmunds–Tucker Act (1887), signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. An Endicott Era coast artillery battery at Fort Flagler was named after Rawlins in 1906. Military appointments Captain Assistant Military Adjutant General of Volunteers August 30, 1861 Major and Assistant Adjutant General of Volunteers May 14, 1862 Brigadier General of Volunteers August 11, 1863 Brigadier General United States Army and Chief of Staff to the Major General Commanding March 3, 1865 Major General United States Army April 9, 1865 Resigned March 12, 1869 Total military service time starting from first appointment date up to and including resignation date 2752 days or 7 years, 6 months, 13 days See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant William S. Hillyer – Another member of General Grant's original staff Notes References Sources Books Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, . Newspapers External links 1831 births 1869 deaths Union Army generals Illinois lawyers American people of Scotch-Irish descent Burials at Arlington National Cemetery People from Galena, Illinois United States Secretaries of War People of Illinois in the American Civil War 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Tuberculosis deaths in Washington, D.C. Grant administration cabinet members 19th-century American politicians Illinois Republicans Utah Republicans Critics of Mormonism Illinois Democrats	5,537
doc-en-11068_0	List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1958. 1958 U.S. and Canadian Fellows Lionel Abel, Writer; Professor Emeritus of English, State University of New York, Buffalo: 1958. S. Spafford Ackerly, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry, University of Louisville School of Medicine: 1958. Putnam C. Aldrich, Deceased. Music Research: 1958. Rudolf Allers, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. John Maxwell Anderson, Professor Emeritus of Zoology, Cornell University: 1958. Nesmith Ankeny, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Emil John Antonucci, Graphic Designer, Brooklyn, New York: 1958. Zach M. Arnold, Professor Emeritus of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Harry Paul Bailey, Deceased. Earth Science: 1958. Robert Lesh Baldwin, Emeritus Professor of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine: 1958. John Gilchrist Barrett, Professor Emeritus of History, Virginia Military Institute: 1958. Roy Wesley Battenhouse, Deceased. 16th and 17th Century English Literature: 1958. Charles Augustus Baylis, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. James MacArthur Beale, Composer; Professor of Music, University of Washington: 1958. Richard King Beardsley, Deceased. Anthropology: 1958. Edwin Ford Beckenbach, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Robert Adolph Becker, Deceased. Physics: 1958, 1959. Jack Hamilton Beeson, Composer; MacDowell Professor Emeritus of Music, Columbia University: 1958. Bruce Buzzell Benson, Deceased. Earth Science: 1958. Gerald Eades Bentley, Jr., Emeritus Professor of English, University College, University of Toronto: 1958. Alex Berman, Professor Emeritus of History and of Historical Studies in Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati: 1958. Doris Betts, Writer; Alumni Distinguished Professor of English, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: 1958. Orlin N. Biddulph, Deceased. Biochemistry: 1958. Lawrence C. Biedenharn, Jr., Deceased. Physics: 1958. Mark Blaug, Professor of the History and Methodology of Economics, University of Amsterdam: 1958. Al Blaustein, Artist; Associate Professor of Printmaking, Pratt Institute: 1958, 1961. Martin M. Block, Professor of Physics, Northwestern University: 1958. Travis Miller Bogard, Deceased. American Literature: 1958. Donald F. Bond, Deceased Professor Emeritus of English, University of Chicago: 1958, 1966. Thomas Neville Bonner, Emeritus President and Distinguished Professor Emeritus of History, Wayne State University: 1958, 1964. Philip Booth, Poet; Professor Emeritus of English, Syracuse University: 1958, 1964. Edgar Bowers, Deceased. Poetry: 1958, 1969. Fredson Thayer Bowers, Deceased. 16th & 17th Century English Literature; American Literature: 1958, 1970. Margaret Currier Boylen, Deceased. Fiction: 1958. Marion Vernon Brewington, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958. Carl Bridenbaugh, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958, 1962, 1968. Ellen Brown, Professor Emeritus of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco: 1958. Norman Brown, Professor of Metallurgy and Materials Science, University of Pennsylvania: 1958. Norman O. Brown, Professor Emeritus of Humanities, University of California, Santa Cruz: 1958. François Bucher, President, Nautilus Foundation, Lloyd, Florida; Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Medieval Art and Architecture, Florida State University: 1958, 1966. Robert Creighton Buck, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Joseph Frederick Bunnett, Professor of Chemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz: 1958. Dennis Byng, Painter; Professor of Art, State University of New York at Albany: 1958, 1959. John Francis Callahan, Professor Emeritus of Classics and Philosophy, Georgetown University: 1958. Ricardo Augusto Caminos, Deceased. Near Eastern Studies: 1958. Michael H. Cardozo, Deceased. Law: 1958. Josephine Carson, Writer, San Francisco: 1958, Appointed as Josephine Carson Rider. Edward Hastings Chamberlin, Deceased. Economics: 1958. Alfred Dupont Chandler, Jr., Isidor Straus Professor Emeritus of Business History, Harvard University: 1958. Arthur Child, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. Saul G. Cohen, University Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, Brandeis University: 1958. Rosalie Littell Colie, Deceased. Renaissance Studies: 1958, 1966. Jackson Irving Cope, Leo S. Bing Professor Emeritus of English, University of Southern California: 1958, 1984. Lawrence Cranberg, Editor/Columnist, Austin, Texas: 1958. William Patterson Cumming, Deceased. Geography: 1958. Daniel Curley, Deceased. Fiction: 1958. John Eldridge Cushing, Professor of Immunology, University of California, Santa Barbara: 1958. Ernesto Guerra Da Cal, Professor Emeritus of Spanish and Comparative Literature, Queens College, City University of New York: 1958. Gordon Charles Danielson, Deceased. Physics: 1958. Donald Allan Darling, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine: 1958. Charles Till Davis, Professor of History, Tulane University: 1958. David Brion Davis, Sterling Professor of History and Director, Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition, Yale University: 1958. Florence Ely Day, Deceased. Near Eastern Studies: 1958. Adrianus Jacobus Dekker, Deceased. Physics: 1958. William F. Donoghue, Jr., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine: 1958. Katherine Fischer Drew, Lynette S. Sutrey Professor of History, Rice University: 1958. Abraham Eisenstark, Director, Cancer Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia: 1958. Edwin Emery, Deceased. General Nonfiction: 1958. Kenneth O. Emery, Deceased. Earth Science: 1958. John J. Espey, Deceased. American Literature: 1958. Howard Ensign Evans, Professor Emeritus of Entomology, Colorado State University: 1958, 1969. LeRoy Eyring, Regent's Professor of Chemistry, Arizona State University: 1958. Austin Edwin Fife, Deceased. Folklore and Popular Culture: 1958. Russell Hunt Fifield, Professor Emeritus of Political Science, University of Michigan: 1958. Nathan Fine, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Robert Finn, Professor of Mathematics, Stanford University: 1958, 1965. Sten Gunnar Flygt, Deceased. German & East European History: 1958. Joseph Fontenrose, Deceased. Classics: 1958. H. Kurt Forster, Deceased. Professor of Engineering and Applied Science, University of California, Los Angeles: 1958. Joseph Frank, Deceased. 16th & 17th Century English Literature: 1958, 1961. Hans Frauenfelder, Director, Center for Nonlinear Studies, Los Alamos, New Mexico: 1958, 1972. David Noel Freedman, Professor of History, University of California, San Diego: 1958. Joseph W. Fretz, Former President, Conrad Grebel College, Waterloo, Canada: 1958. William Frost, Deceased. English: 1958, 1979. Robert Elston Fullerton, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Yuan-Cheng Fung, Professor of Bioengineering and Applied Mechanics, University of California, San Diego: 1958. Frederick W. Gehring, Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, University of Michigan: 1958. Walton B. Geiger, Deceased. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1958. Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Deceased. Economics: 1958. Richard Charles Gilkey, Deceased. Fine Arts, Painting: 1958. Leonard Gillman, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, University of Texas at Austin: 1958. David Gitlin, Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine: 1958. Judah Goldin, Deceased. Near Eastern Studies: 1958 Robert Norman Goodman, Deceased. Biology-Plant Science: 1958. Wytze Gorter, Professor Emeritus of Economics, University of Hawaii at Manoa: 1958. William Alonzo Gosline, Professor Emeritus of Zoology, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Zoologist, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan: 1958. Clarence Henry Graham, Deceased. Psychology: 1958. David Caldwell Grahame, Deceased. Chemistry: 1958. William S. Greever, Professor Emeritus of History, University of Idaho: 1958. George Daniel Grice, Jr., Dep Director, NE Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts: 1958. Neal B. Groman, Professor Emeritus of Microbiology, University of Washington: 1958. Norman Guttman, Deceased. Psychology: 1958. John Whitney Hall, Professor Emeritus of History, Yale University: 1958, 1976. Philip P. Hallie, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. George Heard Hamilton, Director, Sterling & Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts: 1958. Stanley S. Hanna, Professor of Physics, Stanford University: 1958. William Hansel, Gordon Cain Professor of Physiology, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge: 1958. Terrence Leslie Hansen, Deceased. Spanish: 1958. Nicholas M. Haring, Deceased. Medieval Studies: 1958, 1962. William Edward Harkins, Professor of Slavic Languages, Columbia University: 1958. John Franklin Haskins, Deceased. Fine Arts Research: 1958, 1963. Ihab Habib Hassan, Vilas Research Professor of English and Comparative Literature, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee: 1958, 1962. Harry Hawthorn, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology and Director, Museum of Anthropology, University of British Columbia: 1958. David Hayman, Evjue Bascom Professor in the Humanities, and Professor of Comparative Literature, University of Wisconsin–Madison: 1958. Harold Franklin Heady, Professor Emeritus of Forestry, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Donald Munro Henderson, Professor of Geology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: 1958. James M. Henderson, Deceased. Economics: 1958. William Stewart Hoar, Professor Emeritus of Zoology, University of British Columbia: 1958. Robert Hofstadter, Deceased. Physics: 1958, 1972. Lee Henry Hoiby, Composer, Long Eddy, New York: 1958. Jack Marvin Hollander, Professor Emeritus of Energy and Resources, University of California, Berkeley: 1958, 1965. Stanley Hollingsworth, Composer; Professor of Music, Oakland University: 1958. Howard Holtzer, Professor of Anatomy, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine: 1958. Katherine de Montalant Hoskins, Deceased. Poetry: 1958. Fred Walter Householder, Jr., Deceased. Classics: 1958. Holland Hunter, Professor Emeritus of Economics, Haverford College: 1958. Jacob C. Hurewitz, Professor Emeritus of Government, Columbia University: 1958. Henry David Hurst, Retired Historian, The Abbey, Portsmouth, Rhode Island: 1958. James Hutton, Deceased. Renaissance Studies: 1958. Ada Louise Huxtable, Architecture Critic, New York City: 1958. Paul Louis Illg, Deceased. Biology & Ecology: 1958. William Thomas Hobdell Jackson, Deceased. Medieval Studies: 1958, 1967. Everett Williams Jameson, Jr., Professor Emeritus of Zoology, University of California, Davis: 1958. James Steven Johnson, Jr., Senior Research Staff Member and Director, Water Research Program, Oak Ridge National Laboratory: 1958. William W. Johnson, Deceased. Biography: 1958. William Thomas Jones, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. John Emory Jordan, Deceased. 19th Century English Literature: 1958. William Rea Keast, Deceased. Professor Emeritus of English, University of Texas at Austin: 1958. Joseph Wilfred Kerman, Emeritus Professor of Music, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Stephen Denis Kertesz, Deceased. Political Science: 1958. William A. Kienbusch, Deceased. Fine Arts-Painting: 1958. Arthur F. Kip, Deceased. Physics: 1958. Daniel Kivelson, Professor of Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles: 1958. Martin Jesse Klein, Eugene Higgins Professor Emeritus of History of Physics and Professor of Physics, Yale University: 1958, 1967. LeRoy Henry Klemm, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, University of Oregon: 1958. Daniel L. Kline, Deceased. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1958. Morris Kline, Deceased. Mathematics: 1958. Wallace Conrad Koehler, Deceased. Physics: 1958. John Ladd, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, Brown University: 1958. Frederic Chapin Lane, Deceased. Renaissance Studies: 1958. Stanley H. Langer, Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison: 1958. John Laufer, Deceased. Astronomy: 1958. Leon M. Lederman, Director Emeritus, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory; Professor of Physics, University of Chicago: 1958. Allen Lein, Professor Emeritus of Reproductive Medicine, University of California, San Diego: 1958. Alfred Leitner, Professor Emeritus of Physics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute: 1958. James Chan Leong, Painter, Rome: 1958. Jacob Clavner Levenson, Edgar Allan Poe Professor Emeritus of English, University of Virginia: 1958. Donald Benjamin Lindsley, Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Physiology Recalled, University of California, Los Angeles: 1958. Edward Arthur Lippman, Professor Emeritus of Music, Columbia University: 1958. Leroy Earl Loemker, Deceased. Philosophy: 1958. Georg Hans Bhavani Luck, Professor Emeritus of Classics, The Johns Hopkins University: 1958. Richard Wall Lyman, President Emeritus; Emeritus Sterling Professor in Humanities; President, Rockefeller Foundation: 1958. Alfred Mann, Professor Emeritus of Music, Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester: 1958. Thomas Henry Manning, Deceased. Biology & Ecology: 1958. Ezio Martinelli, Deceased. Fine Arts-Sculpture: 1958, 1962. Ernest R. May, Charles Warren Professor of History, Harvard University: 1958. Joseph Anthony Mazzeo, Deceased. Medieval Literature: 1958. David McClelland, Deceased. Psychology: 1958. William A. McDonald, Deceased. Classics: 1958, 1967. Dean Jackson Meeker, Graphic Artist; Professor Emeritus of Art, University of Wisconsin–Madison: 1958. James Mercer Merrill, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958. John R. Meyer, James W. Harpel Professor Emeritus in the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University: 1958. John W. Miles, Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California, San Diego: 1958, 1968. Harvey A. Miller, Retired Professor of Botany, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio: 1958. Pauline A. Miller, Deceased. Biochemistry: 1958, 1959. Loften Mitchell, Writer; Associate Professor of Theater, State University of New York at Binghamton: 1958. Elliott Waters Montroll, Deceased. Particle Physics: 1958. Harry Thornton Moore, Deceased. 20th Century English Literature and Literary Criticism: 1958, 1960. Bruce Archer Morrissette, Deceased . French Literature: 1958. Ralph Ernest Morrow, Professor Emeritus of History, Washington University: 1958. Marvin Mudrick, Deceased. French Literature: 1958. John Frederick Muehl, Deceased. Non-Fiction: 1958. William R. Mueller, Deceased. 16th & 17th Century English Literature: 1958. Jack Edgar Myers, Professor Emeritus of Botany and Zoology and Director, Laboratory of Algal Physiology, University of Texas at Austin: 1958. Paul M. Naghdi, Deceased. Engineering: 1958. John Brian Neilands, Professor of Biochemistry, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Helen Florence North, Centennial Professor Emerita of Classics, Swarthmore College: 1958, 1975. Frederick A. Norwood, Deceased. Religion: 1958. Tetsuo Ochikubo, Deceased. Fine Arts: 1958. Nathan Oliveira, Artist; Ann O'Day Maples Professor of Art, Stanford University: 1958. Charles K. O'Neill, Historian, Greens Farms, Connecticut: 1958, 1959. Darrell Wayne Osborne, Deceased Senior Chemist, Argonne National Laboratory: 1958. Charles Robert Oscar, Deceased. Fine Arts-Painting: 1958. Roger A. Pack, Deceased. Classics: 1958. Carl George Parrish, Deceased. Music Research: 1958. Stephen Maxfield Parrish, Goldwin Smith Professor Emeritus of English, Cornell University: 1958, 1985. Vincent Persichetti, Deceased. Music Composition: 1958, 1968, 1973. Robert Torsten Petersson, Professor of English Language and Literature, Smith College: 1958. Reginald Henry Phelps, Deceased. German and East European History: 1958. Arthur Carl Piepkorn, Deceased. Religion: 1958. Robert Baxter Platt, Deceased. Biology& Ecology: 1958. Washington Platt, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958. Heinz Politzer, Deceased. German, Psychology: 1958, 1966, 1974. Edward Lawrence Powers, T. S. Painter Professor Emeritus in Genetics, University of Texas-Austin; Emeritus Professor in Residence, College of Charleston, SC: 1958. Stephen Prager, Professor Emeritus of Physical Chemistry, University of Minnesota: 1958, 1966. Jacob Myron Price, Professor Emeritus of History, University of Michigan: 1958, 1965. James Purdy, Writer, Brooklyn, New York: 1958, 1963. Richard E. Quandt, Hughes-Rogers Professor of Economics, Princeton University: 1958. Benjamin Arthur Quarles, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958. Warren Ramsey, Deceased. French Literature: 1958. Franco Rasetti, Professor Emeritus of Physics, The Johns Hopkins University: 1958. Herbert William Reichert, Deceased. German: 1958. Charles Remington, Associate Professor of Biology and Curator of Entomology in the Peabody Museum, Yale University: 1958. John William Reps, Professor Emeritus of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University: 1958. Joseph Melvin Reynolds, Deceased.Vice President Emeritus, Boyd Professor Emeritus of Physics, Louisiana State University (Baton Rouge), and Vice President for Instruction and Research, LSU System: 1958. Lawrence Richardson, Jr., James B. Duke Professor Emeritus of Latin, Duke University: 1958. Thomas Auraldo Riley, Deceased. German & Scandinavian Literature: 1958. Louis D. Roberts, Alumni Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Physics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: 1958. Jerome W. Rosen, Composer; Professor Emeritus of Music, University of California, Davis: 1958. James George Ross, Deceased. Biology - Plant Science: 1958. Norman Rubington, Deceased. Fine Arts-Painting: 1958. Elizabeth S. Russell, Senior Staff Scientist, Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine: 1958. Lawrence Vincent Ryan, Joseph S. Atha Professor Emeritus of Humanities, Stanford University: 1958. Stanley Martin Sapon, Professor of Psycholinguistics and Psychology, University of Rochester: 1958. Aldo D. Scaglione, E. M. Remarque Professor of Literature, New York University: 1958. Israel Scheffler, Victor S. Thomas Professor Emeritus of Education and Philosophy, Harvard University: 1958, 1972. Thomas D. Schocken, Retired City Planner, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: 1958. H. Stefan Schultz, Deceased. German: 1958. Aubrey E. Schwartz, Graphic Artist; Associate Professor of Art, Harpur College, State University of New York at Binghamton: 1958, 1959. Paul Sears, Deceased. Professor Emeritus of Conservation, Yale University: 1958. Thomas A. Sebeok, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Linguistics and Professor of Anthropology and of Uralic and Altaic Studies, Indiana University: 1958, 1980. Emilio G. Segrè, Deceased. Physics: 1958. Howard Harold Seliger, Professor of Biology, Johns Hopkins University: 1958. Roger W. Shattuck, University Professor Emeritus, Boston University: 1958. George Yury Shevelov, Professor Emeritus of Slavic Philology, Columbia University: 1958. Paul Claude Silva, Research Botanist, Botany Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Albert Silverman, Professor Emeritus of Physics and Nuclear Studies, Cornell University: 1958. George Sinclair, Deceased. Engineering: 1958. George Henry Sines, Jr., Research Professor of Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles: 1958. Grover C. Smith, Jr., Emeritus Professor of English, Duke University: 1958. Oliver Fuhriman Smith, Deceased. Biology-Plant Science: 1958. Herbert Solomon, Professor Emeritus of Statistics, Stanford University: 1958. Helen A. Stafford, Emeritus Professor of Biology, Reed College: 1958. Stanley J. Stein, Walter S. Carpenter, III Professor Emeritus of Spanish Civilization and Culture and Professor Emeritus of History; Princeton University: 1958, 1972. Milton Steinhardt, Deceased. Music Research: 1958, 1965. Bernard S. Strauss, Professor of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago: 1958. Robert Wheaton Taft, Jr., Deceased. Chemistry: 1958. Gardner Blake Taplin, Deceased. American Literature: 1958. James Herbert Taylor, Deceased. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1958. Hylton Armond Thomas, Deceased. Fine Arts Research: 1958. Robert Donald Thornton, Professor Emeritus of English, State University of New York College at New Paltz: 1958. John S. Toll, Chancellor Emeritus, Professor of Physics, University of Maryland: 1958. Tau-Yi Toong, Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering and Senior Lecturer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: 1958. George Charles Turrell, Professor, Infrared & Raman Spectroscopy Lab, University of Science Technology, Lille, France: 1958. David Budlong Tyler, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958. Myra L. Uhlfelder, Professor Emerita of Latin, Bryn Mawr College: 1958. Robert van den Bosch, Deceased. Biology: 1958. Romas Viesulas, Deceased. Fine Arts: 1958, 1964, 1969. John William Ward, Deceased. U.S. History: 1958, 1967. Robert Collett Warner, Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine: 1958. Ian Pierre Watt, Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor Emeritus of Humanities and Director, Humanities Center, Stanford University: 1958, 1972. Martin Weinberger, Deceased. Fine Arts Research: 1958. John Roy Whinnery, University Professor Emeritus, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Emil Henry White, Deceased. Chemistry: 1958. John Irving White, Emeritus Professor of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore: 1958. Lowell Elmond White, Jr., Professor Emeritus of Neuroscience, University of South Alabama: 1958. Lynn Townsend White, Jr., Deceased. Medieval History: 1958. Frans Wildenhain, Deceased. Fine Arts: 1958. Amos Niven Wilder, Deceased. Religion: 1958. Stephen Wilhelm, Professor Emeritus of Plant Pathology, University of California, Berkeley: 1958. Eric Wolf, Deceased. Distinguished Professor of Anthropology, Herbert H. Lehman College, City University of New York: 1958. George Wolf, Deceased. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1958. Ralph Charles Wood, Deceased. Linguistics: 1958. John Howard Young, Deceased. Classics: 1958. Roland Young, Deceased. Political Science: 1958, 1968. Luke Chia-Liu Yuan, Retired Senior Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory: 1958. Stephen Zamenhof, Deceased. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1958. Frederick Paul Zscheile, Jr., Deceased. Biology-Plant Science: 1958. 1958 Latin American and Caribbean Fellows Gabriel Alvial Cáceres, Professor of Physics, University of Chile: 1958. Moisés Béhar, Former Chief of the Nutrition Unit, World Health Organization, Geneva: 1958. Jonas Beregovich, Professor of Medicine, University of Chile: 1958. Marcelo Silvestre Bonevardi, Deceased. Fine Arts: Painting: 1958, 1959. José Ignacio Borrero, Professor Emeritus of Biology, University of Valle, Cali, Colombia: 1958. Salvador Bucca, Professor of Linguistics, University of Buenos Aires: 1958. Luis A. Camargo Gutiérrez, C.M.F., Research Botanist, Bogotá: Professor Emeritus of Botany, National University of Colombia: 1958, 1960. Emilio Carilla, Deceased. Spanish and Portuguese Literature: 1958. Luis Antonio Escobar, Composer, Bogotá: 1958, 1959. Ernesto Foldats Andins, Professor of Botany, Central University of Venezuela: 1958, 1959. Guillermo Arturo Iacobucci, Honorary Adjunct Professor of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta: 1958. Errol John, Deceased. Playwright: 1958, 1966. Oscar Kühnemann, Deceased. Director, Research Center of Marine Biology, National Institute of Industrial Technology, Miguelete, Buenos Aires: 1958. Juan Alejandro McMillan, Retired Associate Chemist, Argonne National Laboratory, University of Chicago: 1958. Teresa Gisbert de Mesa, Architect: 1958, 1966. José de Mesa Figueroa, Architect, La Paz; UNESCO Consultant in charge of Cuzco-Puno Restoration Program, Peru: 1958, 1966. Armando Morales, Artist, Paris, France: 1958, 1961. Jorge Eduardo Nicholson Calle, Botanist: 1958. Eduardo Nicol, Deceased Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, National Autonomous University of Mexico: 1958. Julián Orbón de Soto, Deceased. Music Composition: 1958, 1969. María Luisa Pacheco, Deceased. Fine Arts-Painting: 1958, 1959, 1960. Married name: Bernard. Eduardo Quisumbing, Deceased. Plant Science: 1958, 1959. Germán O. Valenzuela Vera, Entomologist: 1958. External links Guggenheim Fellows for 1958 See also Guggenheim Fellowship 1958 1958 awards	6,190
doc-en-11081_0	Henrikh Mkhitaryan (, ; born 21 January 1989) is an Armenian professional footballer who plays for club Roma and captains the Armenia national team. Mkhitaryan mainly plays as an attacking midfielder or winger. He won four Armenian Premier League titles with Pyunik, and joined Metalurh Donetsk in 2009; he moved to city rivals Shakhtar Donetsk in 2010 for €6.1 million. At Shakhtar, Mkhitaryan set the league goalscoring record in the 2012–13 season, and was named the league's Footballer of the Year. After also winning three domestic doubles, he signed for Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund for a club-record fee of €27.5 million, making him the most expensive Armenian player of all time. There, he won a DFL-Supercup in 2014, and in the following campaign, registered the most assists in the Bundesliga, with 15, the second most in Europe. He then joined Manchester United for £30 million (€34.3 million), becoming the first Armenian to play in the Premier League. He won the FA Community Shield, and scored the winner to win the UEFA Europa League title. Mkhitaryan's subsequent lukewarm form led him to sign for Arsenal in 2018, and then to Serie A club Roma on an initial loan. He signed permanently in 2020. Mkhitaryan has been a member of the senior side in his native country since 2007. He is Armenia's all-time top goalscorer, scoring 32 goals in 95 matches, as well as registering their first hat-trick. He has been named Armenian Footballer of the Year ten times, being awarded the distinction every year since 2009 (with the exception of 2010 and 2018). Mkhitaryan was also voted the CIS Footballer of the Year in 2012 and 2013, making him the first Armenian footballer to be named the best player from post-Soviet countries. Early life Mkhitaryan was born on 21 January 1989 in the Soviet Armenian capital Yerevan to Marina Taschyan and Hamlet Mkhitaryan. His father was a prominent striker for FC Ararat Yerevan during the 1980s, who died of a brain tumor at age 33 when Henrikh was seven years old. Marina Taschyan's mother was Russian from Moscow. The death of his father impacted Mkhitaryan significantly. He feels that if his father was still alive that "everything would be different." He gave him useful advice from a professional point of view. People who have watched Mkhitaryan and his father, say that their styles resemble each other very much. He has said, "I believe he sees me and is proud of me..." His mother is the head of the national teams department in the Armenian Football Federation and his elder sister, Monica, works at UEFA's headquarters. At the beginning of the 1990s, the Mkhitaryan family moved to France, where Hamlet Mkhitaryan played for the now defunct ASOA Valence and helped them to be promoted to the second division. Mkhitaryan spent his early childhood in Valence. He always wanted to become a football player and began to follow in his father's footsteps. As a child, he would watch his father play and always wanted to follow him to training. The Mkhitaryans returned to Yerevan in 1995. In the same year, Mkhitaryan joined the youth system of FC Pyunik. He graduated from the Institute of Physical Culture in Armenia. He studied economics at the Yerevan branch of the St. Petersburg Institute. Upon graduation, he planned to study there as a lawyer. In 2003, Mkhitaryan, aged 14 had trials with São Paulo in Brazil where he played alongside the likes of Hernanes and Oscar. He returned to Pyunik in 2004, then manager Mihai Stoichiță insisted on his return to Armenia. Growing up, Mkhitaryan considered Zinedine Zidane his football idol. Club career Pyunik Mkhitaryan joined the FC Pyunik youth system in 1995 and received his first salary at the age of 15. He was later promoted to the first team of FC Pyunik, making his professional debut in 2006 at the age of 17. He last played for the club in the 2009 season. During that season he scored 11 league goals in 10 league games. In his four seasons in the Pyunik first team, they won the Armenian Premier League on four occasions (2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009). They also won the Armenian Supercup twice (2007 and 2009) and the Armenian Cup once (2009). Armenian national team and Pyunik head coach Vardan Minasyan admitted that he would love to see his star player "playing in a stronger league." Minasyan stated young Henrikh was well on his way to becoming a legend in his own right. He said of Mkhitaryan, "He can win games on his own. He seizes control at the crucial moment and scores for fun." Due to his success in the 2009 Armenian Premier League at FC Pyunik, he joined Ukrainian Premier League club Metalurh Donetsk. Metalurh Donetsk Mkhitaryan joined Metalurh Donetsk in 2009. He scored a goal on his debut in a 3–0 victory against Belarusian Premier League side FC Partizan Minsk, in the Europa League on 16 July 2009. On 19 July 2009, he made his league debut in a 0–0 draw with Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk. His first league goal came in a 2–2 draw with Karpaty Lviv on 26 July 2009. On 6 August 2009, he scored the first goal in a 3–0 second leg Europa League win against Slovenian Interblock Ljubljana, winning 5–0 on aggregate. The following season he was named captain of the club on 14 July 2010, at the age 21, making him the youngest captain in Metalurh Donetsk history. He scored his first goal of the season, an 89th-minute penalty, in a 3–0 victory over Obolon Kyiv on 16 July 2010. He played his final match for the club in a 2–1 win against Dnipro on 30 August 2010. In his second season, he played eight matches and scored three goals, all of which were in the league. He made 37 league appearances during his time at Metalurh, scoring 12 goals. In total he played 45 matches for the club, scoring 16 times. Shakhtar Donetsk 2010–13: League wins and Golden Boot On 30 August 2010, he sealed a $7.5 million switch to reigning Premier League champions Shakhtar Donetsk. Before signing with Shakhtar, Mkhitaryan was in trial with Iran Pro League side Mes Kerman which he was rejected by head coach Samad Marfavi. His debut came on 10 September 2010 in a 1–0 away league defeat to Obolon Kyiv, being replaced after 62 minutes by Eduardo. His home debut was more successful, with Shakhtar coming back from a goal behind to win 4–1 against Tavriya Simferopol on 19 September 2010. He scored his first goal for the club in this match. Three days later he made his first appearance in the Ukrainian Cup, netting the second goal in a 6–0 win over Kryvbas. On 25 September 2010, he scored a late injury time winner in a 2–1 away victory over Metalist Kharkiv. He made his European debut for the club in the Champions League on 28 September 2010 against Sporting Braga winning 3–0. He made an appearance in the 2–0 Ukrainian Cup Final victory against Dynamo Kyiv, coming on in the 81st minute in place of Jádson. His first season with the club was extremely successful for Shakhtar as they won the treble (Premier League, Ukrainian Cup and the Super Cup). In the 2011–12 season Shakhtar won the Premier League and the Ukrainian Cup. Mkhitaryan scored the third goal in a 4–0 win against Obolon Kyiv in his first league match of the season. On 4 March 2012, he scored the equalizing goal in a 1–1 draw with Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk. He scored the only goal in a cup victory over Metalurh Zaporizhya on 11 April 2012. On 6 May 2012, he played a part in Shakhtar's 2–1 extra time victory over his former team Metalurh Donetsk in the Ukrainian Cup Final, coming off after 62 minutes for Douglas Costa. In an online poll on Shakhtar Donetsk's official website, Mkhitaryan was voted as the best player of Shakhtar in 2011–12 Premier League season with about 38% of total votes. He scored 11 goals in 37 matches, including 10 goals in 26 league matches. Shakhtar retained the Premier League and the Ukrainian Cup in the 2011–12 season. Mkhitaryan played in Shakhtar's 2–0 2012 Super Cup victory over Metalurh Donetsk. In his first match of the 2012–13 Premier League season, he scored twice and provided two assists in a 6–0 season opening victory against Arsenal Kyiv. He managed a hat-trick against Chornomorets Odesa in a 5–1 win to reach 10 goals for the season after just six games, equaling his tally for the previous season. On 19 September 2012, in Shakhtar's first Champions League match of the season, Mkhitaryan scored twice in a 2–0 victory over Danish champions Nordsjælland. This was the first time he had scored a goal in the Champions League and he was named Man of the Match. He was also named in the Team of the Week for match day 1 of the Champions League after his brace against Nordsjælland. On 16 March 2013, Mkhitaryan played his 100th game in the Ukrainian Premier League in a match against Chornomorets Odesa. On 11 May 2013, Mkhitaryan scored his 23rd and 24th goals of the Premier League season in a 5–0 victory over Tavria. These goals set a Ukrainian Premier League record for most goals in a season. Mkhitaryan finished the season with 25 league goals, and the attacking midfielder was praised for his technique and dedication. Borussia Dortmund On 25 June 2013, Borussia Dortmund made a €23 million ($30 million) bid, but in confirming the offer Shakhtar Donetsk CEO Sergei Palkin insisted that it fell short of the club's valuation, which was a single payment of €30 million ($36 million). On 5 July 2013, it was reported that Borussia Dortmund had succeeded in talks with Shakhtar and Mkhitaryan was on his way to Germany for a medical test. On 8 July 2013, Borussia Dortmund announced that it was set to sign a four-year deal with Mkhitaryan for €25 million (£21.5 million) Shakhtar and Borussia officially "resolved all the necessary formalities" and agreed on €27.5 million (£23.6 million), making him the most expensive purchase in the club's history. 2013–14: Debut season On his debut in a pre-season friendly against FC Basel on 10 July 2013, Mkhitaryan set up a goal for Marco Reus in the 11th minute and scored his first goal for the club 16 minutes later, helping his side to a 3–1 victory away at St. Jakob-Park. Mkhitaryan couldn't take part and wasn't listed in the squad at the 2013 DFL-Supercup which his club won due to an injury he received on a friendly game before that. Mkhitaryan debuted for Dortmund following his return from a three weeks sustained injury in the second round of 2013–14 Bundesliga on 18 August 2013 in a home victory over Eintracht Braunschweig at Signal Iduna Park. Mkhitaryan's first two Bundesliga goals were decisive in a 2–1 win over Eintracht Frankfurt to keep Dortmund in first place in the Bundesliga. His first Champions League goal for Dortmund came in a 2–1 away win against Arsenal. Mkhitaryan finished his season with nine goals and ten assists in the Bundesliga and was included in the WhoScored Bundesliga Team of the Season. His team finished runner-up at the 2013–14 Bundesliga, and runner-up for the 2013–14 DFB-Pokal. 2014–16: DFL-Supercup and top assist provider The first trophy Mkhitaryan won with Dortmund was the 2014 DFL-Supercup, scoring the first goal in the 2–0 victory over Bayern Munich. In September 2014, Mkhitaryan suffered an injury that sidelined him for a month and on 13 December 2014 he was injured again. He scored the second goal of a 3–0 win against rivals Schalke 04 on 28 February 2015. On 6 August 2015, Dortmund played against Wolfsberger AC in the third qualifying round second leg of the Europa League, Thomas Tuchel's first home match as coach. Mkhitaryan scored a late hat-trick for a 5–0 victory, 6–0 on aggregate. Three days later, he scored the second goal in a 2–0 win at 3. Liga club Chemnitzer FC in the first round of the DFB-Pokal. On 15 August 2015, Mkhitaryan scored a brace in a 4–0 win against Borussia Mönchengladbach in the first league game of the season. Five days later, he headed the winning goal as Dortmund came from 3–0 down to win 4–3 at Odds BK in the first leg of their Europa League play-off. In the second round of the domestic cup on 28 October 2015, Mkhitaryan scored the final goal of a 7–1 rout of SC Paderborn 07. Eight days later, his goal confirmed a 4–0 home win over Gabala FK, securing a place in the last 32 of the Europa League. On 20 April 2016, Mkhitaryan was one of three goalscorers as Borussia won 3–0 away at Hertha BSC in the semi-final of the DFB-Pokal. At the end of the season, Mkhitaryan was voted the Bundesliga Players' Player of the Season. He finished the league as the assist leader with 15 assists. Manchester United On 2 July 2016, Dortmund chief executive Hans-Joachim Watzke said that the sale of Mkhitaryan to England's Manchester United would be inevitable as the player would leave for free had he stayed one more year. Four days later, Mkhitaryan joined them on a four-year contract for a transfer fee reported variously as between £27 million and £30 million, with the option to extend for a further year. He became the first Armenian to join a Premier League club. Mkhitaryan made his debut in a 2–0 victory in a pre-season match against Wigan Athletic on 15 July 2016. On 7 August 2016, he made his competitive debut as a stoppage-time substitute in a 2–1 victory against Leicester City in the 2016 FA Community Shield. He became the first Armenian to play in the Premier League on 14 August 2016 when he came on as a 75th-minute substitute for Juan Mata in a 3–1 away victory against AFC Bournemouth. He made his first Premier League start for Manchester United in the Manchester derby on 10 September 2016, but he was substituted at half-time. On 8 December 2016, Mkhitaryan scored his first goal for the club, away against Zorya Luhansk, in Manchester United's last group match of the Europa League. Three days later, in United's next game, Mkhitaryan scored his first Premier League goal (and his first goal at Old Trafford) in a 1–0 victory over Tottenham Hotspur; however, he left the game in the second half after suffering an ankle injury in a tackle by Danny Rose. He returned from this injury two matches later, coming off the bench to score United's third goal against Sunderland, a scorpion kick which he described as being the best goal he had ever scored. He scored in the 2017 Europa League final to help Manchester United beat Ajax 2–0, and became the first Armenian to win a major European trophy. In the first three matches of the 2017–18 Premier League season, Mkhitaryan assisted a record-equalling five goals. Two days later, he scored his first goal of the season in a 4–0 victory over Everton. He scored his first Champions League goal for Manchester United ten days later in a 4–1 away win against CSKA Moscow. However, following a run of poor form, Mkhitaryan was dropped from the starting line-up during United's 4–1 victory over Newcastle United. He returned for the following match against Brighton and Hove Albion but then faced a five Premier League match absence from the squad. He returned to the squad for three games in late December but was dropped again for his final three United games. Arsenal On 22 January 2018, Arsenal announced the signing of Mkhitaryan from Manchester United, as part of a swap deal with Alexis Sánchez moving in the other direction. On 3 February 2018, he made his first start for Arsenal in a 5–1 home win over Everton, claiming three assists. Mkhitaryan returned from injury to face Manchester United at Old Trafford, scoring Arsenal's only goal in an eventual 2–1 loss, refusing to celebrate the goal out of respect for his former team. Mkhitaryan scored a goal and an assist in Arsenal's second games of the 2018–19 season against London rivals Chelsea, losing the match 3–2. He scored a brace against Southampton in another 3–2 defeat, before suffering a metatarsal fracture in the following game, a 2–0 North London derby League Cup defeat. Mkhitaryan return to the squad to get two goals and three assists across his second and third game back, helping Arsenal in their 2–0 win over Southampton and 5–1 win over Bournemouth. Mkhitaryan was at the centre of a controversy ahead of the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final in Baku, Azerbaijan between Arsenal and Chelsea; Armenia and Azerbaijan do not have international relations and people of Armenian descent are forbidden entry to Azerbaijan without prior formal authorisation. He was promised guarantees of security, but did not travel over safety fears. Mkhitaryan and Arsenal ultimately decided that he would not travel with the squad to the final match, as he previously opted twice not to travel to Azerbaijan, the first was in 2015 to play for Borussia Dortmund against Gabala, and the second was in 2018 for Arsenal against Qarabağ. Roma 2019–20 season: Initial loan Mkhitaryan played three games for Arsenal before, on 2 September 2019, he joined Italian club A.S. Roma on a season-long loan deal for €3 million, plus an additional €100,000 in variables. Mkhitaryan made his debut against Sassuolo on 15 September and scored a goal in Roma's 4–2 win. In late September, Mkhitaryan suffered an injury to his adductor muscle in a 1–0 win over Lecce. Initially expected to be out for three weeks, he returned to the squad in late November. On his first game back from injury, Mkhitaryan scored in a 3–1 win over Hellas Verona. He then scored two games later against SPAL on 12 December 2019, sending Roma up to fourth place in the Serie A table. In January 2020, Mkhitaryan suffered a second injury of the season to his thigh muscle putting him out for a further month. For the third time, Mkhitaryan scored on his return to the squad, in a 2–3 loss to Bologna. He later scored in back to back victories over Lecce and Cagliari. 2020–21 season: Permanent transfer On 31 August 2020, Mkhitaryan's contract with Arsenal was cancelled by mutual consent and he joined Roma on a permanent deal. On 5 November 2020, Mkhitaryan scored the club's fastest-ever goal in the UEFA Europa League, after just 57 seconds, in a 5–0 defeat of Romanian outfit CFR Cluj. Three days later, he scored a hat-trick for Roma in a 3–1 Serie A win at Genoa. International career Mkhitaryan debuted for the Armenia national team in an away friendly match against Panama on 14 January 2007. He scored six goals for Armenia in UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group B, thus becoming top goalscorer in that group. Although Armenia did not advance past the qualifying stage for UEFA Euro 2012, Mkhitaryan's performances landed him in the UEFA Euro 2012 Qualifying Dream Team with six goals. On 10 September 2013, in the absence of regular skipper goalkeeper Roman Berezovsky, Mkhitaryan captained his country for the first time, as they lost 0–1 at home to Denmark in World Cup qualification. He became the top scorer in the history of the Armenian national team, after scoring his 12th goal for the national team in a 1–3 defeat to Italy in another qualifier on 15 October. This surpassed the 11 scored for the nation by Artur Petrosyan. On 27 May 2014, he scored twice in a 4–3 friendly win against the United Arab Emirates at the Stade de la Fontenette in Carouge, Switzerland. Two years and a day later, he scored Armenia's first international hat-trick in a 7–1 friendly win over Guatemala in Los Angeles. Style of play Mkhitaryan is an attacking midfielder, who is also capable of playing as a second striker or as a winger. He excels playing in a central role, just behind the strikers, where he often looks to link up with his teammates in and around the penalty area. He is known for his ability to draw away opposing defenders and, in turn, create space for his teammates to exploit, leading to goal scoring opportunities, courtesy of his offensive movement, technique, and vision. Mkhitaryan has also been praised for his precise passing, dribbling ability, creativity, ball control and work rate, as well as his eye for the final pass; his skill and trickery on the ball enables him to beat defenders in one on one situations. Furthermore, he possesses an accurate shot. During the 2012–13 season, former Scottish footballer Pat Nevin said of Mkhitaryan, "Eleven goals in eight league matches already is fantastic, but when you add that he is a midfielder, it is phenomenal. You may not have heard of him yet, even if all the scouts at the top European clubs have, but you soon will. He has pace, skill, a rocket of a shot and the ability to arrive in the box like Frank Lampard. This all singles him out as a player who must be watched or more importantly marked." Personal life Mkhitaryan is a polyglot, who speaks eight languages: Armenian, French, Portuguese, Russian, Ukrainian, English, Italian and German. He attributes his knowledge of Russian to his maternal grandmother, who was of Russian ethnicity. He learned the first three languages in his childhood, while the latter four he picked up playing in Ukraine, Germany, and England. Shakhtar's Donbass Arena has a tradition of playing music each time home players score goals, with a track corresponding to the nationality of a scorer. "Sabre Dance" by Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian was played whenever Mkhitaryan scored. This song became very popular in Donetsk due to Mkhitaryan scoring frequently. Marriage In June 2019, Mkhitaryan married Betty Vardanyan at the monastery of San Lazzaro degli Armeni, near Venice, Italy. She is the granddaughter of Hrant Vardanyan, the founder of Grand Holding, Armenia's main cigarettes and candy producer. On 4 March 2020, their son, Hamlet Mkhitaryan was born. Nicknames Mkhitaryan has been nicknamed Heno (Հենո), short for Henrikh, by his fans in Armenia; he appreciates its informality. Soon after joining Borussia Dortmund, he was often nicknamed Micki by international fans. Mkhitaryan did not approve of this and personally asked his fans to respect his Armenian family name, stating, "I have come to a foreign country and respect its laws and traditions, but I do want them to respect my love for homeland and my roots. I will not adapt and change anything. I'm going to score goals, then they will definitely remember my name." He stated in an interview that it was Borussia manager Jürgen Klopp who gave him that nickname because his surname is too long to pronounce, and he later responded that it is OK to use that nickname. His verified Instagram account is named micki_taryan. State awards In 2012, by the decision of the Yerevan City Council, and in connection with the city's 2,794th anniversary, Mkhitaryan was awarded with the "Honorary Citizen of Yerevan" title, for his great success in football and his brilliant achievements in sports. Mkhitaryan has visited Artsakh three times on charity visits. In December 2011, Mkhitaryan visited Stepanakert, capital of the disputed territory, and donated gifts to the families of fallen soldiers. He was subsequently awarded the NKR Prime Minister's medal. In September 2020, amid the Nagorno-Karabakh war, Mkhitaryan called for international action to stop Azerbaijan from shelling civilian areas of Artsakh and urged international community to recognize Artsakh's independence. Career statistics Club International Honours Pyunik Armenian Premier League: 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Armenian Cup: 2009 Armenian Supercup: 2007, 2008 Shakhtar Donetsk Ukrainian Premier League: 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13 Ukrainian Cup: 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13 Ukrainian Super Cup: 2012 Borussia Dortmund DFL-Supercup: 2014 Manchester United EFL Cup: 2016–17 FA Community Shield: 2016 UEFA Europa League: 2016–17 UEFA Super Cup runner-up: 2017 Individual Armenian Footballer of the Year: 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020 Footballer of the Year in Baltic and Commonwealth of Independent States: 2012, 2013 Ukrainian Premier League Best Player: 2012–13 Ukrainian Premier League Top Scorer: 2012–13 Ukrainian Premier League Footballer of the Year: 2012 CIS Footballer of the Year: 2012, 2013 Bundesliga Player of the Month: April 2016 Bundesliga Assist Leader: 2015–16 Bundesliga Team of the Season: 2015–16 DFB-Pokal top goalscorer: 2015–16 kicker Bundesliga Players' Player of the Season: 2015–16 Premier League Goal of the Month: December 2016 EFL Cup top assist provider: 2016–17 Manchester United Goal of the Season: 2016–17 (vs. Sunderland, 27 December 2016) UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2016–17 Orders First-Class Medal of Services to the Motherland (2017) References External links Bundesliga profile 1989 births Living people Armenian people of Russian descent Armenian emigrants to France Sportspeople from Yerevan Armenian footballers Association football midfielders FC Pyunik players FC Metalurh Donetsk players FC Shakhtar Donetsk players Borussia Dortmund players Manchester United F.C. players Arsenal F.C. players A.S. Roma players Armenian Premier League players Ukrainian Premier League players Bundesliga players Premier League players Serie A players Ukrainian Premier League top scorers UEFA Europa League winning players Armenia international footballers Armenian expatriate footballers Armenian expatriate sportspeople in Ukraine Armenian expatriate sportspeople in Germany Armenian expatriate sportspeople in England Armenian expatriate sportspeople in Italy Expatriate footballers in Ukraine Expatriate footballers in Germany Expatriate footballers in England Expatriate footballers in Italy	6,272
doc-en-6904_0	Christopher Scoville (born February 17, 1984) is an American professional wrestler, better known by his ring name Jimmy Jacobs. He is signed to Impact Wrestling as a member of the creative team and producer. He is best known for his 12-year career in Ring of Honor (ROH), where he is a five-time World Tag Team Champion. He has also worked for WWE as a writer in the past. Professional wrestling career Early career (1999–2002) Scoville first became involved in the wrestling industry in June 1998 as a general assistant for Pro Wrestling Worldwide (PWW), a promotion based in Grand Rapids, Michigan where his brother, Nick, was working. Scoville spent nine months performing various tasks, including providing color commentary and acting as the company webmaster. After PWW folded, Scoville began working for the Lakeshore Wrestling Organization (LsWO), and was made a referee on March 6, 1999, substituting for a referee who was on vacation. He began training as a wrestler under veteran Joe "El Tejano" Ortega, a former student of Jose Lothario and the founder of the LsWO, in Holland, Michigan in March 1999, and wrestled his debut match on May 1, 1999, at the age of fifteen as "Jimmy Jacobs", losing to Michael Stryker. Scoville completed his training in August 1999 and went on to wrestle for various independent promotions in the Michigan area on the weekends, while attending high school and working as a furniture mover during the week. After graduating, he attended college for three years before deciding to focus on his wrestling career as a full-time job in May 2005. Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (2002–2009) From 2002 to 2005, Jacobs worked for Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (IWA Mid-South). On September 17, 2004, Jacobs defeated Delirious in a ladder match to win the vacant IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship. On December 12, Delirious defeated Jacobs in a rematch to win the title. On April 1, 2005, Jacobs defeated Danny Daniels to win the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship. At an AAW show on November 26, 2005, Jacobs threw the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship in a garbage can, citing he needed to get paid after the shows he had been scheduled to wrestle on for IWA Mid-South that weekend had been cancelled. On January 21, 2006, he lost the IWA Mid-South World Championship to Arik Cannon and left the promotion. He returned in a surprise appearance on September 30, 2006, and has since made more surprise appearances and had a few matches, however in an "unofficial" capacity. On January 5, 2007, Jacobs wrestled his first match back as he faced his former friend Josh Abercrombie. Jacobs would end up losing that match due to outside interference. On April 12, 2008, Jacobs defeated long-time nemesis B.J. Whitmer in a no-rope, barbed wire match to end their feud. On March 7, 2009, Jacobs defeated Quick Carter Gray to win the IWA-MS Light Heavyweight Championship for the second time. On June 5, 2009, Jason Hades defeated Jacobs for the title. Ring of Honor Early appearances and Lacey's Angels (2003–2007) Jacobs joined Ring of Honor (ROH) in 2003 along with rival Alex Shelley with whom he'd feud against or occasionally team with early on in ROH. After Dan Maff left the company as a result of a fallout with his trainer Homicide, Jacobs formed a tag team with Maff's former partner, B.J. Whitmer. On April 2, 2005, Jacobs and Whitmer defeated Samoa Joe and Jay Lethal for the vacant ROH Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to The Carnage Crew on July 9, 2005, but regained them on July 23. They went on to lose the title again, this time to the team of Sal Rinauro and Tony Mamaluke, on October 1, 2005. Jacobs and Whitmer continued to team as part of Lacey's Angels managed by Lacey. The team broke apart as Jacobs was more concerned with winning Lacey's affections than winning matches. Jacobs would go on to make music videos for ROH professing his love for Lacey. After Jacobs and Whitmer split, the two began feuding in brutal matches. In one match at the Dragon Gate Challenge on March 30, 2006, Whitmer slipped on the top turnbuckle while attempting a super powerbomb that dropped Jacobs head and neck first on the ropes and edge of the ring. The two continued to wrestle several minutes longer. At In Your Face on June 17, 2006, Whitmer super powerbombed Jacobs into the crowd. Jacobs went on to injure Whitmer at Gut Check on August 26, 2006. It was later revealed in a storyline that Lacey was sleeping with Colt Cabana. Lacey arranged for the two to be a tag team. Cabana left the team because he was annoyed at Lacey, and tried to explain to Jacobs that she was using him. Jacobs seemingly accepted Cabana's explanation, before assaulting him. Whitmer made his way back from injury and continued his issue with Jacobs. When Brent Albright joined Lacey's Angels, their matches soon became tag team matches, where Whitmer and Cabana would face Jacobs and Albright. It later progressed when Daizee Haze joined forces with Whitmer, and Lacey, in turn as the leader of the group, hired an "assassin", Mercedes Martinez. At The Chicago Spectacular: Night 2, Lacey was injured after Whitmer accidentally struck her in the face with a spike when Jacobs moved out of the way. Jacobs would go on to make his third music video (in which he has been described as being "demented") expressing his feelings on her disfigurement. On March 31, 2007, in his native town of Detroit, Jacobs battled B.J. Whitmer in what the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter called an instant classic. The two concluded their year-long feud in a steel cage match. Jacobs won the match, but afterwards, it was announced that Jacobs had lost a tooth and torn his Anterior cruciate ligament (an injury he previously sustained), and Whitmer had suffered a neck injury. While Jacobs was injured, ROH decided to continue the Lacey-Jacobs storyline with 4 small vignettes shown on YouTube, detailing a trip that Lacey spent in Chicago with Jacobs; afterward, he accompanied Lacey to the ring for her matches, in which they appeared to have swapped personalities. In August 2007, Jacobs returned to ROH winning three straight matches by defeating Rhett Titus on August 24, Mitch Franklin on August 25 and Chris Hero on September 14. The Age of the Fall (2007–2009) For months leading into the ROH return to Chicago there were cryptic messages on a blog of a stable entering ROH that was code-named "Project 161". After making a successful return to ROH, Jacobs, the returning Necro Butcher and the debuting Tyler Black attacked The Briscoe Brothers immediately following their ladder match with Kevin Steen and El Generico, which confirmed that Jacobs was behind Project 161. Jay Briscoe was hung upside from the rigging that was used to hoist the titles from the ladder match and, as Jay's blood dripped onto Jacobs, he announced the beginning of The Age of the Fall. The angle was so controversial that ROH decided to remove the footage from the pay-per-view that was being taped at the event. The footage was heavily requested by ROH fans, however, so it was shown on the ROH Videowire for the week of September 15, and a "blood edit" of their debut is featured on the DVD of the event, Man Up. Later on in the event, Tyler Black and Jack Evans faced off in a dark match until both Jacobs and Necro Butcher got involved. The Irish Airborne (David and Jake Crist) entered the ring to save Jack Evans, which led to a six-man tag team match between The Age of the Fall and the team of Evans and the Irish Airborne. The match ended a no contest as Necro Butcher attacked the referee. The day after their debut, their website revealed that all the blog entries had been written by Tyler Black. In an interview with a German website, Jacobs revealed there would be more people involved. This was incorporated into British promotion 3CW in early November when Jacobs was revealed as the newest member of a similar faction in the promotion known as The Lost, managed by Sean David. Jacobs faced Sterling James Keenan on November 11 in a "Street Fight" in Middlesbrough, England. A woman named Allison Wonderland would also become a follower of Jacobs on November 30, debuting in Dayton during a 4-Way Tag Team Scramble match. At Unscripted III, Jacobs defeated former ROH World Champion Bryan Danielson with his new finisher, the End Time. At Final Battle 2007, Jacobs and Tyler Black defeated the Briscoe Brothers to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship. On January 25, 2008, Jacobs teamed with the returning Joey Matthews, the newest member of The Age of the Fall, in a losing effort against Roderick Strong and Rocky Romero of the No Remorse Corps. The following night, Jacobs and Black lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the No Remorse Corps' Davey Richards and Romero in an Ultimate Endurance match, also involving Brent Albright and BJ Whitmer of The Hangmen 3, and Austin Aries and Bryan Danielson. On February 22, 2008, Jacobs introduced Zach Gowen as the newest member of the group. Following the announcement the two of them were defeated by the Vulture Squad of Jigsaw and Ruckus. The group at this time had an open invitation for Austin Aries to join them, writing blogs and posting YouTube videos about and directed at him. Tammy Lynn Sytch had made a counter offer to Aries of her services (including offering money and sex) against him joining the group. On March 30, 2008, Aries left the ring with Lacey, who was going to 'convince' him, and it was implied that the two had sex. At this show Rain accompanied the group to the ring, as she has done in Full Impact Pro, because the show was in Florida. On April 19, Aries not only turned down the invitation into the group, Lacey left the group instead, siding with Aries romantically. Jacobs, heartbroken by Lacey leaving him, broke down in the ring to the chants of "Cry, Jimmy, Cry!" from fans and being covered with streamers. Later in the show Jacobs showed signs of a mental breakdown as he hit himself in the head with his trademark spike, to the concern of his fellow group members. The main event was changed as Jacobs pulled out. "The Vulture Squad" (Ruckus, Jigsaw and Jack Evans) were then beaten by the combination of Matthews, Black and Gowen (who replaced Jacobs). Post match Jacobs called out Aries and the two brawled, before Aries was attacked Black, Matthews and Gowen. Jacobs went to attack Aries with his spike, but stopped when Lacey begged him not to. On October 25, Jacobs and Aries then had an Anything Goes match where Jacobs won, but lost a Dog Collar match to Aries on November 8, after losing a large amount of blood. In a match set to end the feud, Jacobs lost to Aries in an "I Quit" match at Rising Above. During the match Lacey returned and almost threw in the towel for Aries, but Aries begged her not to. Lacey then prevented Tyler Black from throwing in the towel for Jacobs, forcing Jacobs to say "I Quit". As a result of the loss to Aries, Jacobs attacked Black at Final Battle 2008 in December. Jacobs and Black continued to feud for several months, and on June 27, Black defeated Jacobs in a steel cage match. Afterwards, over a dozen men dressed in black clothing and black masks climbed into the cage and attacked Black, while Jacobs proclaimed that the Age of the Fall was not over. The following night, after Kenta had defeated Black, Jacobs and his followers attacked Black again and tried to hang him upside down above the ring, but were stopped by Kevin Steen, El Generico and Delirious. They hung Jacobs upside down above the ring, with Black declaring that the Age of the Fall was finished. During mid-July 2009, it was revealed that Jacobs had left ROH. A video package was shown on Ring of Honor Wrestling, where Jacobs announced that he was leaving, and he later confirmed his departure in an interview on July 14. S.C.U.M. and The Decade (2011–2015) Jacobs returned to ROH on May 21, 2011, when he was revealed as Steve Corino's sponsor. At the August 13 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling, Jacobs wrestled his first match for ROH in over two years, losing to Mike Bennett. After several months of trying to "purge" himself of evil, Jacobs hinted a heel turn at the 10th Anniversary Show in a No Disqualification match against Kevin Steen, but lost after freezing in shock when he hit Steen with his trademark spike. Later that month, at Showdown in the Sun, Jacobs fully turned heel by helping Steen beat El Generico in a Last Man Standing match on March 30, and beat Generico himself the next night in an impromptu match. On May 12, Jacobs and Steen were joined by Steve Corino to form the S.C.U.M. (Suffering, Chaos, Ugliness, and Mayhem) stable. On September 15 at Death Before Dishonor X: State of Emergency, Jacobs and Corino defeated Charlie Haas and Rhett Titus in the finals of a tournament to win the vacant ROH World Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to the Briscoe Brothers (Jay and Mark Briscoe) on December 16 at Final Battle 2012: Doomsday in a three-way match, which also included the team of Caprice Coleman and Cedric Alexander. On June 23, 2013, S.C.U.M. was forced to disband, after being defeated by Team ROH in a Steel Cage Warfare match. In September 2013, Jacobs returned to ROH at the request of the retiring B.J. Whitmer, who interceded with Matchmaker Nigel McGuinness on Jacobs' behalf. As part of the storyline, Jacobs was given a five-match series, with the stipulation that if he won at least three of the matches, he would receive a match for the ROH World Championship. Jacobs would go on to win three out of the five matches, and therefore received his title match against ROH World Champion, Adam Cole, however was unsuccessful. On December 14, 2013, at Final Battle 2013, Jacobs turned heel again, alongside BJ Whitmer and Roderick Strong; the trio attacked Eddie Edwards, explaining they were sick of people being celebrated for leaving the company, while the constant wrestlers in ROH went unappreciated. The newly formed group went under the name of "The Decade". Tension arose between Jacobs and Whitmer after Whitmer successfully recruited Colby Corino, the 18-year-old son of Whitmer's rival Steve Corino. On March 28, 2015, Jacobs lost to Whitmer at Supercard of Honor IX, and was attacked by Whitmer and The Decade following the match. Jacobs was saved by Lacey, making her first appearance for the company since 2008, and the two embraced as the "Ballad of Lacey" played. Jacobs also gave a farewell speech. Other promotions (2003–2015) Throughout 2003 and 2004, Jacobs worked for Combat Zone Wrestling, where he was managed by then-girlfriend Becky Bayless. Jacobs made his first appearance for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in May 2005, when he won a match against Eddie Guerrero via disqualification on SmackDown!. Later in the year, he unsuccessfully challenged Nunzio for the Cruiserweight Championship on Velocity. Jacobs was part of the first season of Wrestling Society X, a promotion that aired on MTV. He competed as part of an emo tag team with Tyler Black, known as D.I.F.H. (Doin' It For Her). They mainly competed on the WSX web show WSXtra, where they earned a place in the tag title tournament, which didn't take place as the company folded before it was set to happen in season 2. Jacobs made his debut for Insanity Pro Wrestling in Indianapolis, Indiana on August 1, 2009, at Reign Of The Insane Stage 1 in a losing effort to local wrestler Aaron Williams. However, Jacobs would return to the company on March 6, 2010, at A New Age Of Punishment helping Aaron Williams defeat J.C. Bailey. Later that night he would win his first victory in the company, defeating local wrestler Billy Roc. After the match Bailey attacked both Jacobs and Williams however both gained the upper hand on Bailey. IPW Commissioner Brandon Prophet set up a match between Jacobs and Bailey on April 3, 2010, at Uprising however Bailey no showed the event and Jacobs faced Kyle Threat instead gaining his second win in the company. On June 5, 2010, at Desperate Measures Jacobs would go on to defeat Drake Younger. Later in the show after a title match between Aaron Williams and Jon Moxley, Jacobs would attack Moxley causing the locker room to separate both men. After the Show, Jacobs confronted Moxley saying that when he sees Moxley, he sees himself in a mirror. On August 21, 2010, at IPW 9th Anniversary Reign Of The Insane, Jacobs challenged Moxley for the IPW World Heavyweight Championship in a losing effort. On October 2, 2010, Jacobs would go on to defeat Scotty Vortekz at Shocktoberfest to face Jesse Emerson for the number one contendership of the IPW World Heavyweight Championship on November 11, 2010, at the 10TH Annual Super Junior Heavyweight Tournament in a losing effort. On January 1, 2011, at Showdown In Naptown, Jacobs defeated Jon Moxley to win the IPW World Heavyweight Championship in a dog collar match due to referee stoppage. Jacobs would go on to successfully defend the title against Jesse Emerson the next month at Untitled. After the match, The Messiahs of a New Age attacked Jimmy Jacobs until The Irish Airborne hit the ring to make the save. The next month at Uprising Jacobs would defeat Dave Crist for the IPW World Title by DQ when the Messiahs interfered in the match. On June 18, 2011, Jacobs vacated the IPW World Title due to a neck injury. On December 15, 2009, the promotion Evolve posted a video on their YouTube page called "Unknown", hyping someone named "Abstract Wrestler". Over the next two weeks, more videos were posted, until a final video was posted on December 26, revealing that the wrestler was Jacobs. The video confirmed that Jacobs would appear on Evolve's first show on January 16, 2010, at Evolve 1: Ibushi vs Richards. At the event Jacobs defeated Kenn Doane. Jacobs would go on to defeat Johnny Gargano on March 13, 2010, at Evolve 2: Hero vs Hidaka and Brad Allen at Evolve 3: Rise and fall. He suffered his first loss on July 23, 2010, at Evolve 4: Danielson vs Fish, losing to Chuck Taylor. In February 2012 Jacobs debuted in Pro Wrestling Ohio (since renamed Prime Wrestling), revealing his identity as the mystery man in the ski mask who had attacked and reinjured Johnny Gargano during the prior year. Since joining the Cleveland based promotion, Jacobs won the Prime Wrestling Heavyweight Championship from Matt Cross, only to lose it shortly after to a returning Gargano. Jacobs debuted in Juggalo Championship Wrestling (JCW) on Insane Clown Posse's 2007 "The Tempest Release Party" tour. Tagging with Josh Abercrombie, he lost to Mad Man Pondo and Necro Butcher. Jacobs competed at Bloodymania that August in a losing effort against Último Dragón. He lost to 2 Tuff Tony at that year's Hallowicked After Party, but defeated Zach Gowen at Big Ballas X-Mas Party. At 2009's Bloodymania III, he lost a match against Ken Shamrock. Jacobs became a full-time member of the roster in 2011. At Flashlight Hysteria, he defeated Sal the Man of a Thousand Gimmicks. Sal later challenged Jacobs to a "Best of Three" match series, with the loser leaving Juggalo Championship Wrestling. Jacobs won the first two matches of the series, successfully forcing Sal out of the company. Jacobs has also made appearances with Portland-area promotion West Coast Wrestling Connection. He unsuccessfully challenged WCWC Legacy Champion Big Duke for his title in a match aired on WCWC's TV program on KPDX on August 2, 2014. In mid-2014, Jacobs started working for Chikara as a part of the heel stable "The Flood". WWE (2015–2017) In March 2015, it was reported that Jacobs was joining WWE's creative team as a writer, and he had his first day of work on April 1. On October 11, 2017, it was reported that Jacobs had been let go by WWE for posting a photo on Instagram with members of Bullet Club, during their "invasion" of Raw. Return to the independent circuit (2017–present) On October 15, 2017, Jacobs made an appearance in ROH at Global Wars: Chicago. Playing off his firing from WWE, he appeared in the crowd at the end of the show and took another selfie with members of Bullet Club. On October 28, 2017, Jacobs made his independent circuit return by debuting for WrestleCircus at CircusMania by interrupting Sami Callihan's promo. On November 3, 2017, Jacobs returned to AAW: Professional Wrestling Redefined challenging Rey Fénix to a title match. It was announced via Twitter that Jacobs would return to Combat Zone Wrestling's Night of Infamy show on November 11, 2017. Jacobs defeated Jimmy Havoc in a match on December 9 at CZW Cage of Death 19. On March 11, 2018, Jacobs returned to XICW and defeated "GQ" Gavin Quinn to become XICW Midwest Champion On September 1, 2018, Jacobs participated in the Over Budget Battle Royal at All In (professional wrestling). On September 23, 2021, Jacobs made his debut for GCW's Emo Fight event by singing "The Ballad of Lacey" before being interrupted by Atticus Cogar, leading to the two having a match in the main event where Jimmy won. Afterwards, Lacey appeared and reunited with Jacobs. Impact Wrestling (2017–present) On November 5, 2017, Jacobs made his Impact Wrestling debut at Bound for Glory. Then, he joined the promotion as an on-air character and backstage producer. He became the manager of Kongo Kong. He would settle in to a role as a member of the creative team. Championships and accomplishments Absolute Intense Wrestling AIW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with B.J. Whitmer All American Wrestling AAW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) AAW Heritage Championship (2 times) AAW Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Tyler Black (1) and Arik Cannon (1) First AAW Triple Crown Championship Allegiance Tag Title Tournament (2013) – with Silas Young Anarchy Championship Wrestling ACW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Texas Lone Star Classic (2008) Border City Wrestling BCW Can-Am Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Phil Atlas Championship Wrestling of Michigan CWM Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jimmy Shalwin Canadian Wrestling's Elite CWE Championship (1 time) Canadian Unified Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Great Canadian Wrestling GCW Ontario Independent Championship (1 time) GCW Ontario Independent Championship Tournament (2006) Great Lakes All-Pro Wrestling GLAPW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Great Lakes Wrestling GLW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship (2 times) IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Independent Wrestling Federation of Michigan IWF Michigan Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Independent Wrestling Revolution IWR King of Indies Championship (1 time) IWR Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Amazing N8 Insanity Pro Wrestling IPW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Lakeshore Wrestling Organization LSWO Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Jimmy Shalwin (1) and Gavin Starr (1) Midwest Pro Wrestling MPW Universal Championship (1 time) Mr. Chainsaw Productions Wrestling MCPW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) National Wrestling Alliance NWA Indiana Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Iowa Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Powerhouse Championship Wrestling PCW Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Price of Glory Wrestling POG Grand Championship (1 time) Ultimate Ultimate Championship (1 time) Prime Wrestling Prime Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Federation PWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with The Blitzkrieg Kid Pro Wrestling Guerrilla PWG World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tyler Black Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 50 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2009 Ring of Honor ROH World Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with BJ Whitmer (2), Tyler Black (2), and Steve Corino (1) ROH World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2008) – with Tyler Black ROH World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2012) – with Steve Corino Superior Championship Wrestling Bella Strap Championship (1 time) Thunder Zone Wrestling TZW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Westside Xtreme Wrestling wXw World Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling XICW Midwest Heavyweight Championship (2 times) XICW Xtreme Intense Championship (3 times) XICW Light Heavyweight Championship (5 times) XICW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gavin Starr Notes References Jimmy Jacobs at IWCwrestling.com Jimmy Jacobs and Tyler Black at Genickbruch.com (German) Jimmy Jacobs speaks about Project 161/Age of the Fall (German) External links 1984 births American male professional wrestlers American television writers Living people American male television writers Sportspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan Professional wrestlers from Michigan Professional wrestling writers Screenwriters from Michigan	5,834
doc-en-10458_0	A centennial conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) occurred between 1984 and 1986. The Statue of Liberty, by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, is a colossal sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor and is a part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Much of the restoration effort was based on unprecedented restorative methods, as metallurgical repair work on such a large scale had never been attempted. Many scientists, engineers, government organizations, and professional consultants evaluated and dealt with the various problems and tasks facing the restoration effort. The restored statue was reopened during Liberty Weekend, its 100-year anniversary celebration held July 3–6, 1986. Pre-restoration documentation efforts The preparations for the centennial celebration of the Statue of Liberty began in 1979. The centennial conservation-restoration project was formed by the National Park Service (NPS), the custodians of the statue since 1933, to investigate possible development alternatives. A report titled "Analysis of Alternatives", published in December 1980, proposed measures to remedy the certain conditions confronting visitors to the Statue of Liberty, such as the long lines and waiting time to enter the crown of the statue. The proposed measures included the instatement of systems for numbered ticketing and early warnings that would allow visitors to estimate any possible waiting times and to be conveniently advised if and when to visit or enter the statue. The report also discussed ways to streamline ferry access both to and from Liberty Island and Ellis Island. The early report did not address the ever-deteriorating physical condition of the statue, which was already readily apparent. The French American Committee for the Restoration of the Statue of Liberty was formed in May 1981. The Department of the Interior (of which the National Park Service is a bureau) later that month, on May 26, agreed to a working relationship with the Committee. In June 1981, the Committee was incorporated as a non-profit foundation licensed by the State of New York to raise funds for the restoration effort. The Committee hired four French consultants said to have considerable expertise in their respective fields: an architect-engineer, a metals expert, a structural engineer and a mechanical engineer who were asked to compose a technical report on the physical condition of the statue. The French consultants visited Liberty Island in May, June, October and December 1981, before presenting a preliminary white paper to the National Park Service on the seventeenth of December in Washington, D.C., titled "French Technical Report on Restoring the Statue of Liberty". The report, written with the assistance of a regional historical architect from the NPS, was an attempt to identify and address the apparent problems associated with the statue. In the report, the consultants took note of what they saw to be the most serious problem affecting the statue: that two predominant sections, the torch-bearing arm and the rest platform at the head level, had corroded significantly. The report also alluded to the corroded girders toward the top of the pedestal and the bottom of the central pylon. The report also discussed the serious structural problems associated with the long-ago deteriorated insulating layer between the copper sheet of the statue and the iron bands of the structural armature, as it had caused the iron bands to corrode. Alterations over the intervening years (1887–1916) to the torch had created such irreversible damage to the integral stability of that segment, that it was advised in the report that the torch be replaced. In order to more thoroughly assess possible damage that may be hidden beneath the layers of paint on the central pylon, the French consultants also suggested that the layers of paint covering it be removed. Two alternative proposals for modernizing the stairway within the statue were also proposed. From these preliminary observations, a number of preservation and replacement priorities were made. The white paper was further assessed and scrutinized by the NPS and other officials at the Department of the Interior in the nation's capital on March 5, 1982. The director of the NPS was impressed by the report, but also concerned about the future prospects of the Committee's fund raising efforts. Shortly thereafter, the Secretary of the Department of the Interior announced in May 1982 the creation of a 21-member Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Centennial Commission (better known as the Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation) which would act as an "umbrella group" overseeing the French American Committee and the Ellis Island Restoration Commission. The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation would try to privately raise funds for the restoration efforts. A report prepared by the NPS in September 1982, titled "General Management Plan", sought to discuss the fundraising aims and objectives of the newly created foundation, but reiterated most of the proposed measures (concerning the statue) of the earlier 1980 report "Analysis of Alternatives" (such as numbered ticketing systems, etc.). Earlier in 1982, the French American Committee began looking for U.S. consultants to complement the technical work already begun by the four French consultants. They would need to prepare a detailed diagnostic report to investigate the conditions of the Statue in further detail, as many of the French consultants were unfamiliar with the construction procedures and standards, and the design and business practices employed in the United States. The inclusion of American participation was of obvious and pragmatic necessity to the restoration work that lay ahead. Several architects, structural engineers, and representatives from the NPS were brought aboard on the project. Construction work would be assigned to U.S. contractors, and by July 1983, a joint diagnostic report was completed by the newly joint group of consultants and presented to NPS officials. By December 1983, the U.S. group assumed many of the responsibilities concerning the design aspect of the project, and by August 1984, the U.S. team terminated its contract with the French American Committee, owing to the Committee's considerable fundraising problems and other related matters. The associate architect for the restoration was Thierry Despont, who would later rise to prominence as the architect of homes for Bill Gates and Les Wexner. Just prior to the restoration efforts, there were an insufficient number of photographs documenting the initial reassembly of the statue (when it had been given), and too few photographs documenting the condition of the statue since its construction that were relevant to the maintenance of the statue. The NPS vowed to support the historical documentation effort, and a photographer was hired to photograph the entirety of the restoration—before, during, and after. Owing to this decision, an archive of two hundred large format photographs—both black and white, and multicolor—were developed for NPS and the Historic American Engineering Record (HAER). According to The New York Times, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) would also be donating a set of three-dimensional computer drawings of the statue, rendered in the computer-aided design (CAD) program. The drawings were to aid in the future maintenance of the statue. These drawings were later given to the NPS, and were important in analyzing the wind bearing capacity of the structure within the statue. Implementation of diagnostic assessments Early beginnings From November 7, 1982, public announcements were made by project officials that the Statue of Liberty would be completely closed to the public for as long as one year beginning in 1984. The statue had been closed only once before for such an extended period of time, and that was at one point in the late 1930s. Later announcements stated that the erection of the scaffolding surrounding the outside of the statue would begin in the fall of 1983, and it was still believed in July 1983 that the restoration would begin sometime in the fall. NPS representatives retracted and revised the earlier announcement concerning the closure of the Island to the public; Liberty Island would in fact remain open and closings would be intermittent and only for several days at a time at most. The restoration would not begin until January 23, 1984. An article from The New York Times published the day after, indicated that the 30-month project had officially begun the day before, and that visitors would have approximately two weeks remaining before the statue would be completely enshrouded by the tons of extruded aluminum scaffolding that had just been deposited on Liberty Island. The scaffolding contract was awarded to a company called Universal Builders Supply (UBS) Inc. on December 14, 1983. The contract stipulated that the freestanding exterior scaffold was to be completely assembled by April 27, 1984. The scaffolding was designed specifically for the statue, and required ingenuity from its designers, as it could only be attached to the granite pedestal and not the statue and had to accommodate the intricate contours of the statue as well. Furthermore, the exterior scaffolding had to maintain a distance of at least 18 inches from any exposed section of the copper sheathing. The 6,000 or so separate components of the scaffold, made of a high load capacity aluminum (alloy 6061 T6), were unloaded onto Liberty Island on January 23, 1984. To prevent possible rust stains from affecting the exterior patina of the statue, the pretext was adopted of using aluminum. Screw jacks were used to brace the aluminum against the granite pedestal of the statue. More easily an interior scaffolding was developed made of interlocking pipes held together with friction clamps and anchored to the central pylon of the statue for structural support. The twenty UBS workers often resorted to assembling the interior scaffolding when the severe winds and dreadful winter weather conditions prevented them from continuing their work outside. Interior coating removal Once the interior scaffolding was installed, a thorough evaluative survey of the interior coatings was executed. The acknowledged presumption of most involved in the restoration was that all coatings would be removed from the interior metals, that repairs would be made, that metals would be recoated, and the interior would be adequately weatherproofed. The preexisting interior coatings on both the secondary wrought iron framework and the wrought iron central pylon would be removed along with the multiple layers of coal tar and paint that had been applied to the internal copper sheathing. An article in The New York Times of February 8, 1984, mentioned that the interior copper which was at that time painted "government green" would be cleaned to resemble the salmon color of a new penny. That outermost "government green" layer was a vinyl paint applied in 1975. Because certain sections that had corroded were hidden beneath the layers of coatings, no attempt was made to salvage any of the seven layers of paint, (consisting of a base coat of red lead primer plus six additional coats) and the two layers of bituminous paint (a coal tar coating) that had been used as a water sealant in the statues interior around 1911. The three available coating removal methods tested, developed (or not) and implemented (or not) were: thermal coating removal, abrasive coating removal and chemical coating removal. The methods contemplated for the removal of the coatings on the interior copper differed from that of the other interior metals. For the preparation of the wrought iron parts of the statue, an abrasive removal method also known as dry sandblasting was implemented in order to prevent against flash rusting. The low dusting abrasive material used in the dry sandblasting technique was aluminum oxide. The contractor firm responsible for much of the cleaning and painting of the Statue of Liberty, Ben Strauss Industries of New York, used over $90,000 worth of aluminum oxide supplied by Norton Corp. of Massachusetts to blast the corroded layer of iron from the rusting frame. Several coating removal methods for the interior copper were ruled out. According to the evaluative research completed, the abrasive removal method (involving aluminum oxide) could damage the underlying layer of the copper substrate. Highly flammable and toxic chemical removal methods were ruled out, as they would have been far too time-consuming and could have negatively affected the delicate patina of the exterior (if seepage of the chemicals were to have occurred). Alternative removal method adopted Two researchers, an architectural conservator from Columbia University and a historical architect working for the (North Atlantic Historic Preservation Center) NAHPC sought to address the attendant difficulties of removing the different layers of paint without further damaging the statue. The researchers finally decided upon an innovative cryogenic removal method, in which liquid nitrogen was sprayed on the paint-covered surface. The liquid nitrogen would embrittle the layers of the paint at , causing the cracking paint to lose the adherent properties it once possessed. It was estimated that approximately of liquid nitrogen would be needed for the interior coating removal. According to the researchers, "the use of liquid nitrogen in large scale coating removal was somewhat innovative." The Linde division of the Union Carbide Corporation of Danbury, Connecticut, which at the time was almost the "largest producer of liquid atmospheric gases in the United States", donated the liquid nitrogen for the restoration efforts. The company's researchers also worked with the NPS in fabricating special tools for controlling the application of the liquid nitrogen. While the cryogenic method was successful in removing the top coating, it was inadequate for the removal of the two final layers of bituminous coating that were below the surface of the seven layers of lead and vinyl based paints. Victor Strauss, president of Ben Strauss Industries, tried a wide range of substances in the search for the right blasting material to remove the coal tar, including cherry pits, powdered glass, plastic pellets, salt, rice and sugar. However, all were either "too abrasive or too mild. Strauss then considered sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), noting that it is used in household cleaning and in museums for cleaning delicate artifacts. When test blasting at 60 PSI, the contractor found it removed coal tar but did not harm copper. A small yet powerful sandblasting tool that would sandblast and vacuum simultaneously was developed specifically for the removal of the stubborn coating. Ben Strauss Industries worked with the Blast and Vac company of Bolivar, Ohio to design "a standard blasting nozzle inside a vacuum cleaner head" to prevent excessive dust from forming in the interior of the statue by sucking the abrasive and coating chips into a tank. A commercial grade bicarbonate of soda, manufactured by Arm & Hammer was donated by the tons and applied as the cleaning agent that would be abrasive yet gentle on the copper sheathing. Because baking soda absorbs moisture in the air, dehumidifiers were installed at the compressor pumping air to the blasting tools to keep the tools from clogging. Once the coal tar was stripped, the baking soda leaked through the holes and crevices in the sheathing, and was affecting the coloration of the patina on the external side of the statue so the workers would rinse the outer surface of the statue, to prevent the baking soda from turning the green patina of the statue blue. Coating and sealant application Once the layers of paint had been removed from the interior of the statue, the architects and engineers knew that a coating system far more suitable than any of the preexisting applications that had been used would need to be implemented to protect the iron of the statue's interior. The coating would have to be able to provide protection against corrosion in a marine environment and have to have a zero level VOC (volatile organic compound) emission rating. A coating was sought for the sandblasted central pylon and the secondary framework, and found. In 1970, a patent was awarded to NASA for a zinc silicate primer coating called K-Zinc 531, the name owing to the ratio of silicon/potassium to water being 5:3:1. The coating had the following characteristics: it was non-toxic, non-flammable, and would dry smoothly on metals within half an hour of surface application. In 1981, NASA granted the license for the coating to Shane Associates of Wynnewood, Pennsylvania. In 1982 a company called Inorganic Coatings (IC) based in Malvern, Pennsylvania, signed an agreement with the former company to become the sole manufacturer and sales agent of the zinc silicate variant. The protective coating was renamed IC 531, but much like the original coating developed by NASA was a high-ratio waterborne zinc silicate. The IC 531 was used in the restoration efforts to provide a number of the structural elements of the statue with superior corrosion resistance. Iron armature system Condition of the iron grid system prior to restoration Although many of the armature bars were replaced in 1937–38, the restoration effort involved the successful attempt to replace nearly every ribbon-like armature bar that made up the unique internal structure of the statue (as the bars are not connected to the copper skin, but are held in place by the copper saddles that are riveted into the copper skin). An article in The New York Times of December 17, 1985 indicated that the most serious internal problem with the statue was the corrosion that had taken place in the iron armatures which provide the support to the copper sheathing. Eiffel knew that galvanic reaction would immediately pose a problem, owing to the dissimilarity of the metals used in the statue (copper and iron), which unless insulated would corrode rapidly. However, the method used to try to prevent galvanic corrosion of the armature system had proven to be ineffective. The original insulating layer implemented between the copper sheathing and the iron bars was an asbestos cloth soaked in shellac. This insulating and isolating system had separated the two metals when it was constructed, but the ingeniously devised system had broken down over time and was compromising the structural stability of many different components. The insulating layer had lost much of its functional isolating capacity due to exposure to interior condensation, leakage and possibly from other variable atmospheric effects of the marine environment. It had deteriorated into a sponge-like material which merely retained the saltwater as a conductive electrolyte. Hastening the decline of the corroded iron, the buildup of corrosive discharge exerted pressure on the riveted copper saddles that had held the iron bars in place. This created buckling and warping, and further caused the rivets to become disjointed. Rainwater would seep into the holes in the copper sheathing which once held the disjointed rivets. Some of the seams and holes were still sealed and coated with a coal tar paint applied in 1911. The streaks of coal tar paint from when it had been applied 74 years earlier were still visible during the restoration efforts. Black tar streaks from these so-called "weep holes" were running down the exterior of the statue and had altered the patina of the external copper sheathing. An atmospheric research scientist and a technical assistant from AT&T Bell Laboratories, developed a greenish liquid composed of corroded copper particles roughly matching the statue's exterior in chemical composition, which was then sprayed over the tar streaked exterior. The sprayed on particles were then left to develop and spread over the streaks and stains. Both researchers, specializing in the study of the corrosion on copper and copper alloys became interested in the restoration efforts and proposed to donate their expertise to the restoration effort as it would afford them with an opportunity to study the effects of the atmosphere on the hundred year old copper structure. Replacement of the iron grid system Copper was considered as a possible alternative metal for the replication of the "puddled" iron armatures, but was ruled out. The NPS performed tests to assess the suitability of possible replacement materials for the iron bars. 316L stainless steel was selected to replace the approximately 1800 iron armature bars, and Ferralium, a high-chromium stainless steel alloy, was chosen to replace the flat bars that connect the secondary framework to the armature. As the armatures provide the structural support for the copper skin, it was determined that no more than four bars from each of four different sections of the statue (for a total of sixteen bars) be removed at any given time. These were then replicated mostly by eye, and the replacements installed within 36 hours of the removal of the original. An art restoration company working along with a steel contractor undertook the difficult task. Replacement bars were annealed and sandblasted to remove iron filings and other contaminants that would or could eventually cause the stainless steel to rust, and then dipped in nitric acid for protection. The "long term service behavior" of 316L stainless steel, according to a professor of metallurgy at Massachusetts Institute of Technology who had some involvement in the early stages of the restoration effort, was not known. The replacement bars of the iron grid system were insulated from the copper with a PTFE (Teflon) polymer resin tape produced by the DuPont company. An article in The New York Times of May 31, 1986 reported that inspection crews overseeing the restoration efforts had noticed several months earlier that a armature bar near one of the arms had been stamped with the forty names of the forty iron workers who had installed the armatures. The bar, which had to be replaced, was paid for by the contractors. Before being replaced, the bar was photographed; the image is in the June 1986 issue of Smithsonian magazine. Torch The torch was removed from the statue on July 4, 1984. An article in The New York Times from October 8, 1984, stated that the new torch was to be completed in the same manner that the old torch was made in 14 months by ten craftsmen from Les metalliers Champenois based in Reims, and that a workshop at the statue's base on Liberty Island had been made accessible to the public that month. In 2019 the original torch was made a permanent exhibit in the newly constructed Statue of Liberty Museum on Liberty Island. Structural misalignment issues Initial assessments Within the copper body of the statue is the structural support system consisting of a 97-foot (30 m) central pylon, which is the backbone of the statue. The pylon consists of four girders with horizontal and diagonal cross bracing systems, which provide support to the secondary framework and to the armature, and a extension that supports the raised arm and torch. It had been a well-documented fact that since at least 1932 (when the War Department reinforced the arm-shoulder structure), that the support for the shoulder of the upheld arm had been misaligned. Then, it was discovered that the arch that supports the head of the statue had also been misaligned. The cause(s) of the misalignments are undetermined, but a few hypotheses have been suggested. The first hypothesis proposed was that Viollet le Duc—the engineer who initially worked on the project with Bartholdi and who designed the structural reinforcement of the arm and the head (displayed in 1876 at the Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia) had died after having completed those two sections—and had employed engineering methods that differed significantly from those of the better-known bridge engineer Gustave Eiffel, who had finished the remainder of the work on the statue, and who is generally credited for the statue's remarkable structure. The second hypothesis was that the Americans, after having uncrated the different sections of the statue in 1886, incorrectly reassembled the structural framework. The third hypothesis is that the statue's creator, Bartholdi, was aesthetically dissatisfied when the statue was fully assembled and displayed in Paris on or just prior to July 4, 1884, and that he must have willingly sacrificed the structural integrity for his aesthetic vision. One of the main architects of the restoration project was initially convinced that the second hypothesis was correct, but according to a quoted and published statement, recent research had convinced him of the veracity of the third hypothesis. The most significant problems were consequences of poor design and construction choices implemented initially, but Eiffel could not have directly been responsible for such glaring mistakes according to the (same) architect. Computer aided design drawings were used to illustrate how the head and the hand wielding the torch had been misaligned, and how the misalignment had caused the spikes of the crown to damage a section of the torch-bearing arm. The "13 trouble spots of the statue" were visually emphasized in a front page article in The New York Times of July 20, 1983. The head was off center and the upheld arm was away from where it was designed to be. With the computer simulations of the CAD program, the architects were able to assess the likelihood of implementing either of the following options to address the misalignment issue: the option of rebuilding the arm-shoulder connection as Eiffel had envisioned it, or they could strengthen the preexisting misalignment by adding new diagonal bracing and steel plates. The latter option would have the intended effect of further reinforcing the repairs that had been made when the problem was initially noticed in 1932 by the War Department when it had jurisdiction over the statue. Regardless, the "finite element analysis" of the computer simulation showed that both solutions would work. Additional supports were also added inside the head to improve overall stability. Hence, the positions of the arm and the head would remain as they had been since they were reassembled on Bedloe's Island in 1886. Preservation objectives According to The New York Times, the architects on the project assured the reporter that despite the misalignment, "cosmetic changes" to the statue would not take place. Several commentators on the historic restoration project seemed to have reiterated a similar guiding sentiment: that preservation rather than unnecessary replacement would be the objective of the current restoration effort. This was quite reassuring, in the light of proposals put forward early on during the restoration efforts such as the following: "cleaning and polishing of the statue's exterior; demolition of the statue, selling of the copper and the use of the funds raised to build an exact duplicate in fiberglass; the application of an epoxy coating to the exterior and the construction of a competing monument..." An article in The New York Times of February 8, 1984 mentioned that the idea to have an elevator that would reach to the crown of the statue had been recently abandoned. A double level hydraulic glass elevator would be installed inside the base of the statue from which visitors would be able to access the crown by ascending a few steps. Much of the interior had been reconstructed, with a great deal of emphasis placed on enhancing the visitors experience, as the original structure was not devised with the visitor in mind, poor lighting conditions, no ventilation and a very inadequate and basic heating system were to be changed. Prior to the restoration, much of the internal structure of the statue was out of sight behind the mesh wire walls of the original helical stairs. The stairs were originally intended for workmen. Neither the architect nor the artist had envisioned that the lady would welcome visitors internally. Elevators were first installed in 1908–9. An article in The New York Times, published less than a month and a half from the centennial celebration, discussed the changes within the statue as being the most spectacular. The journalist added: that "now that the walls have been removed, what is revealed is an interior that seems to combine the toughness of 19th century industrial construction and the grace of a cathedral." References External links The Statue of Liberty at the Library of Congress website The Statue of Liberty - Ellis Island Foundation Statue of Liberty Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage	5,683
doc-en-8496_0	Referendums in the United Kingdom are occasionally held at a national, regional or local level. Historically, national referendums are rare due to the ancient principle of parliamentary sovereignty: there is no constitutional requirement to hold a national referendum for any purpose or on any issue; but the UK Parliament is free to legislate though a Act of Parliament for a national plebiscite to be held on any question at any time but cannot be constitutionally binding on either the Government or Parliament, although they usually have a persuasive political effect. National referendums are regulated by the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 which also regulates for regional and local referendums in England, Northern Ireland and Wales whilst in Scotland referendums on devolved matters are regulated under the Referendums (Scotland) Act 2020. Until the late 20th century the concept of a referendum was widely seen in British politics as "unconstitutional" and an "alien device". As of 2021, only three national referendums have ever been held across the whole of the United Kingdom: in 1975, 2011 and most recently in 2016. Two of these referendums (1975 and 2016) were held on the issue of the United Kingdom's relationship with the European Union and its predecessor institutions. The first of these was held on the issue of continued membership of what was known at the time as the European Communities (EC), which was the collective term for the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC), and was also referred to by many at that time as the "Common Market". This was the 1975 European Communities membership referendum which was held two and a half years after the United Kingdom became a member state on 1 January 1973. This was the first national referendum ever to be held within the United Kingdom. The 2011 referendum on the proposal to use the alternative vote system in parliamentary elections is the only UK-wide referendum to date that has been held on a domestic issue. The referendum was held as a result of the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement which was drawn up after the 2010 general election. The second referendum on Europe was held in 2016. By then, the various European organisations (with the exception of EAEC) had been integrated by subsequent treaty ratifications into the European Union (EU). The electorate was asked to vote on the issue of continued membership in the 2016 European Union membership referendum. The Government of the United Kingdom has also to date held ten major referendums within the constituent countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland on issues of devolution, sovereignty and independence; the first such referendum was the 1973 Northern Ireland border poll and, as of 2022, the most recent is the 2014 Scottish independence referendum. There have also been numerous referendums held by local authorities on issues such as temperance and directly elected mayors. Status of referendums Major referendums have been rare in the UK, and have only been held on major constitutional issues. Historically referendums within the United Kingdom were opposed on the supposition that they violate the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. In May 1945 the then Prime Minister Winston Churchill suggested holding a referendum over the question of extending the life of his wartime Coalition until victory was won over Japan. However, Deputy Prime Minister Clement Attlee refused, saying "I could not consent to the introduction into our national life of a device so alien to all our traditions as the referendum which has only too often been the instrument of Nazism and Fascism." In March 1975 Margaret Thatcher also quoted Clement Attlee that referendums are "a device of dictators and demagogues" as Napoleon, Mussolini and Hitler had exploited their use in the past. There are two types of referendum that have been held by the UK Government, pre-legislative (held before proposed legislation is passed) and post-legislative (held after legislation is passed). To date the previous three UK-wide referendums in 1975, was post legislative as the UK had joined the European Communities (EC) in 1973 where the 2011 and 2016 referendums were both pre-legislative. Referendums are normally not legally binding, so legally the Government can ignore the results; for example, even if the result of a pre-legislative referendum were a majority of "No" for a proposed law, Parliament could pass it anyway, because Parliament is sovereign. For any UK-wide referendum to be held legislation has to be passed by the UK Parliament for each vote to take place, as there is no pre-determined format or voting franchise for any such vote. However, unlike a general election there is no legal requirement for the UK Government not to take any official position in any such vote. For example, in 1975 under the then Prime Minister Harold Wilson the Government formally recommended a "Yes" vote to staying in the European Community and in 2016 the Government formally recommended a "Remain" vote to stay in the European Union (a decision which indirectly led to the resignation of David Cameron as Prime Minister following the decision to "Leave the European Union" by the British electorate). In the 2011 referendum no official position was taken as the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government was split on the issue. Legally, Parliament at any point in future could reverse legislation approved by referendum, because the concept of parliamentary sovereignty means no Parliament can prevent a future Parliament from amending or repealing legislation. Finally, under the Local Government Act 1972, there is a provision under which non-binding local referendums on any issue can be called by small groups of voters. This power exists only for parish councils, and not larger authorities, and is commonly known as the "Parish Poll". Six local voters may call a meeting, and if ten voters or a third of the meeting (whichever is smaller) agree, the council must carry out a referendum in 14–25 days. The referendum is merely advisory, but if there is a substantial majority and the results are well-publicised, it may be influential. Planned referendums The Labour Government of 1997–2010 held five referendums on devolution, four of which received a yes majority. Despite the number of referendums that was held during this period no UK-wide referendum was held. One concerning the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was cancelled, given the French and Dutch rejections of the treaty. Another, on whether the UK should adopt the euro, was never held. The Labour manifesto for the 1997 general election stated "We are committed to a referendum on the voting system for the House of Commons." Despite the research carried out by the Jenkins Commission in 1998 suggesting an AV+ system for Westminster elections, the 2001 manifesto did not make such a promise. After the inconclusive 2010 General Election the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives formed a coalition. As part of the coalition agreement, both parties formally committed to holding a referendum on changes to the electoral system. The referendum was held on 5 May 2011 and was defeated. Since the Government of Wales Act 2006 became law, there can be referendums in Wales asking the people whether the National Assembly for Wales should be given greater law-making powers. The Welsh Labour Party - Plaid Cymru Coalition Government in the Welsh Assembly held such a referendum in 2011, resulting in a yes vote. The Scottish Government held a referendum on Scottish independence on 18 September 2014. It attracted a turnout of 84.59%, the highest for any referendum held in the UK. The majority (55.3%) voted against Scotland being an independent country. In March 2017 the Scottish Parliament authorised the Scottish Government to seek to hold a proposed second Scottish independence referendum. The Conservative Party announced in 2013 that they planned to hold a referendum on whether Britain should remain in the European Union (following a renegotiation of powers between the UK and EU), in 2017. However, their Liberal Democrat coalition partners took an opposing stance so it was not Coalition Government policy. The Conservatives then attempted to pass the required legislation as a Private Member's Bill (the European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013–14 introduced by Conservative MP James Wharton), but this was not passed by the House of Lords. Following the 2015 United Kingdom general election the prime minister, David Cameron committed the new Conservative government to holding the referendum. It took place on 23 June 2016. The referendum resulted in an overall vote to leave the EU, as opposed to remaining an EU member, by 51.9% to 48.1%, respectively. Under the European Union Act 2011 there was also provision for the United Kingdom to hold future referendums in the event of powers being transferred from the UK to the European Union under any treaty changes however upon the UK’s departure from the European Union on 31 January 2020 the legislation was subsequently repealed and was never used. Organisation and legislation There was no independent public body to regulate referendums within the United Kingdom until the Labour government led by Tony Blair in 2000 set out a framework for the running of all future referendums when the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 or PPERA was passed, creating and giving the Electoral Commission responsibility for running all elections and such future referendums. The act also permitted the appointment of a "chief counting officer" (CCO) to oversee all future UK-wide referendums which would be held by the chairperson of the Electoral Commission. Legislation Separate legislation (i.e. an Act of Parliament) by the Parliament of the United Kingdom is required for the holding of each UK-wide referendum which is held to set out the referendum question, its format, the franchise for each plebiscite, and how each count is to be conducted. In the following is a list of legislation which has been passed by the UK Parliament to enable the holding of the following UK-wide referendums. Referendum Act 1975 (United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum, 1975) Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 (United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum, 2011) European Union Referendum Act 2015 (United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016) 1997 Devolution Referendums Legislation In the summer of 1997 the UK Parliament passed the Referendums (Scotland and Wales) Act to enable the holding of two pre-legislative referendums on devolution in both Scotland and Wales on the establishment of a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly. National referendums To date only three referendums have been held which have covered the whole of the United Kingdom. The following is a description of each of the three national referendums. 1975 European Communities membership referendum On Thursday 5 June 1975 the United Kingdom held its first-ever nationwide referendum on whether to continue its membership of the European Communities (EC) principally the European Economic Community (EEC, or "Common Market") as it was more widely known at the time. The UK had been a member of the EC since 1 January 1973 and the vote came about after a manifesto commitment by the Labour Party under the then Prime Minister Harold Wilson in the UK General Election in October 1974 and following a renegotiation of EC membership. All of the major political parties and mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. However, there were significant splits within the ruling Labour party, the membership of which had voted 2:1 in favour of withdrawal at a one-day party conference on 26 April 1975. Since the cabinet was split between strongly pro-European and strongly anti-European ministers, Harold Wilson suspended the constitutional convention of Cabinet collective responsibility and allowed ministers to publicly campaign on either side. Seven of the twenty-three members of the cabinet opposed EC membership and the party was formally neutral on the issue. The referendum was conducted in its entirety under the provisions of the Referendum Act 1975 as there was no procedure, prior legislation or official public body at the time to oversee the holding of any such plebiscite. The two campaign groups in the referendum were "Britain in Europe" advocating a yes vote and "National Referendum Campaign" advocating a no vote. The voters were asked to vote "Yes" or "No" on the question: "Do you think the should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?" Of the 68 counting areas in the counties and administrative regions of the UK who voted "Yes", only the Shetland Islands and the Outer Hebrides voted "No". In line with the outcome of the vote, the government took no further action and the United Kingdom remained a member of the European Communities which would later become the European Union. 2011 Alternative Vote referendum The alternative vote referendum, as part of the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement drawn up after the 2010 general election, was a nationwide vote held on Thursday 5 May 2011 (the same date as local elections in many areas) to choose the method of electing MPs at subsequent general elections. The referendum concerned whether to replace the present "first-past-the-post" system with the "alternative vote" (AV) method. The voters were asked to vote yes or no on the question "At present, the UK uses the "first past the post" system to elect MPs to the House of Commons. Should the "alternative vote" system be used instead?". It was the first nationwide referendum to be held for some thirty six years and was legislated for under the provisions of the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 and the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 and is to date the first and only UK-wide referendum to be held on a domestic issue. Turnout was low at just 42% nationally and was also marked by relatively low key campaigning. The two campaigning groups for the referendum was advocating a yes vote Yes to Fairer Votes and advocating a no vote NOtoAV. AV was rejected by 67% of voters with all but ten of the 440 voting areas voted "No" and the proposed legislation to introduce AV which was subject to the referendum was repealed. 2016 European Union membership referendum On Thursday 23 June 2016 the United Kingdom voted for the second time in 41 years on its membership to what is now known as the European Union (EU) with the overseas territory Gibraltar also voting on the issue for the very first time. The referendum was called after Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron made a manifesto commitment in the 2015 United Kingdom general election to undertake a renegotiation of the UK's membership to the European Union which would be followed by a in-out referendum. All of the major political parties were in favour of remaining an EU member, except for a split within the Conservative Party. The cabinet was split between pro-EU and anti-EU ministers, and Cameron suspended the constitutional convention of Cabinet collective responsibility, allowing ministers to publicly campaign on either side. Seven of the 23 members of the Cabinet opposed continued EU membership. The referendum was legislated for under the provisions of the European Union Referendum Act 2015, which legally required the UK Government to hold the referendum no later than 31 December 2017 and also the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000. Voters were asked to vote "Remain a member of the European Union" or "Leave the European Union" on the question "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?" The main campaign groups for the referendum were advocating a "remain" vote was Britain Stronger in Europe and advocating a "leave" vote was Vote Leave. The "Leave" option was voted by 52% of voters, as opposed to 48% of voters who wished to "Remain". Of the 382 voting areas, 263 returned majority votes in favour of "Leave" whereas 119 returned majority votes in favour of "Remain" which included every Scottish council area and all but five of the London boroughs. The vote revealed divisions among the constituent nations of the United Kingdom, with England and Wales voting to leave, but Scotland and Northern Ireland voting to remain. The national turnout was 72% which was eight percentage points higher than the turnout in 1975, although the majority was 12 percentage points lower. It was the first time a UK-wide referendum result had gone against the preferred choice of the UK Government who had officially recommended a "Remain" vote and it led to a period of political turmoil. As a direct consequence of losing the referendum, David Cameron announced his resignation as Prime Minister on the morning after the vote. He left office three weeks later on 13 July, and was succeeded by Theresa May who later resigned in 2019 due to the issue remaining unresolved. After the vote there was frequent public discussion as to whether the result of the referendum was advisory or mandatory, but the High Court stated on 3 November 2016 that, in the absence of specific provision in the enabling legislation (and in this case there was none), "a referendum on any topic can only be advisory for the lawmakers in Parliament". List of other major referendums Since 1973 there have been ten other referendums held by the UK Government within the constituent countries related to the issues of sovereignty, devolution and independence in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales and in parts of England (in the North East and London). England 1998 Greater London Authority referendum, on whether there should be a Greater London Authority, consisting of a Mayor of London and a London Assembly (yes) 2004 North East England devolution referendum, on an elected regional assembly (no) Northern Ireland 1973 Northern Ireland sovereignty referendum, on whether Northern Ireland should leave the United Kingdom and join the Republic of Ireland (no) 1998 Northern Ireland Belfast Agreement referendum, on the Good Friday Agreement (yes) Scotland 1979 Scottish devolution referendum, on whether there should be a Scottish Assembly (small majority voted yes, but fell short of the 40% threshold required to enact devolution) 1997 Scottish devolution referendum, Two questions: On whether there should be a Scottish Parliament (yes); On whether a Scottish Parliament should have tax varying powers (yes) 2014 Scottish independence referendum on the question "Should Scotland be an independent country?", 18 September 2014 (no) Wales 1979 Welsh devolution referendum, on whether there should be a Welsh Assembly (no) 1997 Welsh devolution referendum, on whether there should be a National Assembly for Wales (yes) 2011 Welsh devolution referendum, on whether the National Assembly should have increased law-making powers (yes) Local referendums Referendums have been held in local areas in England, Wales and Scotland since the 1850s. These have covered issues such as local government administration, transport, prohibition, libraries, and other local questions. The areas covered have generally corresponded to local authority areas, civil parishes, or wards, with all local government electors of the relevant area being eligible to vote. Advisory referendums Principal authorities in Great Britain have the ability to hold an advisory referendum on any issue relating to its services, financial provisions, and other matters that are relevant to the area. The power for principal local authorities to hold a poll within England and Wales is specifically granted by the Local Government Act 2003; previously local polls relied upon a council's power to consult residents and collect information. In Scotland the power is similarly implied by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, and an additional power is conferred by the requirement of the Transport (Scotland) Act 2001 to consult before introducing a road charging scheme. The power to hold local referendums has not been extended to Northern Ireland. A local advisory referendum is not required to follow the legislation governing the conduct of other referendums and elections in the UK. The local authority can choose how to conduct a local referendum, and may choose to hold the vote solely by post, instead of using polling stations. Transport referendums The City of Edinburgh Council held a postal-ballot referendum in February 2005 over whether voters supported the Council's proposed transport strategy. These plans included a congestion charge which would have required motorists to pay a fee to enter the city at certain times of the day. The result was announced on 22 February 2005 and the people of Edinburgh had rejected the proposals. 74% voted against, 26% voted in favour, and the turnout was 62%. Strathclyde water referendum Strathclyde Regional Council held a referendum in 1994 on the plans of the Conservative UK government to privatise water services within Scotland. The government planned to sell the three recently established water authorities in Scotland, created under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 as a precursor for privatisation, which would bring Scotland in line with the 1989 privatisation in England and Wales. Strathclyde council, which previously held responsibility for water services, planned the referendum in response to overwhelming public opinion against the move. The referendum, conducted by post, resulted in 97% voting against the plan, with 70% of the electorate participating. Although the referendum had no legal effect, the plan to privatise Scottish water services was eventually dropped. Statutory referendums Legislation in England and Wales obliges local authorities to hold and abide by the results of referendums in certain circumstances. In England, raising Council Tax above a level proscribed by the Local Government Secretary requires approval in a referendum. The threshold was initially set at 2% in 2012 for all types of local authority, but for authorities that fund social care the threshold was increased to 4% in 2015 and 5% in 2017. From April 2018 the figures for both types of authority have been increased by an additional 1%. This provision applies to all precepting authorities, when this is not the billing authority (i.e. the district council), the latter will hold the referendum on the precepting authority's behalf, and recoup the costs. Only one council tax referendum has been held, on behalf of the Bedfordshire Police and Crime Commissioner, and the rise was rejected. A proposal for a referendum to increase the council tax for Surrey County Council by 15% was initially approved by the council, but plans for the increase were abandoned before the referendum could go ahead. The Localism Act 2011 allows parish councils or local community groups to create neighbourhood development plans. The plans are intended to guide planning decisions within the neighbourhood area, by outlining the amount and type of development that should occur in the area, what land may be built upon and how existing buildings may be reused. For a plan to come into force, it must be approved by the electorate in the local area in a referendum. Neighbourhood planning referendums have a high success rate, with all being approved as of December 2015. Mayoral and other governance referendums A local authority in England and Wales can hold a referendum on changing its executive arrangements between a directly elected mayor, a leader and cabinet, and in England only, a committee system. A referendum can be held by three methods; by a resolution of the council to hold one, under an order from the government, or upon receiving a petition signed by five percent of registered voters within the local authority area, in the only example of the initiative process in the United Kingdom. If successful, the council must change its governance system, and hold an election for the mayor if necessary. The process differs between England and Wales. In England, a referendum can be held on moving between any of the three systems, and following the vote another referendum may not be held for 10 years. A council is not required to hold a referendum to change its executive arrangements, but a change that has occurred as a result of a referendum can only be changed following another referendum. In Wales, a council must hold a referendum to change between a mayor and leader and cabinet, with the minimum period between votes set at five years. Fifty-three referendums have taken place in local authorities to establish whether there is support for directly elected mayors. Sixteen were successful and a mayoralty was established; in thirty-seven local authorities an elected mayor was rejected by voters. An additional six referendums have been held on removing the post of elected mayor, with three mayoralties being retained, and three disestablished. Ten referendums were held in 2012 as part of the government's manifesto to introduce elected mayors in the largest cities in England without the position. Only one new mayoralty was approved, and no further votes have been ordered by the government. Two referendums have been held in response to a petition on moving to a committee system, in the Borough of Fylde and in West Dorset. Both referendums were successful. On average, turnout is similar to that of local elections, with the highest turnout 64% in Berwick-upon-Tweed (held alongside the 2001 general election) and the lowest 10% in the London Borough of Ealing. Prohibition referendums The temperance movement led to two countries of the UK gaining the right to hold referendums on the sale of alcohol in the local area, upon the request of a number of local electors. The Temperance (Scotland) Act 1913 provided that polls could be held in small local areas in Scotland to determine whether to instate a level of prohibition on the purchase of alcoholic beverages; the provisions were later incorporated into the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1959. Between 1913 and 1965 1,131 such polls were held, with the vast majority (1,079) held before 1930. These provisions and the local polls were abolished by the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1976. The Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 mandated that all public houses in Wales be closed on Sundays. The Act was extended to Monmouthshire in 1921. Under the terms of the Licensing Act 1961, on the application of 500 local electors, a referendum could be held in each local government area at seven-year intervals on whether that district should be "wet" or "dry" on the Sabbath. Most districts in the border area and the southern industrial area went "wet" in 1961 or 1968, with most others following suit in 1975. In 1982, the last district, Dwyfor, in western Gwynedd, went "wet" and it was thought that the influence of the Sabbatarian temperance movement had expired and few referendums were called, but surprisingly a further referendum was called in Dwyfor in 1989 and the area went "dry" for another seven years on a 9% turnout. The whole of Wales was "wet" from 1996, and the facility for further referendums was removed by the Sunday Licensing Act 2003. Parish polls A parish poll is a referendum held in a civic parish under the Local Government Act 1972. The cost of holding such polls is met by the parish council. "A poll may be demanded before the conclusion of a community meeting on any question arising at the meeting; but no poll shall be taken unless either the person presiding at the meeting consents or the poll is demanded by not less than ten, or one-third, of the local government electors present at the meeting, whichever is the less." In September 2007, villagers in East Stoke in Dorset forced a referendum, under the Local Government Act 1972, on this question: "Do You Want a Referendum on the EU Constitutional Treaty? Yes or No?" Of the 339 people who were eligible to vote, 80 voted: 72 votes for Yes and 8 votes for No. The poll was initiated by a supporter of the United Kingdom Independence Party, a political party noted for its Euroscepticism. The poll was criticised by the chairman of the parish council as "little more than a publicity stunt." See also Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities Elections in the United Kingdom Referendum Act 1975 Parish and Community Meetings (Polls) Rules 1987 Referendums (Scotland & Wales) Act 1997 Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 Regional Assemblies (Preparations) Act 2003 2004 North East England devolution referendum European Union Act 2011 Edinburgh Agreement (2012) European Union Referendum Act 2015 :Category:Referendums in British Overseas Territories Notes References Further reading Ross Cotton and Cary Fontana, "Political parties at critical junctures: explaining the decisions to offer referendums on constitutional change in the United Kingdom", Contemporary British History, vol. 33, no. 1 (2019), pp. 1–27. Lucy Atkinson, Matt Qvortrup. 2020. The Referendum in Britain: A History. Oxford University Press. External links The Electoral Commission - Referendums The Electoral Commission - Mayoral Referendums The UK Parliamentary Archives holds the Papers of the National Referendum Campaign	6,078
doc-en-11186_0	Ross Edwards (born 23 December 1943) is an Australian composer of a wide variety of music including orchestral and chamber music, choral music, children's music, opera and film music. His distinctive sound world reflects his interest in deep ecology and his belief in the need to reconnect music with elemental forces, as well as restore its traditional association with ritual and dance. He also recognises the profound importance of music as an agent of healing. His music, universal in that it is concerned with age-old mysteries surrounding humanity, is at the same time connected to its roots in Australia, whose cultural diversity it celebrates, and from whose natural environment it draws inspiration, especially birdsong and the mysterious patterns and drones of insects. As a composer living and working on the Pacific Rim, he is aware of the exciting potential of this vast region. Early life and education Ross Edwards was born and raised in Sydney, Australia. His parents were Frank Edwards, an engineer, and Marjorie Robertson. His great-grandfather was the publisher George Robertson of Angus & Robertson. Drawn to music at an early age, his first attempts at composition date from his fourth year, but it was not until the age of 13, when taken to a concert by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra by his aunt that featured Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Liszt's First Piano Concerto, that he became intensely aware of his vocation to become a composer. Edwards attended Sydney Grammar School, which did not offer music at the time. At 15 years of age, Edwards was granted permission to enter the New South Wales Conservatorium of Music to study piano, oboe, harmony, counterpoint and theory during lunch hours and weekends. In 1963, after being awarded a Commonwealth Scholarship to the University of Sydney, he enrolled in a Bachelor of Arts degree, but became frustrated and dropped out after a year. Due to the benevolent intervention of composers Peter Sculthorpe and Peter Maxwell Davies, he was able to earn a scholarship and complete a Bachelor of Music degree at the University of Adelaide's Elder Conservatorium in 1969, where his teachers included Peter Maxwell Davies (then composer-in-residence), Sándor Veress and Richard Meale. During vacations he worked as assistant to Peter Sculthorpe, gaining valuable insight into the working life of a composer. A further Commonwealth Scholarship enabled Edwards to complete his studies with Peter Maxwell Davies in London in 1970, earning a Master of Music degree, after which he spent 18 months composing at a remote Yorkshire farmhouse. Today, Edwards holds higher doctorates from the Universities of Sydney and Adelaide. Returning to Sydney in 1970, Edwards taught in the Music Department of Sydney University and in 1974 married Helen Hopkins, one of his students. In the same year he became a lecturer in the Sydney Conservatorium's School of Composition, remaining there until 1980, when he began working as a freelance composer and lecturer. Working from their home in the coastal village of Pearl Beach, Edwards and his wife Helen, a piano teacher, led an idyllic and productive life until the education of their two children necessitated moving back to Sydney in 1984. Musical career Reclusive by nature, Ross Edwards has largely eschewed following a career path as such, neglecting to promote his work and responding mainly to the inner dictates of his vocation. Based in Sydney and often retreating to work in the Blue Mountains west of the city, he has an acute sense of place and belonging, claiming to draw on his experience as "a composer living and working in Australia and relating to the world from an Australian perspective." Far from being isolationist, however, the surface of Edwards’ music is often highly eclectic, making oblique references to many cultures in what he describes as an "intuitive search for unity within diversity". He has also stated that underlying all his music "the natural environment remains the supreme generative force". In spite of his natural reticence, Edwards' works have been featured at such international music festivals as the Vale of Glamorgan Festival, Wales; the Edinburgh International Festival; the Australian Festival of Chamber Music, Townsville; the Mostly Mozart Festival, New York; the City of London Festival; the Darwin International Guitar Festival; the Canberra International Music Festival; the Adelaide Festival; the Melbourne Festival; the Tucson Winter Chamber Music Festival, Arizona; International Society for Contemporary Music Festivals in Stockholm, Basel, Warsaw and Sydney; and the Festivals of Sydney and Perth. Significant events Significant events include the award of a joint Australian Broadcasting Corporation/Australian Bicentennial commission to compose the violin concerto Maninyas (1988); the Australia Council's Don Banks Music Award (1989); Australian Creative "Keating" Fellowships in 1990 and 1995; and award of the Order of Australia – AM (1997). The composition of Dawn Mantras, Sydney's contribution to the millennium celebrations, was telecast worldwide to an audience of billions, attracting great international acclaim. In 2007 he was Musica Viva Australia’s Featured Composer. Collaborations In 2005, Edwards' oboe concerto Bird Spirit Dreaming, originally composed for oboist Diana Doherty and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, had its US premiere by Doherty, the New York Philharmonic and Lorin Maazel, after which it was toured worldwide and received enthusiastically. Another notable success was the 2010 UK premiere of the violin concerto Maninyas, given at the 2010 Edinburgh International Festival by its dedicatee, Dene Olding, the Sydney Symphony Orchestra and Vladimir Ashkenazy. This work has also gained international popularity through choreography for dance, notably by Stanton Welch for the San Francisco Ballet. Another Welch/Edwards collaboration, the ballet Zodiac, was successfully premiered by the Houston Ballet in 2015. Edwards' music, with its unique rhythms, has a natural affinity with dance. Another important collaboration with Australian saxophonist Amy Dickson, who now lives in London has produced three new works: the saxophone concerto Full Moon Dances (2012); the double concerto Frog and Star Cycle, for whose 2016 premiere Dickson was paired with the Scottish percussionist Colin Currie and accompanied by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra; and Bright Birds and Sorrows, which Dickson premiered at the 2017 Musica Viva Festival in Sydney with the Elias String Quartet, visiting from the UK. Musical style and philosophy Early period: the influence of the natural world In the early 1970s Edwards experienced an unexpected crisis. Disenchanted by the European music of the time, which was itself in crisis due to the waning of the Modernist movement, he found himself unable to compose for several years. Having returned to Australia due to the terminal illness of his mother, and while lecturing at the Sydney Conservatorium, he moved in 1974 with his wife and infant son to the village of Pearl Beach, north of Sydney, where his sister-in-law had a holiday house. Pearl Beach, which adjoined the Brisbane Water National Park "buzzing with wildlife", had an immediate effect on him and his work. "The summer days were swathed in the drones of cicadas with their mysteriously abrupt starts and stops and, at evening, the insects would start up. I was entranced by the insect chorus because it seemed to be on the verge of conveying some profound message which was ultimately elusive. All the temporal relationships in my music – the relative lengths of phrases and sections – are influenced by these ancient voices, whose near-symmetries and inconsistently varied repetitions often seem close to our inherited musical syntax. I don’t doubt that, over the millennia, such voices have generated much of the world’s music and it’s not hard to detect their presence in various surviving folk and religious traditions". Austerity and contemplation: the Sacred Series and beyond The result of Edwards' move to Pearl Beach was a leap from the fierce complexity of some of his earlier work to a series of austere, meditative compositions (e.g., Tower of Remoteness (1978) and Etymalong (1984)), which became known as his Sacred Series, based on close listening to and absorption of the complex sound of the natural environment combined with his reading of Zen texts and commentaries. To Edwards' surprise, these skeletal compositions "found favour with the apostles of Orthodox Modernism," unaware that their position was being quietly subverted. It became vividly apparent, however, when, in 1982, his Piano Concerto burst upon the scene. "Some other pieces I wrote in the 1980s, however, ruffled establishment feathers both here and abroad and all but destroyed my reputation as a so-called serious composer. The most notorious example is, without doubt, my Piano Concerto, composed in Pearl Beach in 1982. My original intention for this work was to compose something … stark and introspective, but some unseen force seemed to dictate otherwise. In what seemed like a moment of sheer revelation, the outside world burst in on me and I suddenly became aware that I had the extraordinary privilege of living in a paradise of sun-blessed ocean and joyously shrieking parrots gyrating in the warm air, and that this ecstasy simply had to be transmitted through music. Conformist critics, especially English ones, gave me hell but, fortunately, the public responded positively, and this remains one of my most popular pieces." What followed was a process of integrating extreme positions – of gradually developing a musical language that spoke both to Edwards himself and, through him, to those prepared to listen. In the 1980s, the response to his music began to gain momentum, divided between the enthusiasm of those who perceived it as fresh direction – "a statement of independence from the impetus of cultural globalism" – and those who saw it as "a betrayal of Modernist idealism". Edwards largely stayed aloof from these so-called "style wars", seeking his own instinctual voice in the midst of controversy. The Maninya style: the dance of nature Throughout the 1980s, the shapes, rhythms and temporal relationships Edwards subconsciously gleaned from walking in the Brisbane Water National Park began increasingly to inform the structure and texture of his music, which took on the character of angular, animated chant, with subtly varied repetition of rhythmic cells over elaborated drones. This "dance-chant", as he called it, sometimes mistakenly aligned with the minimalist movement, was closely examined by Paul Stanhope, who claimed that it suggested ritualistic behaviour. Edwards’ description of it as his maninya style originates from a spontaneously conceived nonsense text which he set to music in Maninya I (1986), and which was to spawn a series of maninya pieces culminating in the Maninyas violin concerto of 1988. While its quirky rhythms and chirpy, pentatonic melodic shapes are antithetical to the austere spiritual quietude of the sacred series, the maninya style also has its origin in nature, bringing the drones of insects and cicadas, the calls of birds and the mysterious temporal proportions into the concert hall. Edwards also notes that he had become fascinated by the music of the Sufis and the African mbira, and that these may have been influential. From this time, Edwards’ language, though firmly rooted in the Australian bush, begins to look outward and bear traces of an eclectic attitude to come. The maninya style has persisted throughout his work, as has the sacred, each increasingly infiltrated by symbols from and references to other cultures which preserve a reverence for the Earth. Whereas Edwards' early maninya pieces tended to be static, ritualistic blocks of sound, Edwards began in the 1990s a series under the generic title "enyato", also extracted from the 1981 nonsense poem and given to connote "contrast". The enyato pieces are typically in two-movement form, the first slow, introductory; the second lively, dance-like. Examples are Prelude and Dragonfly Dance (1991) for percussion ensemble, and Blackwattle Caprices (1998), for solo guitar. In his study, Beyond Sacred and Maninyas, Philip Cooney maintains that these pieces may be seen as move towards a fusion of opposites, a steady progression towards the world of the later symphonies and concerti, where Edwards has been concerned with achieving greater richness and breadth. Diversity and eclecticism Since the turn of the 21st century, Edwards' music, especially in his diverse larger scale works, has begun to integrate the many consistent elements of his earlier work – ranging from childlike simplicity, embellished Eastern pentatonicism, medieval Western modality, fragments of plainchant, occasional outbursts of expressionistic angst, complex textures which include the development of motives and Western counterpoint, Eastern heterophony, and a deep spiritual dimension with both Eastern and Western overtones. There are allusions to indigenous music but not direct quotations: where the didjeridu occurs its function has always been discussed between composer and performer. To these he has often added theatre and ritual, costume, lighting and dance, most manifest in such orchestral works as Bird Spirit Dreaming (2002), Full Moon Dances (2012) and Frog and Star Cycle (2015). Cultural symbols such as the Virgin Mary and her Eastern equivalent, Guanyin, goddess of compassion, make frequent appearance in the guise of the Earth Mother, protector and nurturer of the environment – Edwards' work has always had a strongly ecological focus. Behind the vivid surface activity however, the mysterious Australian bush is always present as a constant backdrop, providing unity and coherence. In the 1970s, Edwards' attunement to the sounds of nature in a mindful, meditative way had a powerful effect on his music. He came to regard the sacred pieces as sonic contemplation objects similar to the honkyoku repertoire of the Japanese shakuhachi. Years later he re-established contact with Dr Graham Williams, a friend from student days, who had given up his career as a pianist to train as a meditation teacher in the Burmese and Tibetan traditions. Williams who, as director of the Lifeflow Meditation Centre in Adelaide and was developing a uniquely Australian form of meditation, perceived that all of Edwards' music possessed a quality that naturally induced a meditative state. List of works Orchestral Mountain Village in a Clearing Mist (1972) Veni Creator Spiritus for string orchestra (1993) Chorale and Ecstatic Dance for string orchestra (1994) Chorale and Ecstatic Dance for full orchestra (1995) White Ghost Dancing (1999, rev. 2007) Emerald Crossing (1999) Entwinings, for string orchestra (2016) Dances of Life and Death, for wind orchestra (2017) Symphonies Symphony No. 1 "Da Pacem Domine" (1991) Symphony No. 2 "Earth Spirit Songs" (1996–97) Symphony No. 3 "Mater Magna" (1998–2000) Symphony No. 4 "Star Chant" (2001) Symphony No. 5 "The Promised Land" (2005) Concertos Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1982) Maninyas, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1981–88) Arafura Dances, Concerto for Guitar and String Orchestra (1995) Bird Spirit Dreaming, Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra (2002) Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra (2007) Full Moon Dances, Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra (2011) Frog and Star Cycle, Double Concerto for Saxophone and Percussion (2015) Other orchestral works with soloist Yarrageh, Nocturne for Percussion and Orchestra (1989) The Heart of Night for shakuhachi and orchestra (2004–5) Spirit Ground for violin and orchestra (2010) Vocal The Hermit of Green Light – Four Poems of Michael Dransfield (1979) Maninya I (1981) Maninya V (1986) Maninya VI (1995) Christina’s Lullaby (2010) Five Senses – Five Poems of Judith Wright (2012) Choral Five Carols from Quem Quaeritis (1967) Eternity (1973) Ab Estatis Foribus (1980) Flower Songs (1986–7) Dance Mantras (1992) Dawn Mantras (1999) Dawn Canticle (2000) Mountain Chant – Three Sacred Choruses (2002–3) Southern Cross Chants (2004) Mantras and Alleluyas (2007) Mass of the Dreaming (2009) Sacred Kingfisher Psalms (2009) Miracles (2014) Opera, dance and music theatre Christina’s World, chamber opera to libretto by Dorothy Hewett (1983) Sensing, dance video with Graeme Murphy and the Sydney Dance Company (1992) Maninyas – ballet to Edwards’ violin concerto Maninyas choreographed by Stanton Welch for the San Francisco Ballet (1996) The Cries of Australia, with Barry Humphries (1997) Koto Dreaming for the 2003 Asian Music and Dance Festival, Sydney To the Green Island, orchestral score for Nicolo Fonte’s ballet The Possibility Space for The Australian Ballet (2008) Zodiac, orchestral score choreographed by Stanton Welch for the Houston Ballet (2015) Instrumental music Bagatelle, for oboe and piano (1968) Monos I, for solo cello (1970) The Tower of Remoteness, for clarinet and piano (1978) Marimba Dances (1982) Ten Little Duets for treble instruments (1982) Ecstatic Dances, for two flutes or flute and clarinet (1990) Ecstatic Dance, arranged for two woodwinds or two strings Prelude and White Cockatoo Spirit Dance (Enyato II), for solo violin or solo viola (1993) Ulpirra, for a solo woodwind (1993) Guitar Dances, for solo guitar, arr. Adrian Walter (1994) Four Bagatelles for oboe and clarinet (1994) Enyato IV, for bass clarinet and marimba (1995) Raft Song at Sunrise, for solo shakuhachi (1995) Binyang, for clarinet and percussion (1996) Blackwattle Caprices, for solo guitar (1998) Two Pieces for Solo Oboe, 1. Yanada, 2. Ulpirra (1998) Djanaba, for guitar and marimba, also arr. for two guitars (2002) Prelude and Laughing Rock, for solo cello (1993–2003) Water Spirit Song, from Koto Dreaming, for solo cello and various solo woodwinds (2003) More Marimba Dances (2004) Two pieces for Organ (2004) Nura, sonata for flute and piano (2004) The Harp and the Moon, for solo harp (2008) Mystic Spring – Songs and Dances for a Treble Woodwind (2009) Exile, for violin and piano (2010) Melbourne Arioso for solo guitar (2016) Keyboard music Monos II, for solo piano (1970) Five Little Piano Pieces (1976) Kumari, for solo piano (1980) Three Little Piano Pieces for the Right Hand Alone (1983) Etymalong, for solo piano (1984) Three Children’s Pieces, 1. Fipsis, 2. Gamelan, 3. Emily's Song (1983) Pond Light Mantras for two pianos (1991) Three Australian Waltzes, 1. Sassafras Gully Waltz, 3. Sandy Stone's Waltz (1997–8) A Flight of Sunbirds – Nine Bagatelles for Four Hands (2001) Mantras and Night Flowers, 9 bagatelles for solo piano (2001) Two Pieces for Organ (2004) Piano Sonata (2011) Bird Morning, for two pianos and didjeridu (2015) Sea Star Fantasy, piano solo (2015) Lake Dreaming, for two pianos (2017) Ensemble music Laikan, sextet for flute, clarinet, percussion, piano violin and cello (1979) Maninya II, for string quartet (1982). Withdrawn and partly incorporated into String Quartet No. 3 (see below). Reflections, sextet for piano and percussion (1985). Maninya III, for wind quintet (1985), later incorporated into Incantations (see below) Prelude and Dragonfly Dance, for percussion quartet (1991) Chorale and Ecstatic Dance, for string quartet. Also known as Enyato I. (1993) Veni Creator Spiritus for double string quartet (1993) Arafura Dances, arranged for harp and string quartet (1995) Tyalgum Mantras, for variable ensemble (1999). Piano Trio (1999) Emerald Crossing, for piano quartet (1999). Later incorporated into Piano Quartet (see below). Dawn Mantras, for shakuhachi, tenor saxophone (or cor anglais), didjeridu, percussion, child soprano, children's choir, men's choir. (1999) Enyato V, for flute, guitar, percussion, violin and cello (2001) Island Landfall, for flute, clarinet, piano, 2 violins, viola and cello (2003) Incantations, for wind quintet (2006) String Quartet No. 1 "Sparks and Auras" (2006, revised 2009) String Quartet No. 2 "Shekina Fantasy" (2008, revised 2010) String Quartet No. 3 "Summer Dances" (2012) Gallipoli, for string quartet (2014) Animisms, suite for flute, clarinet, percussion, violin and cello (2014) Bright Birds and Sorrows, suite for soprano saxophone and string quartet (2015) Voice of the Rain, for shakuhachi and string quartet (2016) Piano Quartet (2017) Awards, nominations and accolades APRA-AMC Art Music Awards The APRA-AMC Art Music Awards (previously Classical Music Awards) are presented annually by Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) and Australian Music Centre (AMC) since 2002. They "honour the achievements of composers, performers and industry specialists in the contemporary classical genre." \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 2003 \|\|Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra (Edwards) – Diana Doherty \|\| Best Performance of an Australian Composition \|\| \|- \| Song for Emily (Edwards) – 200 Guitar Duo \|\| Instrumental Work of the Year \|\| \|- \| 2005 \|\| Concerto for Guitar and Strings (Ross Edwards) – Karin Schaupp, Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, Richard Mills (conductor) \|\| Orchestral Work of the Year \|\| \|- \| 2006 \|\| Oboe Concerto (Edwards) – Diana Doherty, Melbourne Symphony Orchestra \|\| Orchestral Work of the Year \|\| \|- \| 2007 \|\| Piano Trio (Edwards) – The Australian Trio \|\| Instrumental Work of the Year \|\| \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 2008 \|\|Symphony No. 4 "Star Chant" (Edwards, Fred Watson) – Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, Richard Mills (conductor); Adelaide Chamber Singers, Carl Crossin (director); Adelaide Philharmonia Chorus, Timothy Sexton (director) \|\|Vocal or Choral Work of the Year \|\| \|- \| More Marimba Dances (Edwards) \|\| Instrumental Work of the Year \|\| \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 2011 \|\| Kalkadunga Man (William Barton, Edwards, Sarah Hopkins, Rosalind Page, Dan Walker) – The Song Company, William Barton (soloist) \|\| Performance of the Year \|\| \|- \| Joan Sutherland Performing Arts Centre – Composer-in-Focus 2010 with Ross Edwards \|\| Award for Excellence in Music Education \|\| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 2012 \|\| Spirit Ground (Edwards) – West Australian Symphony Orchestra, Margaret Blades (soloist) \|\| Work of the Year – Orchestral \|\| \|- \| Sacred Kingfisher Psalms (Edwards) – The Song Company \|\| Work of the Year – Vocal or Choral \|\| \|- \| 2013 \|\| Full Moon Dances (Edwards) – Sydney Symphony, Miguel Harth-Bedoya (conductor), Amy Dickson (saxophone) \|\| Work of the Year – Orchestral \|\| \|- \| 2015 \|\| Ross Edwards – Contribution to Australian chamber music \|\| Award for Excellence by an Individual \|\| In 2009, ABC Classic FM conducted a listener survey of favourite symphonies entitled Classic 100 Symphony. Australian composers were voted in three positions of the top 100; Edwards' Symphony No. 1 Da pacem Domine was placed at number 67. In 2011, ABC Classic FM conducted a listener survey of favourite work of the 20th century entitled Classic 100 Twentieth Century. Australian composers were voted in eight positions of the top 100; Two of Edwards' works appeared: Violin Concerto Maninyas (number 45) and Dawn Mantras (number 49). In 2016 Ross Edwards was awarded the David Harold Tribe Symphony Award for Frog and Star Cycle, Double Concerto for Saxophone and Percussion. Don Banks Music Award The Don Banks Music Award was established in 1984 to publicly honour a senior artist of high distinction who has made an outstanding and sustained contribution to music in Australia. It was founded by the Australia Council in honour of Don Banks, Australian composer, performer and the first chair of its music board. \|- \| 1989 \| Ross Edwards \| Don Banks Music Award \| \|- Personal life Ross Edwards married Helen Hopkins, one of his students, in 1974. She is currently his manager, having spent many years as a piano teacher, and has always been a committed supporter of his work. They have two children, Jeremy and Emily. References External links Biography of Ross Edwards – maintained by the Australian Music Centre http://www.rossedwards.com/ 1943 births Living people 20th-century Australian male musicians 20th-century Australian musicians 20th-century classical composers 21st-century Australian male musicians 21st-century Australian musicians 21st-century classical composers APRA Award winners Australian film score composers Australian male composers Male film score composers Members of the Order of Australia Musicians from Sydney People educated at Sydney Grammar School Sydney Conservatorium of Music alumni University of Adelaide alumni University of Sydney alumni	5,814
doc-en-11196_0	In the United Kingdom, medical school generally refers to a department within a university which is involved in the education of future medical practitioners. All leading British medical schools are state-funded and their core purpose is to train doctors on behalf of the National Health Service. Courses generally last Four to six years: two years of pre-clinical training in an academic environment and two to three years clinical training at a teaching hospital and in community settings. Medical schools and teaching hospitals are closely integrated. The course of study is extended to six years if an intercalated degree is taken in a related subject. Admissions In the United Kingdom students generally begin medical school after secondary education. This contrasts with the US and Canadian (outside Quebec) systems, where a bachelor's degree is required for entry to medical school. Entry to British medical schools is very competitive. Application Applications for entry into medical school (in common with other university courses) are made through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS). UCAS allows four applications per applicant for medicine, as opposed to the usual five. The remaining one can either be left blank, or be used to apply for a non-medical course. Most UK medical schools now also require applicants to sit additional entrance tests such as the Universities Clinical Aptitude Test (UCAT) (required by 26 universities) and the BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT) (required by 5 universities). The number of available medical school places had risen by 3,500 since 1998. There are national quotas imposed on the number of places for students on medicine and dentistry courses in the UK as much of the training needs to occur in a healthcare setting. In 2016, places at medical school were offered through the clearing process for the first time, with St George's, University of London opening up places on its five-year medical degree undergraduate course. The UCAS personal statement gives applicants the opportunity to write about why they are suitable for medicine. Personal statements are reviewed by university admission boards and applicants scoring highly in tests and with a good personal statement will be called to interview. The Interview Interviews for medicine differ between individual universities. The majority of medical school interview applicants using either a Traditional interview or the Multiple Mini Interview (MMI) formats. Oxford and Cambridge medical schools have their own distinct way of interviewing with focus on science questions and other medical schools also use group tasks to assess applicants. Traditional The traditional medical interview consists of 2–4 interviewers sat across a table from the candidate. Interviewers take turns to ask the candidate set questions and rate their responses on a Likert scale. Interviews last between 15–30 minutes. Questions cover a range of desirable criteria that future doctors should possess. Multiple Mini-Interview (MMI) Developed at McMaster University Medical School in Canada in 2004, the MMI format assesses candidates as they cycle through a selection of 'mini' interview stations similar to the medical school OSCE. 1-2 interviewers assess candidates at each station and each station is focussed on a particular skill desirable of a doctor. Criteria assessed at individual stations may include: Reasons for application to study medicine Influence of work experience Contribution to school and society Academic ability and intellect Knowledge of the course and medical careers Descriptive skills Dexterity Empathy Communication skills Initiative and coping under pressure Reasoning and problem solving skills Teamwork skills Degree Awarded After successful completion of clinical training a student graduates as a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, abbreviated as 'MB ChB' for Aberdeen, Anglia Ruskin, Aston, Birmingham, Bristol, Buckingham, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Keele, Lancaster, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield 'MB ChB' for Warwick requires a first degree; 'MB BS' for schools currently or previously part of the University of London (King's College London GKT School of Medical Education, Barts and The London School of Medicine, St George's, UCL Medical School) and also Norwich Medical School, Hull York Medical School, Imperial College School of Medicine, University of Central Lancashire, and Newcastle University. 'MB BCh' for Cardiff; 'MB BCh' for Swansea requires a first degree; 'BM BCh' for Oxford, 'BM BS' for University of Nottingham, Peninsula Medical School - now split into the University of Exeter Medical School and the University of Plymouth Medical School and Brighton-Sussex, 'BMBS' for Southampton, 'MB BChir' for Cambridge. Queen's University Belfast gives the degree of 'MB BCh BAO' (BAO is Bachelor of the Art of Obstetrics). The University of St Andrews offers a pre-clinical BSc or BSc(Hons) with subsequent entry to either Manchester, Barts, Glasgow, Dundee, Edinburgh or Aberdeen for Clinical Teaching and a Subsequent MB ChB/equivalent Course types Broadly speaking, undergraduate medical education in the United Kingdom may be thought of along two continuums: The teaching method is one continuum - on which problem based learning is one extreme, and lecture based learning is the other extreme. The course structure - on which a clear pre-clinical/clinical divide is one extreme, and a totally integrated curriculum would be the other extreme. These two can be combined in different ways to form different course types, and in reality few medical schools are at the extremes of either axis but occupy a middle ground. Teaching methods Problem-based learning Problem-based learning (PBL) is a principle based on the educational philosophy of the French educationalist Célestin Freinet in the 1920s, and is used in many subject areas including medicine. It was first developed in relation to medical education at McMaster University Medical School in the late 1960s,. It was introduced to the UK by Manchester University. It refers to a whole process, and not merely to a specific event (the PBL tutorial). In the UK, the focus is on a PBL-tutorial which is conducted in small groups of around 8–10 students (although this varies with seniority and between medical school) with a tutor (or facilitator) who usually comes from either a clinical or academic background, depending on the level of the course. There is an academic, clinical or ethical scenario, where the students select which areas of study to pursue in their own time. Academics at Maastricht University developed seven steps of what should happen in the PBL process: The group read the scenario and clarify terms they do not understand They define what the problem is They brainstorm possible hypotheses or explanations Come up with a possible solution Define a series of learning objectives they should achieve by the next tutorial, arising out of the problem Gather information to fulfil the learning objectives - this can be in the form of private study or reading; attending a lecture; having a discussion or teaching session with a relevant "expert"; attend a ward round or clinic; interview a relevant patient At the next tutorial, students share the information they have gathered since the last tutorial, and discuss areas where information they have gained conflicts - this may lead to further learning objectives if they find they are still not clear. In keeping with the ethos of self-directed learning, during sessions it encourages a shift in power from an academic tutor to the students in a PBL group. However, it will be seen that lectures, tutorials and clinical teaching sessions can play a part in problem-based learning - but the emphasis is on the student to decide how these will enable them to fulfil their learning objectives, rather than passively absorb all information. The introduction of PBL in the UK coincided with a General Medical Council report in 2003, Tomorrow's Doctors, which recommended an increased proportion of learning should be student-centred and self-directed. This encouraged medical schools to adopt PBL, however some medical schools have adopted other methods to increase self-directed learning, whilst others (notably Oxford and Cambridge) have always had a high proportion of student-centred and self-directed learning, and have therefore not introduced PBL. Manchester Medical School adopted a new PBL curriculum in 1994, and were followed by Liverpool Medical School and Glasgow Medical School. The Norwich Medical School, at the University of East Anglia also uses a PBL based curriculum. Some of the UK medical schools created since that time have adopted problem based learning. Brighton and Sussex Medical School has a lecture-based approach supported by small-group and self-directed work. Similarly, Imperial College London employs mostly lecture-based teaching but uses supplementary teaching methods such as PBL to deliver a more rounded education. Tomorrow's Doctors also criticised the amount of unnecessary scientific knowledge irrelevant to clinical practice that medical students were required to learn, meaning that the curricula were altered in other ways around the same time that PBL was introduced in the UK. One study criticising problem-based learning found that some medical specialist registrars and consultants believe that PBL can promote incomplete learning and educational blind spots; particularly in anatomy and basic medical sciences, due to ultimate decision making within the PBL group resting with the students. This has also brought into question whether the lack of anatomical knowledge adequately prepares graduates for surgery, or negatively affects enthusiasm to enter certain specialties; including academic medicine, surgery, pathology and microbiology., although the purposeful reduction in anatomy teaching within all medical curricula which occurred following Tomorrow's Doctors may be in part to blame for reduced anatomical knowledge, rather than it being due to PBL. Studies have shown that students believe that PBL increases the educational effect of self study and their clinical inference ability, and although studies are conflicting, one showed that UK PRHO graduates believed that they were better at dealing with uncertainty and knowing their personal limits. Students feel less detached from clinical medicine through PBL and thus this may increase their enthusiasm for learning. Notably, universities that pioneered successful Problem-based-learning such as University of Montreal or McMaster are themselves prestigious institutions that hold worldwide reputations for clinical and academic excellence, taking the top few percent of worldwide graduate applicants. PBL can be considered to be more suitable to teaching of graduate medicine, whose students may benefit from the maturity of an existing degree and previous experience of self-directed learning, and perhaps unsuitable for less able students and undergraduates. Lecture-based learning Lecture-based learning (LBL) consists of information delivered mainly through large lectures or seminars. This had been the predominant method of delivering pre-clinical medical education at many UK medical schools prior to the introduction of Tomorrow's Doctors. Teaching is delivered via large teaching events at which several hundred students may be present, which guides learning. Students are encouraged to do their own reading between lectures as the lectures will only cover the main points. Key points in support of LBL include that students gain the opportunity to listen to leading clinicians or academics, whereas PBL tutors may be underused. Lecture-based learning is also considerably cheaper to organise, requiring fewer staff members who can deliver lectures to large numbers of students at once, rather than the large number of separate tutors needed to deliver problem-based learning to small groups of eight students. Criticisms of lecture based learning include that students get much less interaction with both tutor and colleagues - they passively absorb information in lectures rather than questioning and searching out answers. The lack of interaction also means it is harder for tutors to know if individual students are struggling as they will only find out if students have not understood the lectures in exams, when arguably it is too late, whereas in problem-based learning, the tutor can assess how much each student is learning based on the student's participation in discussion within the weekly tutorials, and may be able to help students who are struggling earlier. LBL has been criticised for 'spoon feeding' students and thus not preparing them for future continued medical education, which is by necessity, self-directed. However, most lecture-based curricula involve a significant proportion of students doing self-directed reading between lectures. Some have also criticised lecture based learning for overloading students with information that may not be relevant to their first years in clinical practice, however this has more to do with curriculum design and course structure than teaching method. Both lecture-based learning and problem-based learning may involve teaching from academics who are not medically qualified themselves. One meta-analysis has suggested that PBL education produces graduates with no better factual or clinical knowledge than students from a lecture-based course, despite in some cases the graduates' belief that they are, questioning whether PBL learning is merely a popular trend. Course structure Undergraduate medical curricula can be divided on the basis of how they integrate or separate the theoretical learning in areas such as anatomy, physiology, ethics, psychology and biochemistry from the clinical areas such as medicine, surgery, obstetrics, paediatrics. Traditionally, medical courses entirely split the theoretical learning, teaching this on its own for 2–3 years in a pre-clinical course before students went on to study clinical subjects on their own for a further 3 years in a clinical course. In some cases, these were taught at geographically distinct sites or even separate universities, with an entirely separate staff for each course, sometimes with the award of a BA or BSc at the end of the pre-clinical course. St Andrews, Cambridge and Oxford Universities are three of the most traditional pre-clinical medical schools- For example, the Cambridge first year of the Medical Sciences tripos is split into anatomy, biochemistry and physiology. Whilst there is a nominal "Preparing for Patients" aspect to the course when the students speak to real patients, this comprises a total of three afternoons over the entire year. There has been a move for universities have tended to integrate teaching into "systems-based teaching" rather than "subject-based teaching". E.g. rather than studying separate distinct modules in anatomy, physiology, ethics, psychology and biochemistry, students study distinct modules in different body systems, e.g. "heart and lungs" or "nervous system" - during which they will study the anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, psychology, etc. relevant to that system. The same also has happened with clinical subjects, so for example rather than studying "medicine" and "surgery" separately, students may have a "heart" module in which they study clinical cardiology and cardiothoracic surgery together. In some medical schools there is integration of clinical and pre-clinical subjects together - e.g. a "heart" module would include anatomy of the heart, physiology of the heart, clinical examination, clinical cardiology and cardiothoracic surgery being studied in one module. Since Tomorrow's Doctors, there has been a move in the UK towards integrating clinical and non-clinical subjects together to a greater extent. This has varied considerably between universities, always with an emphasis towards non-clinical subjects towards the start of the course and clinical subjects towards the end. A variety of models are in operation. Any model may use PBL or LBL learning methods: for example Manchester has a PBL-based curriculum but a strong pre-clinical/clinical divide, whilst Brighton and Sussex Medical School has a more integrated curriculum, delivered via a lecture-based programme. Many factors influence the choice of model, including the educational philosophy of the institution and the distance of the attached teaching hospitals to the university base (it is much easier for universities with teaching hospitals nearby to offer an integrated curriculum). Models include: 2/3+2+1 (London, St Andrews, Edinburgh, Oxford and Cambridge) 2/3 year pre-clinical course in which predominantly non-clinical subjects are studied, with occasional day or half-day "early experience" events where students will visit a hospital, a General Practice or visit a family in their home. Reference to clinical application of knowledge may be made, but little interaction with patients at this stage. Exam at end of this in pre-clinical subjects only. 2 years clinical subjects studied 1 year "preparing for practice" where students will consolidate knowledge, go on elective attachments, sit finals exams with emphasis of finals on clinical subjects 1+3+1 1 year basic introduction to general principles of pre-clinical subjects 3 years combination of pre-clinical and clinical teaching with a ratio of 1:2 nonclinical:clinical subjects, often taught in systems-based "blocks" - 'e.g. 4 weeks studying anatomy and physiology of heart followed by 8 weeks studying clinical cardiology' 1 year consolidating knowledge, elective attachments, sit finals exams - often integrated exams incorporating clinical and non-clinical testing 1+2+2 (e.g. Cardiff) 1 years studying basic principles of pre-clinical subjects 2 years studying pre-clinical and clinical subjects with equal weight given to both, again in system based blocks 'e.g. 6 weeks studying anatomy and physiology of heart followed by 6 weeks studying clinical cardiology' 2 years predominantly clinical teaching and consolidation of knowledge, during which time electives and finals exams will occur Support for a less integrated course includes that it achieves a basic scientific foundation from which to build clinical knowledge upon in later years. However it is criticised for producing graduates with inferior communication skills and making transition into the clinical environment more difficult in year 3 or 4. Support for a more integrated course includes that by allowing patient interaction early, the course produces students who are more at ease with communicating with patients and better developed interpersonal skills. Criticisms include, questioning whether students in the first year have a place in the healthcare environment, when actual clinical knowledge may be virtually nil. Tomorrow's Doctors also led to the introduction of significant student choice in the syllabus in the form of student selected components. Immediate post-graduation period After graduation medical students enter paid employment, as a Foundation House Officer (FHO), during which they will complete the first year of Foundation Training. Foundation training focusses on the seven principles of the MMC training ethos: trainee centred, competency assessed, service based, quality assured, flexible, coached, and structured & streamlined. Graduates are still a year away from obtaining full registration with the General Medical Council. During this year trainees are legally only able to work in certain supervised jobs, as a Foundation House Officer 1 (FHO1), and cannot legally practise independently, and it is the responsibility of the medical school they attended to supervise this year until they are fully registered with the General Medical Council. Students in their final year will begin the process of applying for jobs. The new system, called the UK Foundation Programme, (implemented by the NHS Modernising Medical Careers) involves a simplified online application process, without interviews, based on a matching scheme. Students rank their preferred Foundation Schools (which often comprise a catchment area of two or three cities). They are ranked based both on the answers given on their application form, and their marks gained in examinations during their undergraduate career, the resulting score determines which job the student will get when they graduate. After being selected to a Foundation School, applicants are then selected into specific jobs by a selection procedure determined locally by each Foundation School, which may include an interview, submission of a CV or use of the score gained in MTAS. Previously, another online system called Multi-Deanery Application Process (MDAP) system was used for applications to the Foundation Programme in some areas of the UK. This was criticised in the media and in some medical publications, and was replaced by Medical Training Application System in 2006. Graduate entry programmes Recently several four year graduate entry schemes have been introduced in some English and Welsh medical schools which cover a similar range and depth of knowledge to the undergraduate scheme but at a more intensive pace. The accelerated pace is largely in the pre-clinical phase of the medical programme, with the GMC mandating a minimum number of clinical hours in the clinical phase of medical degrees. These courses have a limited number of spaces and include some funding after the first year, so competition is very high. Some sources report in the region of 60 applicants for each place as these courses have become more widely known. Until relatively recently, people over thirty were strongly discouraged from applying. Entrance to these programmes usually involves sitting a competitive selection test. The most common entry examinations are the GAMSAT (Graduate Australian Medical Schools Admissions Test) or MSAT (Medical Schools Admissions Test). Some schools may use existing entrance examinations that school leavers are also usually required to take e.g. UKCAT or BMAT (see above). The admissions criteria for these graduate entry programmes vary between universities - some universities require the applicant's first degree to be in a science-related discipline, whereas others will accept a degree in any subject as sufficient evidence of academic ability. The following universities offer four year graduate entry programmes: University of Birmingham (require UKCAT) University of Bristol University of Cambridge (candidate may offer BMAT) Cardiff University University of Dundee (as part of Scottish Graduate Entry Medicine) (require UKCAT and GAMSAT) Keele University (require GAMSAT) King's College London (require UKCAT) University of Leicester (last entry September 2014) (require UKCAT) University of Liverpool (require GAMSAT) Newcastle University (require UKCAT) University of Nottingham (require GAMSAT) University of Oxford (require BMAT) Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry (require UKCAT) University of Southampton (require UKCAT) St George's, University of London (require GAMSAT) Bute Medical School (St Andrews) (as part of Scottish Graduate Entry Medicine) (require UKCAT and GAMSAT) Swansea University (require GAMSAT) University of Warwick (require UKCAT) Imperial College London (require BMAT) However, graduates are free to apply to some of the regular five/six year courses. Indeed, universities offering both graduate entry and school leaver entry courses often encourage applications to one of the two course types, depending on the graduate's educational background. Intercalated degrees Some medical students spend one or two additional years at medical school (lengthening a five-year course to six or seven years) studying for an intercalated degree. This is an extra degree awarded in addition to their medical degrees, giving the student the opportunity to gain an extra qualification, and aids students' research and individual study skills. At the end of this intercalated year or two students are awarded a degree, which is variously styled as BSc, BA, MSc, BMSc (Hons), BMedSci(Hons), MA, MPH, MClinEd depending on the university, level of award, and subject studied. Usually students complete an intercalated bachelor's degree the year after completing the second or third year of their medical course. Master's degrees are offered at some schools for students who have completed the fourth year of their medical course. Higher research related masters and academic doctorates are typically undertaken at the end of the fifth year of the course. There is typically strong competition to secure funding from external institutions such as pharmaceutical companies, as such research related intercalated degrees may be in an area the student has little long-term interest, a frequent criticism. The major benefit of an intercalated degree is the increased chance of selection to competitive training routes such as Academic Medicine or Surgery. The way the programme is implemented varies across the country: sometimes the intercalated degree will be specifically for medical students (e.g. a supervisor-led research project culminating in a dissertation), whilst sometimes the intercalated student will complete taught courses offered to final year BSc or masters students, or a combination of these. At some medical schools the intercalated degree may be undertaken in a specific subjects (e.g. Immunology, Pathology, Cardiovascular Science, Respiratory Science, Social Medicine, Management, History Of Medicine, Humanities etc.), whilst at other medical schools there is a common curriculum for all intercalated students (often with some choice within it). At many medical schools, the year is optional, and a relatively small percentage of students elect to study for it. At the University of Nottingham, all students undertake a research project and dissertation under the supervision of schools within the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, leading to a BMedSci (Hons) Degree in the third year. Whilst this additional degree is uniquely awarded within the five-year period of study, Nottingham medical students undertake heavily extended third and fourth years of up to 48 weeks in order to accomplish both the BMedSci and early clinical training. In contrast to this, all students at University College London, Imperial College London, Bute Medical School (St Andrews), University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh and University of Cambridge study for a BSc/BA in addition to their medical degrees. These five medical schools have a six-year curriculum, in which students complete a three-year pre-clinical course, which leads to a BSc or BA, followed by a three-year clinical course, which in combination with the BSc or BA leads to a full medical degree. The degree awarded is BA at Oxford and Cambridge (which later becomes an MA), and BSc at the others. At these five medical schools, it is sometimes also possible to spend extra optional year(s) where one can study for an intercalated masters or doctoral degree in addition to the BSc/BA which all students receive, for example, the University of Cambridge offers an MB PhD programme of nine years total duration comprising preclinical training, the intercalated BA (see above), clinical training and within the clinical training period a PhD. University College London also offers an MB PhD programme which can be completed in nine years of study. Degrees are classified according to the British undergraduate degree classification system. This is taken into account in the Foundation Schools Application Form, in which applicants are awarded extra points for a higher class degree. As of 2012, intercalated degrees are able to contribute the maximum of 4 points to the foundation year 1 posts application. The number of points awarded is as following: 4 for a first class, 3 points for a 2.1 class, 2 points for 2.2 class and 1 point for a third class. Medical student life Most UK medical students belong to student unions, or groups set up within the university's students' union and run by and for medical students, typically organising social events (such as Balls/formals), sporting events (e.g. the National Association of Medics' Sports (NAMS) and academic events or career events. Four medical schools have separate student unions for medical students: Imperial College School of Medicine Students' Union, Edinburgh's Royal Medical Society, UCL (RUMS: Royal Free, University College and Middlesex Medical Students' Society) & Barts & The London Student's Association. The United Kingdom Medical Students Association (UKMSA) is a nationally based student-doctor collaboration which unites medical societies and their student members across different universities in the UK. The current (2017) president is Andrew Cole, and the vice president is Michael Grant. Meducation is an online revision and learning tool that encourages social interaction between medical students worldwide. It has 30,000 users. The largest free publication in the UK for medical students is the award-winning Medical Student Newspaper. It is written and produced entirely by medical students and is distributed in hard copy to the five medical schools of London, and available online for all. Many students also focus on extracurricular academic activities, for example many UK schools have their own student society dedicated to improving health both within the local area through various action projects and globally, through campaigning and working abroad. Medsin is a fully student run network of healthcare students and is the UK's member of the International Federation of Medical Students' Associations. Other societies are dedicated to raising awareness about careers in specialties such as surgery and general practice. There are many student awards available, varying in prestige, from local university awards to national awards. Considered the most prestigious award for a medical student in the UK is the currently Medical Student of the Year, hosted by The Royal Society of Medicine and the Royal College of Psychiatrists. This is largely because the other colleges have no such award, with the normal national prizes being named after experts in that field. See also Medical education in the United Kingdom List of medical schools in the United Kingdom References Medical education in the United Kingdom	6,049
doc-en-11209_0	The monarchy of Barbados was a system of government in which a hereditary monarch was the sovereign and head of state of Barbados. Barbados shared the Sovereign with the other Commonwealth realms, with the country's monarchy being separate and legally distinct. The Barbadian monarch's operational and ceremonial duties were mostly delegated to her representative, the Governor-General of Barbados. The Barbadian monarchy was created by the Barbados Independence Act 1966, which transformed the Colony of Barbados into the independent sovereign state of Barbados of today. The only Barbadian monarch to reign from the independence of Barbados to the monarchy's abolition was Queen Elizabeth II. As a result, the monarch was officially titled Queen of Barbados and, in this capacity, she and other members of the Barbadian Royal Family undertook public and private functions domestically and abroad as representatives of the Barbadian state. The Crown primarily functioned as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. In September 2020, the Governor-General, acting as the personal representative of the Queen, announced that Barbados would transition from a constitutional monarchy to a constitutional republic by the end of November 2021. The Barbadian monarchy was abolished on 30 November 2021, when Barbados became a republic within the Commonwealth with the president of Barbados as its head of state. History The Barbadian monarchy can trace its origins to Barbados' history as a colony first of England and then as part of the British Empire. Barbados was claimed under King James I of England in 1625, though not colonised until 1627, when, in the name of King Charles I, Governor Charles Wolferstone established the first settlement on the island. By the 18th century, Barbados became one of the main seats of British authority in the British West Indies, though, due to the economic burden of duties and trade restrictions, some Barbadians, including the Clerk of the General Assembly, attempted to declare in 1727 that the Act of Settlement 1701 had expired in the colony, since the Governor, Henry Worsley, had not received a new commission from King George II upon his accession to the throne. Thus, they refused to pay their taxes to a governor they recognised as having no authority. The Attorney and Solicitor General of Great Britain confirmed that Worsley was entitled to collect the dues owed, but, Worsley resigned his post before the directive arrived in Barbados. After attempting in 1958 a federation with other West Indian colonies, Barbados continued as a self-governing colony under the Colonial Office, until independence came with the signing of the Barbados Independence Order in 1966 by Queen Elizabeth II. The Barbados Independence Act 1966 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom transformed the Colony of Barbados into a sovereign state with an independent constitutional monarchy. The Queen's cousin, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, represented her at the independence celebrations. On Independence Day, the Prince opened the second session of the first parliament, on behalf of the Queen. The Barbadian Crown and its aspects The Barbadian sovereign was equally shared with other monarchies in the Commonwealth of Nations, with the monarch's relationship with Barbados completely independent from her position as monarch of any other realm. The Barbadian monarch was represented by a viceroy—the Governor-General of Barbados—in the Barbadian realm. Since Barbadian independence in 1966, the pan-national Crown had both a shared and a separate character and the sovereign's role as monarch of Barbados was distinct to his or her position as monarch of any other realm, including the United Kingdom. Only Barbadian ministers of the Crown could advise the sovereign on matters of the Barbadian state. The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution and in Barbados became a Barbadian, or "domesticated" establishment. This division was illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for example, held a unique Barbadian title and, when she was acting in public specifically as a representative of Barbados, she used, where possible, Barbadian symbols, including the country's national flag, unique royal symbols, and the like. Per the Barbadian National Anthem law, upon arrival or departure of the Sovereign or a member of the Barbadian Royal Family, only the Barbadian national anthem (In Plenty and In Time of Need) was played. A claim made by supporters of the monarchy was that it "keeps the line of stability open"; the sovereign's usual location outside the country meant legitimate executive power would be unaffected by any hostile invasion of Barbados or other event that rendered the entire sitting government incapacitated or unable to function. Such a situation did not arise; however, it may have helped if the Operation Red Dog-invasion plot, which targeted the Commonwealth of Dominica and likely Barbados, was not halted. Personification of the state The Barbadian sovereign was regarded as the personification, or legal personality, of the Barbadian state. Therefore, the state was referred to as Her Majesty in Right of Barbados. The monarch, her position as sovereign, and not as an individual, was thus the owner of all state lands (called Crown lands), buildings and equipment (called Crown held property), as well as the copyright for all literary and artistic works (called Crown copyright). Government staff (the Civil Service) were also employed by the monarch or the governor-general, as are Supreme Court judges, members of the Barbados Defence Force, police officers, and senators. As the embodiment of the Barbadian state, the monarch was the locus of oaths of Allegiance, required of many employees of the Crown, as well as by new citizens, as per the Oath of Citizenship laid out in the Barbados Citizenship Act. This was done in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath, wherein she promises to govern the peoples of her realms, "according to their respective laws and customs". Oath of allegiance The oath of allegiance in Barbados was: Constitutional role and royal prerogative Barbados' constitution of 1966 gave the country a similar parliamentary system of government to the other Commonwealth realms, wherein the role of the monarch and governor-general was both legal and practical, but not political. The Crown was regarded as a corporation, in which several parts shared the authority of the whole, with the sovereign as the person at the centre of the constitutional construct, meaning all powers of state were constitutionally reposed in the Barbadian monarch. The constitution required most of the Queen's domestic duties to be performed by the governor-general, appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister of Barbados. All institutions of government acted under the sovereign's authority; the vast powers that belong to the Barbadian Crown were collectively known as the Royal Prerogative. Parliamentary approval was not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative; moreover, the consent of the Crown was must before either of the houses of parliament may even debate a bill affecting the sovereign's prerogatives or interests. The government of Barbados was also thus formally referred to as Her Majesty's Government. Further, the constitution instructed that any change to the position of the monarch, or the monarch's representative in Barbados, required the consent of two-thirds of all the members of each house of parliament. Executive One of the main duties of the Crown was to appoint a prime minister, who thereafter headed the Cabinet and advised the monarch or governor-general on how to execute their executive powers over all aspects of government operations and foreign affairs. The monarch's, and thereby the viceroy's role was almost entirely symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate, while the Cabinet directed the use of the Royal Prerogative, which included the privilege to declare war, maintain the Queen's peace, and direct the actions of the Barbados Defence Force, as well as to summon and prorogue parliament and call elections. However, it is important to note that the Royal Prerogative belonged to the Crown and not to any of the ministers, though it might have sometimes appeared that way, and the constitution allows the governor-general to unilaterally use these powers in relation to the dismissal of a prime minister, dissolution of parliament, and removal of a judge in exceptional, constitutional crisis situations. There were also a few duties which were specifically performed by the Queen, such as appointing the governor-general, or the creation of Barbadian honours. The governor-general, to maintain the stability of government, appointed as prime minister the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Assembly. The governor-general additionally appointed a Cabinet, at the direction of the prime minister, at least five other ministers of the Crown. The Queen was informed by her viceroy of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime minister and the swearing-in of a new prime minister and other members of the ministry, she remained fully briefed through regular communications from her Barbadian ministers, and she held regular audiences with them whenever possible. Members of various executive agencies and other officials are appointed by the Crown. The appointment of privy councillors, senators, and Supreme Court justices also falls under the Royal Prerogative. Foreign affairs The Royal Prerogative further extended to foreign affairs: the governor-general ratified treaties, alliances, and international agreements. As with other uses of the Royal Prerogative, no parliamentary approval was required. However, a treaty couldn't alter the domestic laws of Barbados; an Act of Parliament was necessary in such cases. The governor-general, on behalf of the Queen, also accredited Barbadian High Commissioners and ambassadors and received diplomats from foreign states. In addition, the issuance of passports fell under the Royal Prerogative and, as such, all Barbadian passports were issued in the governor-general's name, the monarch's representative in Barbados. Parliament The sovereign, along with the Senate and the House of Assembly, was one of the three components of the Barbadian parliament. The authority of the Crown therein was embodied in the mace, which bore a crown at its apex; unlike other realms, however, the Barbados parliament only had a mace for the lower house. The monarch did not, however, participate in the legislative process; the viceroy did, though only in the granting of Royal Assent. Further, the constitution outlined that the governor-general alone was responsible for appointing senators. Similarly to other Caribbean states such as Jamaica, Belize, and Trinidad and Tobago, the viceroy must make twelve senatorial appointments on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of leader of the opposition and seven at his own discretion. The viceroy additionally summoned, prorogued, and dissolved parliament; after the latter, the writs for a general election were usually dropped by the governor-general at Government House. The new parliamentary session was marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the monarch or the governor-general read the Speech from the Throne. As the monarch and the viceroy couldn't enter the House of Assembly, this, as well as the bestowing of Royal Assent, took place in the Senate chamber; Members of Parliament were summoned to these ceremonies from the Commons by the Crown's messenger, the Serjeant-at-arms, after he knocked on the doors of the lower house that were slammed closed on him, to symbolise the barring of the monarch from the assembly. All laws in Barbados were enacted only with the viceroy's granting of Royal Assent in the monarch's name. Thus, bills began with the phrase: "Be it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Assembly of Barbados and by the authority of the same as follows". Courts Within the Commonwealth realms, the sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. In Barbados, criminal offences were legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings for indictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form of The Queen versus [Name]. Hence, the common law held that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences. The Barbadian monarch, and by extension the governor-general, on the advice of the Barbadian Cabinet, could also grant immunity from prosecution, exercise the royal prerogative of mercy, and pardon offences against the Crown, either before, during, or after a trial. The exercise of the 'Prerogative of mercy' to grant a pardon and the commutation of prison sentences is described in section 78 of the 1966 Constitution. All Barbadian judges had to swear that they would "well and truly serve" the monarch of Barbados, on taking office. Under the Constitution, the Judicial Oath was: However, the monarch did not personally rule in judicial cases; instead, judicial functions were performed in her name. In international cases, as a sovereign and under established principles of international law, the Queen of Barbados was not subject to suit in foreign courts without her express consent. In addition, the monarch also served as a symbol of the legitimacy of courts of justice and of their judicial authority. An image of the Queen or the Coat of arms of Barbados was always displayed in Barbadian courtrooms. Judges also had a pair of white gloves from the Queen on display on the edge of the bench, which marked the authority of the court, similar to the ceremonial mace of parliament. Any attempt to kill the monarch or the governor-general was considered "high treason", and the person guilty of the offence was sentenced to death. Title By a royal proclamation in the Barbadian Official Gazette in May 1967, the monarch was granted a separate Barbadian title in her role as Queen of Barbados. The full Barbadian title of Elizabeth II was: "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Barbados and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth". This style reflected Barbados's status as an independent monarchy, highlighting the monarch's role specifically as Queen of Barbados, as well as the shared aspect of the Crown throughout the Commonwealth realms. Typically, the sovereign was styled "Queen of Barbados", and was addressed as such when in Barbados, or performing duties on behalf of Barbados abroad. Succession By convention, succession in Barbados was deferred to the laws of the United Kingdom; whoever was monarch of Britain was automatically also the monarch of Barbados. Succession in Britain is, for those born before 28 October 2011, by male-preference primogeniture and, for people born after 28 October 2011, by absolute primogeniture, governed by common law, the Act of Settlement 1701, Bill of Rights 1689, and Succession to the Crown Act 2013. Though these laws still lie within the control of the British parliament, the United Kingdom agreed, via adopting the Statute of Westminster, not to change the rules of succession without the unanimous consent of the other realms, unless explicitly leaving the shared monarchy relationship. This situation that applies symmetrically in all the other realms and has been likened to a treaty among these countries. Barbados last indicated its consent to alteration to the line of succession in 2015, when the Governor-General-in-Council brought into force the Succession to the Throne Act, 2013, which signified the legislature's acquiescence to the British Succession to the Crown Bill 2013. Cultural role The Crown and Honours Within the Commonwealth realms, the monarch is deemed the fount of honour. Similarly, the monarch, as Sovereign of Barbados, conferred awards and honours in Barbados in her name. Most of them were often awarded on the advice of "Her Majesty's Barbados Ministers". The Barbadian National Honours system was established in 1980 by warrant of the Queen of Barbados under a royal sign manual. The Crown and the Defence Force The Barbadian monarch was the Commander-in-Chief of the Barbados Defence Force. The Crown sat at the pinnacle of the Barbados Defence Force. It was reflected in Barbados's naval vessels, which bore the prefix HMBS, i.e., Her Majesty's Barbadian Ship. St Edward's Crown appeared on Barbados Defence Force regimental and maritime badges and rank insignia, which illustrated the monarchy as the locus of authority. Every member of the Barbados Defence Force had to swear allegiance to the Barbadian monarch on taking office. The oath was: Queen's Colour of the Barbados Regiment The Queen's Colour of the Barbados Regiment was carried only when a guard was mounted by the Queen of Barbados, the Barbadian Royal Family and the Governor General of Barbados. Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood presented the regiment with its first stand of Colours on 23 February 1953. The Queen's Colour was paraded in Trooping the Colour for the first time on 19 February 1975, in the presence of the Queen. It was also trooped on 21 November 1987 to mark the 21st anniversary of Barbadian Independence, and on 4 June 2012 during the parade in honour of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. The Crown and the Police Force The Barbadian Police Force was known as "The Royal Barbados Police Force". The prefix "Royal" was dropped, and its name was changed to "Barbados Police Service", when the Barbadian monarchy was abolished. Every member of the Royal Barbados Police Force had to swear allegiance to the monarch of Barbados, on taking office. Under the Police Act of Barbados, the oath of office was: Barbadian royal symbols From the beginning of Queen Elizabeth II's reign onwards, royal symbols in Barbados were altered to make them distinctly Barbadian or new ones created, such as the Coat of arms of Barbados (presented on 14 February 1966 by the Queen to then President of the Senate Sir Grey Massiah) and the Queen's Royal Standard for Barbados, created in 1975. Second in precedence was the personal flag of the governor-general. The main symbol of the Barbadian monarchy was the sovereign herself. Thus, framed portraits of her were displayed in public buildings and government offices. A portrait of the Queen also greeted visitors in the immigration queue at the airport in Bridgetown. The Queen also appeared on commemorative Barbadian stamps. A crown was also used to illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, appearing on police force, postal workers, prison officers, and Barbados Defence Force regimental and maritime badges and rank insignia, as well as Barbadian honours, the system of such created through Letters Patent issued by Queen Elizabeth II in July 1980. Queen's Personal Barbadian Flag Elizabeth II had a personal Barbadian standard, in her role as Queen of Barbados. It was first used when the Queen visited Barbados in 1975. The standard consisted of a yellow field with a bearded fig tree, a long-established symbol of the island of Barbados, and the national flower the Pride of Barbados flowers in each of the upper corners. A blue disc of the letter "E" crowned surrounded by a garland of gold roses was displayed prominently on the flag within the centre of the tree. Royal visits In February 1966, the Queen, along with her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, toured Barbados, opening Barclays Park, in Saint Andrew, amongst other events. During her 1975 visit, the Queen knighted Barbadian cricketer Garfield Sobers in an open-air investiture before a crowd of 50,000 in Bridgetown. The Queen returned for her Silver Jubilee in 1977, after addressing the new session of parliament, she departed on the Concorde, which was the Queen's first supersonic flight. She also was in Barbados in 1989, to mark the 350th anniversary of the establishment of the Barbados parliament, where she sat to receive addresses from both houses. In 2010, Prince Harry visited Barbados to launch the first Sentebale Polo Cup, and to raise awareness and funding for Sentebale's work. To mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 2012, the country hosted the Queen's youngest son and his wife, the Earl and Countess of Wessex, between 23 and 24 February 2012. To a joint sitting of the Parliament of Barbados, the Earl read a written message from the Queen, in which the monarch stated she has taken note of the level of development Barbados had achieved during its 45 years of independence and called the country a model small state for others around the world. The Princess Royal visited in 2015. In 2016, Prince Harry visited Barbados on behalf of the Queen, for Barbados' 50th anniversary of independence celebrations. The Queen shared person congratulations to the people and government of Barbados on reaching 50 years of political independence and touched on her family's fondness of Barbados and witnessing development of nation over that time. In her message, the Queen praised Barbadians and said they "have continued to flourish and grow into a strong and confident nation. The extraordinary talents of your people, from the cricket field to the music industry have been admired and recognised throughout the world". Republicanism Former Prime Minister Owen Arthur called for a referendum on becoming a republic to be held in 2005. It was announced on 26 November 2007 that the referendum would be held in 2008, together with the general election. On 2 December 2007, reports emerged that this vote was put off due to concerns raised by the Electoral and Boundaries Commission. Following the election, David Thompson replaced Arthur as prime minister. On 22 March 2015, Prime Minister Freundel Stuart announced his intention to move the country towards a republican form of government "in the very near future". The general secretary of the Democratic Labour Party, George Pilgrim, confirmed the move and said that it is expected to coincide with the 50th anniversary of Barbadian independence in 2016. According to the country's constitution, a two-thirds majority in parliament is needed to authorize the change; The Democratic Labour Party had a two-thirds majority in the Senate, but not in the House of Assembly. Abolition In September 2020, the Barbados Labour Party government of Prime Minister Mia Mottley announced in its Throne Speech that Barbados would become a republic by November 2021, replacing the Queen and Governor-General with a ceremonial Barbadian head of state. The Barbados Labour Party had a two-thirds majority in both houses of the Barbadian parliament. On 20 September 2021, the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021 was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made the following amendments to the Constitution of Barbados: All references in the law of Barbados to Her Majesty the Queen, the Crown, and the Sovereign shall be read and construed as referring to the State; All references to the Governor-General shall be read and construed as referring to the President of Barbados; All references to "Her Majesty’s dominions" shall be read and construed as a reference to the Commonwealth of Nations. Vesting the prerogatives or privileges of the Crown or Sovereign in the State, subject to the Constitution; Vesting all the rights and privileges of the Governor-General in the President; Vesting all property held by the Crown in the State; Electing the first President in a joint sitting of the Parliament of Barbados by the joint nomination of the Prime Minister of Barbados and Leader of the Opposition by 15 October 2021 with the person elected to take office on 30 November 2021; Following the end of the first President's term, future presidents will be elected by either a joint nomination of the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition or if there is no joint nomination, a vote of both houses of the Parliament of Barbados where a two-thirds majority is required; President to serve a term of four years; All the powers of the Governor-General transferred to the President; Amending the official oaths of Barbados to remove references to the Queen. The title 'Royal' will be removed from all institutions that have it in their name. Barristers will no longer be appointed as Queen's Counsel - but most likely will be appointed Senior Counsel. The decision to become a republic without holding a referendum on the issue has been criticised. On 12 October 2021, Governor-General Sandra Mason was jointly nominated by the prime minister and leader of the opposition as candidate for the first president of Barbados, and was subsequently elected by parliament on 20 October. On 30 November 2021, the Barbadian monarchy was abolished. Sandra Mason was sworn in as the first president of the newly-formed Barbadian republic. In a message to Mason, the Queen sent her congratulations and wished Barbadians happiness, peace and prosperity for the future. Invited by Prime Minister Mia Mottley, Charles, Prince of Wales, as future head of the Commonwealth, attended the Republic Day events and celebrations in Bridgetown. It was the first time that a member of the royal family attend the transition of a realm to a republic. The Prince was awarded the Order of Freedom of Barbados, and he also undertook some public engagements. Before 2007, a Commonwealth realm transitioning to a republic had to reapply for membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. As this is no longer the case, Barbados became the first country to remain a member having ceased to be a constitutional monarchy without having to reapply for Commonwealth membership. List of Barbadian monarch(s) See also List of Commonwealth visits made by Queen Elizabeth II Monarchies in the Americas List of monarchies Notes References External links Queen's Official website on Barbados , Visits to Barbados by the Royal Family over the decades Monarchy of Barbados Government of Barbados Politics of Barbados Barbados Heads of state of Barbados Parliament of Barbados 1966 establishments in Barbados 2021 disestablishments in Barbados Former Commonwealth monarchies Former monarchies of North America Political history of Barbados	5,595
doc-en-11216_0	The Singh Sabha Movement was a Sikh movement that began in Punjab in the 1870s in reaction to the proselytising activities of Christians, Hindu reform movements (Brahmo Samajis, Arya Samaj) and Muslims (Aligarh movement and Ahmadiyah). The movement was founded in an era when the Sikh Empire had been dissolved and annexed by the British, the Khalsa had lost its prestige, and mainstream Sikhs were rapidly converting to other religions. The movement's aims were to "propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its pristine glory; to write and distribute historical and religious books of Sikhs; and to propagate Gurmukhi Punjabi through magazines and media." The movement sought to reform Sikhism and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had converted to other religions; as well as to interest the influential British officials in furthering the Sikh community. At the time of its founding, the Singh Sabha policy was to avoid criticism of other religions and political matters. Background Increased Mughal persecution of the Sikhs in the eighteenth century forced the Khalsa, which had raised arms against the state, to yield Gurdwara control to mahants, or custodians, who often belonged to Udasi, Nirmala, or other Brahmanical-influenced ascetic heterodox sects, or were non-Sikh altogether due to their lack of external identification, as opposed to initiated Sikhs. The Khalsa at this time engaged in guerilla campaigns against the Mughals and the hill-rajas of the Sivalik Hills allied to them; having vacated the Punjab plains, they launched attacks from the refuges of the northern hilly areas adjoining Punjab, and the desert areas to the south. They later fought the Afghans and established themselves as local leaders, while mahant control of Gurdwaras continued into the nineteenth century, particularly "pujari" priestly class under the patronage of Sikh elites and aristocracy. Such groups wrote exegeses while the Khalsa focused on political power at the time, as Sikh jathas solidified into the Sikh misls of the Dal Khalsa, which would establish the Sikh Empire, which, in the midst of reaching new levels of political power in the face of Mughal and Afghan attacks, came at the expense of reestablishing direct control over Sikh institutions and the eroding of Sikh mores, a development that Khalsa would have to contend with when the Sikh Empire was lost to the British. The British East India Company annexed the Sikh Empire in 1849 after the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Thereafter, Christian missionaries increased proselytising activities in central Punjab. In 1853, Maharajah Dalip Singh, the last Sikh ruler, was controversially converted to Christianity. In parallel, Brahmo Samaji and Arya Samaji reform movements of Hinduism began active pursuit of Sikhs into their suddhi ceremonies. Muslim proselytizers formed the Anjuman-i-Islamia midst the Sikhs in Lahore, while the Ahmadiyah movement sought converts to their faith. The British colonial rulers, after annexing the Sikh empire in mid-19th-century, continue to patronize and gift land grants to these mahants, thereby increasing their strength and helped sustain the idolatry in Sikh shrines. The annexation of the Punjab to the British Empire in the mid-19th century saw severe deterioration of Gurdwara management. The British sought to cosset and control the Sikhs through the management of the Golden Temple and its functionaries, even ignoring its own dictates of statutory law which required the separation of secular and religious matters, neutrality in the treatment of religious communities and the withdrawal from involvement in religious institutions; the need to control the Golden Temple was held to be more paramount, and along with control of Sikh institutions, there were measures put in place like the legal ban of carrying weapons, meant to disarm the Khalsa, who had fought against them in the two Anglo Sikh Wars. In this way the Khalsa army was disbanded and the Punjab demilitarized, and Sikh armies were required to publicly surrender their arms and return to agriculture or other pursuits. Certain groups, however, like those who held revenue-free lands (jagirdars) were allowed to decline, particularly if they were seen as “rebels,” The British were wary of giving the Sikhs unmitigated control of their own gurdwaras, and drew from Sikh factions seen as loyal to the British, like the Sikh aristocracy and Sikhs with noted family lineages, who were given patronage and pensions, and Udasis, who had gained control of historical gurdwaras in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, were allowed to retain proprietary control over lands and gurdwara buildings. The British administration went to considerable lengths to insert such loyalists into the Golden Temple in order to exert as much control over the Sikh body-politic as possible. One reason for this was the emergence of Sikh revivalist groups, like the Nirankaris, the Namdharis, and the Singh Sabha movement, shortly after annexation; this revivalism was spurred by a growing disaffection within the ranks of ordinary Sikhs about the perceived decline of proper Sikh practices. Sikh institutions deteriorated further under the administration of the mahants, supported by the British, who in addition to being considered as ignoring the needs of the Sikh community of the time, allowed the gurdwaras to turn into spaces for societal undesirables like petty thieves, drunks, pimps, and peddlers of unsavory and licentious music and literature, with which they themselves took part in such activities. In addition, they also allowed non-Sikh, Brahmanical practices to take root in the gurdwaras, including idol worship, caste discrimination, and allowing non-Sikh pandits and astrologers to frequent them, and began to simply ignore the needs of the general Sikh community, as they used gurdwara offerings and other donations as their personal revenue, and their positions became increasingly corrupt and hereditary. Some local congregations marshalled popular pressure against them and to relinquish control, but the large revenue derived from gurdwara estates empowered them to resist such pressure. Foundation and growth The first Singh Sabha was founded in 1873 in Amritsar as a response to what were identified as three main threats: Christian missionary activity, who sought to convert more Sikhs into Christians, the “reverse-proselytizing” of the Arya Samaj with their Shuddhi ("purification") campaigns, which were part of the rising tide of Hindu nationalist consciousness fomenting in the country, and the possibility of losing British patronage of Sikhs in general due to the rebellious actions of groups like the Namdhari Sikhs In parallel to Singh Sabha, in 1869 Punjabi Muslims organized themselves with the Anjuman-i-Islamia. Similarly, the Brahmo Samaj, a Hindu reform movement composed of English-speaking Bengalis then served as the lower rung of the British administration in Punjab had set up branches in several Punjabi cities in the 1860s. These socio-religious organizations also motivated the formation of the Singh Sabha. The Arya Samaj movement, founded by Dayanand Saraswati, a Brahmin from Gujarat, arrived in Punjab in 1877, and promoted the use of Hindi as the medium of education. Attracting newly educated sections of the colonial Hindu populace in particular, it espoused a "purified," rationalistic, codified Hinduism, based on a "Vedic Golden Age" upon which to model Hindu society, conceived by selectively reinterpreting cultural traditions while retaining some post-Vedic thought. It rejected as degenerate accretions contemporary Hindu practices like polytheism, idol and avatar worship, temple offerings, pilgrimages, the widow remarriage prohibition, child marriage, sati, and the priestcraft of Brahmins, considered to have misled the masses through introducing such deviations. These repudiations were in accord with Sikh tradition, and many young Sikh reformists had initially coordinated with them to counteract the growing influence of the Christian missionaries. Primarily focused on proselytization, and noting Christian missionary success in proselytizing to lower castes, the militant Samajis developed their own conversion ritual, a novelty in Hindu tradition, called shuddhi, to convert Muslims or Christians and to "purify" the untouchable castes into Hinduism, who traditionally had been denied access to Hindu texts by the priestly class. A shuddhi conversion ceremony of outcaste Sikhs was decried by the Sikh community, who condemned such efforts to convert Sikhs to Hinduism in protest meetings. Another religious innovation of the Arya Samaj was the nationalistic idea of a nationwide Hinduism, as opposed to a myriad of different dharmas previously always qualified by subregion or type, which was besieged by, and opposed to, both foreign interference and "unreformed Brahmanical hierarchies," establishing the organization as an important factor in the development of Hindu religious nationalism. Following the founding and spread of its educational movement in Punjab and beyond in 1883, its publications assailed other faiths, including Christianity, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, exacerbating entrenched communal faultlines. With increasingly radicalized dogmatism, anti-Sikhism propaganda continued to be published in the Arya Samaj press through the 1880s, further aggravating relations with the Sikhs, and culminated in an article written in 1888 titled Sikhism Past and Present, which ridiculed Guru Nanak and denigrated Sikhism. Continued public antagonism towards Sikhism by Arya Samajis leading up to the Lahore anniversary celebration in November 1888 would result in the eventual end of Sikh support for them, replacing an earlier perception of shared goals. Its criticism of both modern Hinduism and Sikhism as polytheistic corruption (including instances of Arya members smashing and trampling idols in other Hindu temples, and Dayanand writing in 1883 that "while it was true that [Sikhs] do not practise idolatry," he saw the Sikh reverence of the Guru Granth Sahib as tantamount to such) treatment of Sikhs as a Hindu sect, and attempts to "purify" Sikhs back to what Arya Samaj called as the "monotheistic Vedic Hinduism" based solely on the infallibility of the Vedas infuriated many and had a major impact in Punjab. Amritsar Singh Sabha This first Singh Sabha – called the Amritsar Singh Sabha – was set up and backed by a faction of Khatri Sanatan Sikhs, Gianis, and granthis many of whom where direct descendants of the early Sikh Gurus. They had rejected the Khalsa initiation practices like the Khande di Pahul ceremony on the grounds that it threatened their caste and polluted their ritual boundaries which they considered as primary. They considered themselves as Sanatan Sikhs, and had gained social prominence in the pre-British 18th- and colonial-era 19th-century Punjab by taking over Gurdwaras and Sikh institutions, while Khalsa warriors confronted the Mughal state and Afghan forces for the survival of the Sikh community. While the Sanatan faction resented the democratic tendency within the Khalsa groups, they continued to co-exist within the broader Sikh panth, even as they remained aloof from the mainstream Khalsa practices. The Sanatan Sikhs considered Guru Nanak to be an incarnation or avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu, and saw Sikhism as a tradition aligned with Vaishnavism (Vishnu-based tradition of Hinduism) and these included the Nirmala, Udasi, and Giani schools of Sanatan thought. As such, they aligned Sikh tradition with the Brahmanical social structure and caste ideology; their predominant concern was to protect the social framework in which they held status. For these groups the principle of authority of Sikh tradition was invested in living gurus (as Khem Singh Bedi, leader of the Sanatan Sikhs, liked to be regarded) rather than the principle of shabad-guru, or the Guru Granth Sahib as the Guru, which was upheld by the dominant Khalsa tradition. Lahore Singh Sabha Shortly thereafter, Nihang Sikhs began influencing the movement, followed by a sustained campaign by Tat Khalsa. The Sanatan Sikh was opposed by these predominant groups in the Panth, particularly those who held Khalsa beliefs, who through access to education and employment, had reached a position to challenge the Sanatan faction, forming the Tat Khalsa faction, or "true Khalsa," in 1879, headed by Gurmukh Singh, Harsha Singh Arora, Jawahir Singh and Giani Ditt Singh. They formed the Lahore Singh Sabha. The Tat Khalsa's monotheism, iconoclastic sentiments, egalitarian social values and notion of a standardized Sikh identity did not blend well with the polytheism, idol worship, caste distinctions, and diversity of rites espoused by the Sanatan faction. The Tat Khalsa met with immediately successful organizational and ideological challenging of the Sanatan faction as early as the early 1880s. Other Singh Sabhas After the Lahore Singh Sabha, many other Singh Sabhas were formed in every town and many villages throughout Punjab, exceeding over 100 in number by the end of the 19th century, modeling themselves on either the Tat Khalsa or Sanatan factions. Of these, the rivalry of the Lahore and the Amritsar factions was more intense. Despite this, Sikh public leaders formed a central committee and a General Sabha in 1880. On April 11, 1883, this General Sabha evolved into Khalsa Diwan Amritsar, with about 37 affiliated local Singh Sabha chapters, according to Gurdarshan Singh. Other Singh Sabhas, however, opposed it and there were also internal dissensions. The Singh Sabha chapters could not agree on its constitution or its leadership structure, ultimately leading to a split into Khalsa Diwan Amritsar with about 7 chapters and Khalsa Diwan Lahore with about 30 chapters. Each had "greatly different" constitution, in nature and composition, states Gurdarshan Singh. In its first of several defeats, the Sanatan faction proposed renaming the Singh Sabha to the Sikh Singh Sabha in 1883, as he perceived that the Singh Sabha had already become synonymous with the Khalsa Sikhs, and wanted to attract other minor Sikh sects to the organization. The opposition to this initiative was so overwhelming that Khem Singh Bedi was forced to drop it in the next meeting of the Diwan in April 1884. The issue of Sikh identity was further sharpened by vociferous Arya Samaj attacks on the Sikh faith, issuing pamphlets claiming Sikhism as a reformist strain within Hinduism. In response, Kahn Singh Nabha published his classic tract Ham Hindu Nahin, which made the case for a distinct Sikh identity. Arya Samaj polemicists continued their attacks on the Sikh religion and made further attempts to incorporate it within the Hindu fold. The Sikh reform movement of the 1880s rejected this "inclusivistic" tendencies of the Arya Samaj, stating that Sikhism was an "exclusive" religion. Nevertheless, a section of Sahajdari Sikh leaders continued to press for inclusiveness, with them declaring they were Hindus in 1897 before a large public gathering to mark the diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria in Lahore. The Lahore Singh Sabha was more successful eventually, representing the Tat Khalsa faction. Between the 1870s and 1890s, the efforts of Tat Khalsa reformers had focused on reinforcing the distinct Sikh identity separate from Muslim and Hindu practices, the primacy of the Khalsa initiation and codes of conduct, and setting up schools and colleges in town and villages, initiatives that continued through the following CKD period. Through print media newspapers and publications, like the Khalsa Akhbar (in Gurmukhi Punjabi) and The Khalsa (in English), the Singh Sabha solidified a general consensus of the nature of Sikh identity, and that the source of authentic Sikhi was the early Sikh tradition, specifically the period of the Sikh Gurus and immediately after. The Adi Granth was held to be the authoritative Sikh literature, along with compositions by Guru Gobind Singh, the works of Bhai Gurdas, the janamsakhis, and Gurbilas literature and the Rahitnamas, later codified by the SGPC as the Sikh Rehat Maryada. Non-Sikh practices accumulated during the period of institutional neglect by the British and mahant control, including idol worship, the primacy of non-Sikh Brahmins, caste discrimination, superstitious cults of folk heroes and Hindu deities, and Vedic rites officiated by Brahmins during the mahant period, were banished, and Sikh rites and symbols including the Khalsa initiation, the names “Singh and “Kaur,” the 5 Ks, Sikh birth, death, and marriage rites, and the compulsory learning of Gurmukhi and Punjabi in Khalsa schools, an institution found in modern Gurdwaras worldwide, were formalized. 20th century Chief Khalsa Diwan In the 1890s, Sikhs groups formed many Khalsa Diwans in towns and cities, while rural groups formed their own Sikh Sabhas. By 1902, there were over 150 Singh Sabhas and Khalsa diwans in existence. Another attempt brought 29 of these Khalsa Diwans and other Sikh societies under the Chief Khalsa Diwan, or CKD, partly due to the need for greater political coordination in the face a far more powerful common adversary, the Arya Samaj, the main representative of political Hinduism in Punjab. This, and the nature and character of the Singh Sabha's modernizing zeal was largely a response to the transformation of the original term Hindu which meant "non-Muslim inhabitants of India" to a term that embodied those who identify with Hinduism. The Chief Khalsa Diwan sought to coordinate a political response and protect the Sikh identity from being viewed as "tiny sect within a broader pan-Hinduism", states Mandair. This body would be created in 1902 to unite the Lahore and Amritsar Singh Sabhas with their respective satellite Singh Sabhas, and would act as the main voice of the Sikhs for the next 18 years. According to J.S. Grewal, while there were disagreements, the Singh Sabhas and Diwans were all concerned with religious reform and to collectively addressing the growing threat from Christian missionaries who were converting Sikhs into Christians, after the much-publicized celebrity conversions earlier such as of Maharaja Dalip Singh and Kanwar Harnam Singh Ahluwalia. Sikh publications by the various Sikh Sabhas expressed their fear for the Sikh identity in early 20th-century given the success of the Christian missionaries, as well the rising threat of Muslim and Arya Samaj proselytization efforts. The Sikh leaders were concerned about Christian missionary schools targeting the Sikh youth. They welcomed the English language education but opposed the Christian theology that was also being taught in these schools. The Chief Khalsa Diwan was officially registered and recognized by the colonial British government on July 9, 1904. The new body was financially supported by the affiliated Singh Sabhas, and Sikh aristocrats. It also attracted dedicated Sikh preachers or Updeshak. By 1920, the Chief Khalsa Diwan oversaw 105 affiliates. It developed an elaborate structure with the Chief Khalsa Diwan having three types of advisors and various committees, all paid a monthly salary from dues collected from the affiliates and members. While Sikh newspapers championed the Chief Khalsa Diwan and the British colonial government recognized it as representing the entire Sikh community and all the Sikh Sabhas, in late 1900s and throughout 1910s significant internal disagreements led important Sikh activists to challenge the authority of the Chief Diwan Khalsa. The Amritsar faction, who still exerted administrative dominance amid growing Tat Khalsa strength and growing unease for its conservative stance, were concerned with staying on good terms with the British, who anxiously wanted to uphold the validity of their settlement instated at the beginning of their administration of the Punjab in 1849, in which ownership of Gurdwaras was conferred upon whoever could claim it. In late 1920, Sikh revolutionaries, irritated at the loyal obedience of the CKD to the British, would announce two decisions at the Akal Takht reached by the newly formed Central Sikh League: the formation of the SGPC to manage all Sikh shrines, and the formation of the Akali Dal. The CKD would be overtaken by the more activist Akali movement, led by the Akali Dal, which would train men to confront the government and reclaim gurdwaras. Akali movement In the early decades of the 20th century, the Tat Khalsa, through the Akali movement, also contributed to two major legal victories, the 1909 Anand Marriage Act, and the Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925, which re-established direct Khalsa control of the major historical gurdwaras, previously run by British-supported mahants and pujaris, or Hindu priests, and their rites. The reestablishment of Sikh control of Gurdwaras, after the non-violent Akali Movement, also known as the Gurdwara Reform Movement, was touched off in 1920 following General Reginald Dyer’s invited visit to the Golden Temple failed to pacify the Sikhs. The Akali Movement, lasting from 1920 to 1925, culminated in the transfer of gurdwara control to the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC); the Akali Movement is the forerunner of the modern Akali Dal political party. In 1919, the internal disagreements led some Sikh leaders to form the Central Sikh League, while in 1920 the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, or SGPC, emerged for the same reasons. In 1932, a general meeting of the Sikhs formed the Khalsa Darbar as an attempt to form a united front triggered by the colonial British government's Communal Award of seats to the Punjab Legislative Council. The Central Sikh League formed in 1919 merged into the Khalsa Darbar. However, in 1937, the Sikhs split into Shiromani Akali Dal and Congressite Sikhs. The Singh Sabhas of the late 19th-century were overwhelmed by these organizations as Britain attempted to gain Indian soldiers for their World War II efforts and from the dynamics of religion-based political partition of the Indian subcontinent in the final decades of colonial rule. The SGPC, as a democratic institution, has represents the majority opinion of Sikhs, and is the authoritative voice of the Sikhs. Perspectives According to Harjot Oberoi, the first Singh Sabha formed in 1873 aimed at interreligious tolerance and cooperation between Sikhs and Hindus. With the arrival of Arya Samaj in 1877 and its criticism of Sikhism, the dynamics changed. According to the Indologist T.N. Madan, Sikhs and Hindus not only lived together before 1870s, they shared a common cultural life with common symbols and orientations. The Arya Samaj activity and the Singh Sabha movement's response to it created several competing definitions of Sikh identity. After the early struggles within the Singh Sabha movement, new social and cultural elites emerged. These, states Oberoi, displaced preceding Sikh ties, replaced them with a "series of inventions: the demarcation of Sikh sacred space by clearing holy shrines of Hindu icons and idols, the cultivation of Punjabi as the sacred language of the Sikhs, the foundation of cultural bodies exclusively for Sikh youth, the insertion of the anniversaries of the Sikh Gurus into the ritual and sacred calendar and most important of all, the introduction of new life-cycle rituals". Harnik Deol states that Oberoi's analysis may be termed as the "hegemony approach," which seeks to explain how the rising middle class used religious reform to gain cultural hegemony by gaining control over sacred centres and by defining a uniform, undifferentiated religious discourse with discrete boundaries. According to Oberoi, this new class of leadership provided the Sikhs with a distinct and separate Sikh identity with a standardized history, rites of passage, sacred space and observances, though he fails to explain what was new about this message or innovative about the Sikh initiation ritual, as "iconoclastic monotheism and egalitarian social values" had been the exact teachings of the Sikh gurus. This is only a partial understanding of the impact of the Singh Sabha movement, done by stripping the Sikh initiation of its deeper, symbolic significance, and reducing it "merely to its overt function as an ethnic marker," and Deol considers Oberoi's analysis to contradict his own earlier observations, as he himself states that the Khalsa had already established their distinct rites of passage, birth, death and initiation by the 18th century. In reference to the religious and moral codes a true Khalsa must follow that were established by Guru Gobind Singh, it is the rigor and difficulty in living up to these codes, says Deol, that is the reason why only a small fractional percentage of Sikhs undergo the initiation rite even today. According to Pashaura Singh, while some Sikhs embraced Hindu practices in the 19th century, "it is questionable whether this was always so," and "to imply that Sikh identity was always predominantly fluid, with free mixing of Sikh and Hindu practices," is questionable. From as early as the period of Guru Arjan, Sikhs "clearly were encouraged to think of themselves as a new community." The Singh Sabha movement had many shades of views. The Amritsar Singh Sabha's Khem Singh Bedi saw Sikh identity as distinct, the need for a living guru, supported the idea of divine incarnations (avatars of Hinduism) and the idea that "Hindus and Sikhs were indivisible" as a society. The Lahore Singh Sabha's Gurmukh Singh held the middle ground stating that Sikhs had their own distinct scripture and practices, the issue of Sikh-Hindu relationship was redundant, and that all those who accepted Sikh scripture were Sikhs whether they undergo Khalsa initiation and live by its religious code or those who do not undergo initiation and do not follow some of the Sikh religious and moral codes. The Bhasaur Singh Sabha's Teja Singh represented the more radical view during this movement with the view that those who have not undergone Khalsa initiation should have "no place in the Sikh panth", and to speak of Hindu-Sikh relationship is to insult Sikhism. Eventually, the middle ground view of Gurmukh Singh prevailed. According to W. H. McLeod, the Singh Sabha "systematized and clarified" the Khalsa tradition, but Khalsa identity was neither a totally new invention, nor mere purging of "alien excrescence," nor the "restoration of a corrupted original.' The Khalsa identity of the Singh Sabha reformers contained both "old and new" elements, quotes Pashaura Singh. Bibliography References Sikh politics 1873 establishments in India	5,972
doc-en-11256_0	Rokhaya Diallo (born 10 April 1978), is a French journalist, author, filmmaker, and activist for racial, gender and religious equality. According to The New York Times, she is “one of France's most prominent anti-racism activists.” She is a BET-France host and has produced and/or directed documentaries, television and radio programs. She has published: Racism: a guide, France Belongs to Us, France: One and Multicultural and How to talk to kids about racism, a graphic novel Pari(s) d'Amies, and Afro! featuring Afro-Parisians who wear natural hairstyles. Biography Rokhaya Diallo was born in 1978, in Paris, to Senegalese and Gambian parents. Her father was a mechanic and her mother a sewing teacher. Her family moved to La Courneuve, a suburb of Paris, in 1989. After obtaining a bachelor's degree in International and European law, Diallo went on to study business, which led her to work for a short period at IBM, which she left because she felt "like a pawn". So she decided to work toward a marketing and distribution degree at the Université Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris I), which she earned in 2003. She now works in broadcasting production. As an anime enthusiast, Diallo helped found the Japan Expo. She was also briefly a voice actress, performing Kamui Shiro as a child in X1999, by CLAMP, and Ex in Ah! My Goddess: The Movie. In 2001, she participated in the youth outreach program of La Courneuve. She was asked to join in the city's Youth Council and rose to the position of president within two years. As a feminist, she campaigns for the anti-sexist association Mix-Cité. She also campaigns for the organization ATTAC, which fights for sustainable and socially just globalization policies, notably during the Film Festival "Images mouvementées". The Indivisibles In 2006, having heard that "most people consider being black and from a working class background to be a problem", Diallo founded the association, The Indivisibles. "People's looks seemed to associate me with a certain image and uncomfortable stereotypes." "When we were young, my brother and I had never asked ourselves "where do we come from?", until we were asked by others". Diallo was not bothered by attaching the question to one's origin, but she objects to people placing their own yearning for exoticism over her. The Indivisibles campaigns to put a stop to "a partition of French citizenship by physical appearance" or by geographical origin. Originally created in secrecy, to "work with institutions such as the French Education Department", the association burst on to the publishing scene in 2009 with a large media exposure program oriented around their newly created "Y'a bon Awards" recognizing the most outrageous racist statements by French public figures. Diallo became a radio and television commentator and in 2011 she published Racism: a guide, in the philosopher Vincent Cespedes' collection. "France is my country. I know Paris better than Senegal. But how should she behave in a "structurally racist" environment? Mentalities need to change. Especially in the media, when their coverage of a news story focuses solely on a defendant's skin color or geographical origin". Exposing Islamophobia holds an increasingly important place in her reasoning: "We only speak of secular education when the subject is Islam (and not in regard to any other religion), a religion we are led to believe is only practiced in France by sexist and violent fundamentalists of North African origin." Activity since 2004 In 2002, Diallo took part in different humorous short-films by the group Une case en moins, as an actress, singer and songwriter. From 2009 to 2013, she was a commentator for La Matinale on Canal+, and since 2009 on RTL (French radio station). In March 2010, she was chosen to participate in the International Visitor Leadership program and as a guest of the US government. She visited the country to study its diversity. With four other leading figures - , Marc Cheb Sun, Lilian Thuram and Pascal Blanchard - she appealed and draws up a hundred propositions for "a multicultural and post-racial Republic". Since 2011, Diallo has hosted Fresh Cultures on the Mouv' (French radio station); she also hosted and co-directed a monthly show Egaux mais pas trop (Equals but not too much) on LCP. In March 2014, she published an editorial opinion piece in the weekly review Politis for International Women's Day. Awards Diallo was listed by Slate as 36th out of the 100 most influential French women in 2013, and appears among the 30 most influential black figures in Europe on Britain's Powerful Media's ranking. January 2012 - awarded by the Conseil pour la Justice, l’Egalité et la Paix – COJEP (an international NGO working for democracy, human rights, the fight against racism and discrimination, living together and citizenship, affiliated with the UN and the Council of Europe) October 2014 - #LabComWomen prizewinner in the category "Generosity". The prize created by TF1 and LABCOM recognizes women with noteworthy profiles, working and ambassadors in the digital world. In March 2015, her documentary Steps to Liberty, which questions France's identity through the prism of young American leaders, won Best Documentary Film at the Regional and International Festival of Guadeloupe (FEMI). Journalism Press Along with other personalities (Audrey Pulvar, Lilian Thuram, Pascal Blanchard...), she is featured in the October 2011 issue of Respect Mag magazine entitled "100% Blacks in France ". She has produced several reports for the French press, such as on women in Bahrain and on racism in Tunisia for Les Inrocks, or on the Black Lives Matter movement, which made the front page of the newspaper Libération. Rokhaya Diallo also writes articles for the international press: the Washington Post, The Guardian and Al Jazeera. Radio She has been a columnist since 2009 on RTL. Since 2011, Rokhaya Diallo has been hosting France Culture on Mouv'. For a column for the Canal+ channel and for radio le Mouv', she went at the end of September 2011 to the annual meeting of the Black Congressional Caucus in Washington, D.C., a Congressional caucus in the U.S. Congress created at the time of the Black Civil Rights Struggle to bring together black parliamentarians. In September 2018, she created the podcast Kiffe ta race, with Grace Ly, which was broadcast on the Binge Audio platform. Television She is a columnist from 2009 to 2013 for Canal+35's La Matinale. Between 2011 and 2013, she presents and co-directs 18 issues of the monthly program "Égaux mais pas trop (in English : Equal but not too much)" on LCP, supported by the national agency for social cohesion and equal opportunities. The program will be removed from the parliamentary channel's schedule in 201436. 36 Caroline Fourest writes that Rokhaya Diallo complacently interviewed Dieudonné and Alain Soral in her program Égaux mais pas trop on LCP on August 9, 2012. From December 6, 2014 to May 31, 2015, she hosts, on Mediapart, six programs in a series called Alter-égaux, devoted to "issues of inequality and equality, race and racism, discrimination and affirmation. 38 She invites successively: Jean-Loup Amselle; Dominique Sopo; Nadia Geerts; Caroline De Haas; Raphaël Glucksmann; and James Cohenn. In July 2017, the press mentions her arrival as a columnist in "Touche pas à mon poste! (in English "Don't touch my post!") on C8. Her arrival on the show was linked to a line change wanted by host Cyril Hanouna after the criticisms for the "homophobic, racist and sexist remarks" that targeted her during the 2016-2017 season . The program will keep its fundamentals and its entertaining values but it will move up the line," he told Challenges magazine.40 "The program will keep its fundamentals and its entertaining values but it will move up the line," he told Challenges magazine. Rokhaya Diallo will be alongside other new recruits: Rachid Arhab, who was a journalist and TV presenter on France 2 and a former member of the Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA), Louis Morin, a former member of the Petit Journal, and Renaud Revel, former editor-in-chief of L'Express and head of the media section at the Journal du Dimanche41. This announcement caused a surprise on social networks , as the programme was "pinned for discriminatory abuses "43. 43 Rokhaya Diallo explains his decision to accept the position as follows for Libération: "The audience of Touche pas à mon poste! is a popular audience, it is not an audience pampered by the media, and it is not an audience that I find respected. 44 It only stays there for one season. She has also been the presenter of the BET Buzz programme on Black Entertainment Television (BET), alongside Raphäl Yem, since 2016. BET broadcasts programmes dedicated to "black culture" in France. It presents a weekly half-hour "people" and "lifestyle" magazine23. Since September 2018, she has been participating in the program "24H Pujadas" on the LCI channel once a week, as much as a presenter. She discusses political and social current events with guests and other columnists. In Le Monde, Benoît Thieulin, founder of the Netscouade, declared in January 2018: "She is intelligent, courageous, she looks good on television. In other words, she embodies something that can be watched. Better still, the generations of tomorrow. ». Stances Anti-racism Diallo's action is consistent with the fight for race and ethnic equality, "especially among non-white French citizens, as their French identity is so often denied and depreciated." (presentation of the Indivisibles on their website). She is a member of the advisory board of the Berlin-based NGO Center for Intersectional Justice, which seeks to address intersecting forms of discrimination and inequality. In June 2013, someone found guilty of using Twitter to call for Diallo's rape was sentenced to pay a fine of 2000 euros, of which 1400 were suspended, and 1000 euros for damages to the plaintiff. The following year, Diallo produced a documentary for French channels LCP/AN and France 3, Networks of Hate, covering hate speech and freedom of speech online. Campaigning against anti-black racism Reporting for TV channel Canal+ and radio station le Mouv', in September 2011, Diallo attended the annual meeting of the Congressional Black Caucus (organization representing the black members of the United States Congress, created at the time of the Civil Rights Movement to unite black members of Congress). With Audrey Pulvar, Lilian Thuram, Pascal Blanchard, Diallo appeared on the cover of the October issue of Respect Mag titled "100% French & Black". In January 2012, after the publication of an article in Elle magazine considered racist, she co-authored with Sonia Rolland, China Moses, Eric Fassin, Clementine Autain, Audrey Pulvard, and many other figures, an opinion column in Le Monde questioning the magazine's lack of black women on its covers. Gay rights In December 2012, she took part in a demonstration supporting the right of gay couples to marry, where she noticed the lack of black participation. Under-representation of black women in women's magazines In January 2012, following the publication in the pages of Elle magazine of an article on black fashion deemed racist, she co-signed with Sonia Rolland, China Moses, Éric Fassin, Clémentine Autain, Audrey Pulvar and many other personalities, a column in Le Monde questioning the magazine about the absence of black women on its covers. On 6 March 2014, she signed the editorial of the weekly Politis on the occasion of International Women's Rights Day. Decolonial Summer Camp Rokhaya Diallo defends the organization of summer camps, some of whose meetings are "open only to 'racialized' people, i.e. those who feel they are victims of discrimination because of their origin [...]62". 62 It justifies itself by referring to the desire to "meet among people who are victims of racist violence, for a few hours, in a peaceful manner. 63,64 "She claims non-mixing as a useful political tool for anti-racist and feminist causes, which, in her view, makes it possible in particular to protect oneself from what she describes as "State racism". In an article for Slate, she writes on this subject: "Afrofeminist meetings that are not mixed are in no way intended to propose a definitive project for a segregationist society, since they are part of the temporality of a specific event. They offer their participants an escape route, a breathing zone in an oppressive society ". Criticism of the "a-critical" use of the term "anti-white racism" Rokhaya Diallo is one of the signatories of a column, published in L'Obs, criticizing two passages of a policy text adopted for three years by the Movement against Racism and for Friendship between Peoples (MRAP) at its congress on 30 March and 1 April 2012. The signatories note the problems raised by the "a-critical" use of the concept of "anti-white racism". According to them, it is necessary, "to recall, with Albert Memmi, what he explained half a century ago, no link can be made between the racism of the dominant, reflecting and relying on the power of the devices of domination, and what he called "toothless racism", that is to say this form of "racism" of the dominated, without force, without power, incapable of being anything other than words, ..."."How can we fail to see that the notion of "anti-white racism" has emerged in the French political debate in order to invert the relationship of responsibility: the "victim" would no longer be the immigrant or the descendant of immigrants but the white person, an inversion that can be expressed in another way; if hostility to immigration increases, it is the fault of the immigrants, or again: if immigrants live and work in terrible conditions, well, it is their fault. » Communitarianism Rokhaya Diallo wrote in 2011 in Racism User's Guide: "What is most striking is that the 'communities' stigmatized by the accusation of anti-republicanism do not exist! An association can bring together black people not in the name of belonging to a community, but in the name of the same experience: that of being black in France. Moreover, the terms "communitarian" and "communitarianist" are often confused: communitarianism is a political approach aimed at separatism. But what do community groups want if not inclusion in the Republic? Strangely enough, community groups are not always decried, they are even the subject of a double discourse. Anti-community offensives are aimed in particular at black people or people from the Maghreb. Those of Portuguese, Chinese or Jewish origin - or even people from Auvergne, whose social, economic or cultural organization, often marked by community belonging, is highly visible in the public sphere - are spared any criticism." Afro-feminism, intersectional and "decolonial" feminism Rokhaya Diallo defines herself as "an intersectional and decolonial feminist "68 . 68 In an interview for the Inrocks in 2017, she states: "I have always been aware of sexism, I found it more prevalent than racism in my environment. I wasn't sent back to my skin colour until I was an adult. In my neighbourhood, not being white wasn't an issue, but gender inequality was. It is close to non-mixed Afrofeminist movements such as the Mwasi collective and to intersectional feminism, which believes that oppression or domination can be multiple (gender, class, race...). Rejecting universalist feminism, it is close to a more identity-based feminism: Afro-feminism, Islamic feminism. In an interview for the webzine Deuxième page, she explains: "For me, the word 'feminist' implicitly includes all these minority denominations ". She also deplores the fact that traditional feminism (Dare feminism!, Les Chiennes de garde...) is very "white" and bourgeois, and does not take into account at all the specific problems of some women, especially black, Muslim or minority women. She states for example: "the vast majority of Islamophobic acts concern veiled women, and are therefore clearly sexist. Yet this does not elicit any reaction from traditional feminist associations. "To explain the origin of her feminist and anti-Islamophobic struggle, she states: "As far as veiled Muslim women are concerned, there is a problem: we want to fight them. Even if they are victims of sexism by veiling themselves, as some people claim, you cannot punish a victim." In October 2015, she took part in the "March for Dignity "organized, with the support of Angela Davis, by a group of associations and personalities fighting sexism, racism and "police crime [which the group believes] is the ultimate expression of state racism. By claiming to be "Afrofeminists" or "decolonial feminists," this mode of struggle "troubles historical activists," according to Le Monde. For Elsa Dorlinn : "today, the idea that [white women] define for all women the right way to emancipate is - rightly - contested. » According to Maboula Soumahoron, decolonial feminism finds its sources on the other side of the Atlantic, borrowing its theory and lexicon from black feminism, it is inspired by the struggle of personalities such as Angela Davis. It is also in the United States that the concept of "intersectionality" was developed, representing the accumulation of several types of discrimination (ethnic, sexual, social, etc.).73 The concept of "intersectionality" is also being developed in the United States. In February 2015, Frédérique Calandra, PS mayor of the 20th arrondissement of Paris, refused Rokhaya Diallo the right to come and talk about violence against women during the Week for Gender Equality. She says of her decision that: "Rokhaya Diallo's point of view cannot represent feminism. She is made for feminism just as I am made for being an archbishop. She is at best a useful idiot of Muslim fundamentalism, at worst a false nose of Tariq Ramadan. She also promised, "If Mrs. Diallo ever wants to debate, no problem, I'll beat her up! " Rokhaya Diallo finally spoke in a small room on the 20th, where more than a hundred people came to listen to her, particularly about the discriminatory treatment of sexual assault. Emmanuelle Rivier, Europe Ecology deputy for the Greens in charge of equality in the district, said she did not understand the reasons for the city council's refusal to invite Rokhaya Diallo. In September 2018, Frédérique Calandra also withdrew a subsidy that her town hall had given to a festival because Rokhaya Diallo was invited. In 2015, Caroline Fourest wrote: "Reading Rokhaya Diallo, it is never the time to denounce patriarchal and fundamentalist oppression, even when you are a victim and yourself a Muslim. Her "feminism" is used to mock feminists of Muslim culture who dare to stand up to fundamentalism sometimes at the cost of their lives, accusing them of wanting to sell "best-sellers". Her main struggle, as a "feminist", consists in rehabilitating the veil and attacking the laity. » In November 2017, Diallo stated: "I don't see how marking femininity with a veil is more sexist than marking it with high heels or a miniskirt. There is no reason to isolate the veil from the rest of the attributes associated with femininity." Prostitution She co-authored an op-ed published in Libération on November 21, 2013, taking a stand against the criminalization of clients of prostitution. Entitled "Féministes, donc contre la pénalisation des clients" (Feminists, therefore against the criminalization of clients), this article relays the arguments of Médecins du Monde, the Sex Work Union and Act Up-Paris, explaining that the criminalization of clients will increase cases of HIV transmission to prostitutes; it is signed by the "collectif du 8 mars pour toutes" (March 8 for all). Notoriety According to the magazine Slate, Rokhaya Diallo is ranked in 2013 in 36th position among the 100 most influential French women and is among the 30 most influential black personalities in Europe according to the ranking of the British Powerful Media. Awards On 21 January 2012, it will receive the Prize for Combating Racism and Discrimination from the international NGO Council for Justice, Equality and Peace (COJEP)121,122 "an international NGO which constitutes, wherever it is established, the relay of the AKP123"124 or "Erdogan's relay in Europe. » On October 23, 2014, she is the winner of the #LabComWomen award in the Generosity126 category. The prize, created by TF1 and Labcom127, rewards women with an outstanding profile, who are active and ambassadors in the digital. She received the Senegalese Diaspora for Equality and Justice's Sununet Prize for her positive contribution to the international image of Senegal. In March 2015, her documentary Les Marches de la liberté, questioning the identity of France through the prism of young American leaders, received the Best Documentary Film Award at the regional and international Festival of Guadeloupe (FEMI). In 2016, at the European Diversity Awards ceremony in London, she was awarded a distinction honouring her work in the category "Journalist of the Year ". In 2017, she was the only French guest to attend the inauguration of the Obama Foundation in Chicago. Filmography 2013: Steps to liberty, documentary filmed for France Ô 2014: Les Réseaux de la haine, documentary filmed for LCP/AN and France 3 – IDF 2014-2015: Brothers in arms, television series by Rachid Bouchareb and Pascal Blanchard, presented by Charles N'Tchoéré 2016: From Paris to Ferguson : guilty of being black, documentary filmed for France Ô 2016 : USA : the Caribbaen recipe for success, produced by Rok’nProd / Smooth and Sidle / Real Eyes 2020 : Where are black people ? Documentary realised by Rokhaya Diallo, produced by Redstone / Les Bons Clients. Bibliography Articles Diallo Rokhaya. "France appointed a minister under investigation for alleged rape. Women are pushing back.", - The Washington Post, July 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "France is still in denial about racism and police brutality" - Al Jazeera, June 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "France refuses to talk about race. New protests could change that" - The Washington post, June 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "Coronavirus exposed the real reasons behind France's 'burqa ban'" - Al Jazeera, May 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "France is blaming the poor for their own deaths. But look at how it treats them" - The Washington Post, April 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "No France. Africa is not your testing ground" - The Washington Post, April 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "France's COVID-19, failures are the result of decades of austerity" - Al Jazeera, April 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "France on lockdown : vacation for some, a nightmare for many" - Al Jazeera, April 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "French cinema is still refusing to face its racism" - Al Jazeera, Marth 2020 Diallo Rokhaya "French whiteness is in crisis" - Al Jazeera, October 2019 Diallo Rokhaya "Why are the 'yellow vest protesting in France ?" - Al Jazeera, December 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "In there anti-white racism in France ?" - Al Jazeera, October 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "On football, identity and 'Frenchness'" - Al Jazeera, August 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "Don't let France's World Cup victory erase the issues affecting black French people" - The Washington Post, July 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "Migrants shouldn't have to be superheros to be accepted in France" - The Washington Post, June 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "Can a Muslim perform at the Bataclan in Paris ?" - Al Jazeera, June 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "When an Afro-Feminist festival defies white supremacy" - Al Jazeera, June 2018 Diallo Rokhaya "Hijab : a very French obsession" - Al Jazeera, April 2018 Diallo, Rokhaya. "I Am French, The Daughter Of Immigrants, And I Am Ashamed" The World Post - A Partnership of The Huffington Post and Berggruen Institute. September 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. "Addressing anti-gypsyish must be a priority on International Roma Day" EurActiv. April 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. "In France, who gets to be a feminist?" New Statesmen. March 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. Zyed and Bouna: 2 Sacrificed Children of the French Repub lic The World Post - A Partnership of The Huffington Post and Berggruen Institute. January 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. "Fighting Denial and Suspicion in France" Open Society Foundations. January 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. "Through Denial, France Has Created Its Own Monsters" The World Post - A Partnership of The Huffington Post and Berggruen Institute. January 2015 Diallo, Rokhaya. "We Have Fergusons in France - but the French Media Looks Away " The Root. September 2014 Diallo, Rokhaya. "French descendants of postcolonial immigrants: we refuse to be the adjustment variable in the French presidential election" Le Monde. May 2012 Books Racism: a guide, Larousse, coll. "Philosopher", March 2011 () Trussing a Domestic, Syllepse, September 2011 France belongs to us, Michel Lafont, April 2012 France: One and Multicultural, Fayard, April 2012 How to talk to kids about racism, Le Baron Perché, May 2013 () Me, racist? Never! Scenes of ordinary racism, Flammarion, March 2015 () Pari(s) d’amies, Delcourt, April 2015 () Afro!, Les Arenes, November 2015 Don't stay in your place !, Marabout (maison d'édition), April 2019 France, you love it or shut it ?, Textuel, October 2019 Comic Pari(S) d'amies, with Kim Consigny, Delcourt, April 2015 References External links Official blog 1978 births Black feminism French anti-racism activists French feminist writers French journalists French people of Senegalese descent French people of Gambian descent Living people Senegalese journalists French women journalists Senegalese women journalists	6,179
doc-en-11286_0	The Holy Cross dispute occurred in 2001 and 2002 in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast, Northern Ireland. During the 30-year conflict known as the Troubles, Ardoyne had become segregated – Ulster Protestants and Irish Catholics lived in separate areas. This left Holy Cross, a Catholic primary school for girls, in the middle of a Protestant area. In June 2001—during the last week of school before the summer break—Protestant loyalists began picketing the school, claiming that Catholics were regularly attacking their homes and denying them access to facilities. The picket resumed on 3 September, when the new school term began. For weeks, hundreds of loyalist protesters tried to stop the schoolchildren and their parents from walking to school through their area. Hundreds of riot police, backed up by British soldiers, escorted the children and parents through the protest each day. Some protesters shouted sectarian abuse and threw stones, bricks, fireworks, blast bombs and urine-filled balloons at the schoolchildren, their parents and the RUC. The "scenes of frightened Catholic schoolgirls running a gauntlet of abuse from loyalist protesters as they walked to school captured world headlines". Death threats were made against the parents and school staff by the Red Hand Defenders, a loyalist paramilitary group. The protest was condemned by both Catholics and Protestants, including politicians. Some likened the protest to child abuse and compared the protesters to North American white supremacists in the 1950s. During this time, the protest sparked bouts of fierce rioting between Catholics and Protestants in Ardoyne, and loyalist attacks on police. On 23 November, the loyalists ended the protest after being promised tighter security for their area and a redevelopment scheme. The security forces remained outside the school for several months after. In January 2002, a scuffle between a Protestant and a Catholic outside the school sparked a large-scale riot in the area and attacks on other schools in north Belfast. The picket was not resumed and the situation has been mostly quiet since then. The following year, the BBC aired a documentary-drama about the protests. Beginnings Holy Cross is a girls-only Catholic primary school in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast. Ardoyne was one of the most deprived areas of Northern Ireland. Before the outbreak of the Troubles in the late 1960s, the area was "mixed", with Catholics and Protestants living alongside each other. However, after violence broke out between the two communities, the area became segregated. The area to the south of Alliance Avenue became almost wholly populated by Catholics (who were mostly Irish nationalist and republican) while the area to the north (known as Glenbryn) became wholly populated by Protestants (who were mostly unionist and loyalist). This left Holy Cross in the middle of a Protestant area and some of the schoolchildren had to walk through it to get to school. A wall (known as a "peace line") was built to separate the two communities. During the Troubles, almost 20 people were killed near the peace line by loyalists, republicans and the British Army. In the mid-1990s, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the main loyalist paramilitary groups—the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)—declared ceasefires. In 1998, the Good Friday Agreement was signed, which set up a government in which Irish nationalists/republicans and unionists/loyalists were to share power. However, the political situation remained tense. So-called dissident republicans and dissident loyalists continued to wage small-scale violent campaigns. In December 2000, Protestant taxi driver Trevor Kell was shot dead in Ardoyne. The IRA were suspected of involvement as forensic evidence linked the gun with an IRA shooting in 1997. This would make it the first sectarian killing for almost two years. The next day, loyalists retaliated by shooting dead Catholic man Gary Moore as he was renovating a house in Newtownabbey. Later, the IRA was blamed for the "punishment shooting" of two men, one of whom is believed to have been questioned over Kell's death. The protesters claimed their homes were being regularly attacked by Catholics and that they were being denied access to facilities in the Catholic area, such as shops and playgrounds. However, Catholics claimed that their homes were regularly being attacked also. The Protestant population of Glenbryn had dropped significantly since the ceasefires and some Protestants believed they were being driven out. Other protesters alleged that IRA members were using the children's journey to-and-from school to gather intelligence. Anne Bill, a community worker who was centrally involved in the protest, said "Protestants felt they weren't getting a fair deal under the Good Friday Agreement. People in Glenbryn kept telling the Government about attacks on their houses and how vulnerable they felt but we weren't being listened to. That is why people protested on the Ardoyne Road, the focus wasn't so much the school itself [...] The community in Glenbryn is in decline and it is fearful of Ardoyne. That does encourage a siege mentality". Tension built and youths from both communities raised more and more flags along Ardoyne Road. On 19 June, a fight broke out between men putting up loyalist paramilitary flags and the occupants of a passing car. Loyalists allege that the car from republican Ardoyne estate rammed the ladder and knocked the two men off. How the episode started remains disputed. In the summer of 2001, the RUC received intelligence that UDA members were planning to "exploit community tensions" to kill Irish nationalists, Catholics and/or police officers. Summer 2001 On Tuesday 19 June, Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) officers had to protect children and parents entering the school after they were attacked by loyalist stone throwers. Police described the attack as "vicious". Following the incident, a blockade of the school developed, with loyalists standing across the road and RUC officers keeping the children and their parents away. The following day, the school was forced to close when loyalists blocked the entrance. During the evening, hundreds of loyalists and nationalists (up to 600) clashed with each other and with the police. Shots were also fired at the police and over 100 petrol bombs were thrown. During the riots the police fired a number of the new 'L21 A1' plastic baton rounds for the first time. 39 RUC officers were injured. Nine shots in total were fired – six from loyalists and three from republicans. The trouble came after an explosion at the rear of Catholic homes next to a peace line. Both loyalist and nationalist politicians blamed each other for the violence. This would be the first of many large riots to take place in Belfast within more than a year. The morning blockade continued on Thursday 21 June. About 60 of the school's 230 pupils entered the school through the grounds of another school. Senior Sinn Féin member Gerry Kelly said: "It's like something out of Alabama in the 1960s". Three Protestant families left their homes in Ardoyne Avenue, saying they were afraid of a nationalist attack. During the evening and night there were serious disturbances in the area around the school. Loyalists fired ten shots, and threw six blast bombs and 46 petrol bombs at police lines. Two Catholic homes were attacked with pipe bombs, and a child was thrown against a wall by one of the blasts. 24 RUC officers were hurt. On Friday 22 June, a number of schoolchildren again had to enter the school through the grounds of another school. This was the last day of school before the summer break. Talks between the protesters and the schoolchildren's parents took place over the summer, but no agreement was reached. On 20 August, a 'paint bomb' was thrown at the home of a Protestant man in Hesketh Park, smashing a window and causing paint damage to furniture. The man had taken part in the loyalist protest. Autumn 2001 The protest resumed on Monday 3 September, the first day of the Autumn school term. The RUC, supported by the British Army, were by then better prepared and managed to force a path through the protesters. Loyalists jeered and shouted sectarian abuse as the children, some as young as four, were escorted into the school by their parents and the police. Stones and bottles were thrown at the children and their parents; one woman was injured. A mother of one of the schoolgirls said: "It was absolutely terrifying. They were shouting 'dirty tramps', 'your kids are animals', 'Fenian scum', 'you Fenian bastards'. And all we were trying to do was get our kids to school". Unionist politicians claimed a "heavy-handed" police presence had inflamed the situation, while the Progressive Unionist Party's Billy Hutchinson alleged that five known IRA men had been allowed to walk with the children through the Protestant area. Later in the day the Red Hand Defenders (RHD), an illegal loyalist paramilitary group, warned parents and children to stay away from the Ardoyne Road. A threat was also issued against police officers. During the evening there was violence near the school as youths from both sides attacked each other and the security forces. Three Catholic-owned homes on Newington Avenue were badly damaged in a loyalist pipe bomb attack. The blast caused an oil tank to catch fire and the flames spread to three houses, one of which was completely destroyed. Another pipe bomb exploded in the garden of a house in the White City area. There was also violence on North Queen Street and Limestone Road. The following is a timeline of the major events during the Autumn protest. Week one Tuesday 4 September: Loyalist protesters tried to block access to the school, but riot police forced a path through the protesters and lined the road with armoured vehicles, creating a cordon for the children and parents to walk through. Loyalists attacked riot police with a blast bomb (an improvised grenade), injuring one officer. As the children and parents made their way through the cordon, loyalist protesters shouted abuse and threw stones at them. Some of the children were forced to turn back. There was more rioting near the school during the evening and night. A crowd of loyalists attacked police with bricks, bottles, stones, fireworks, ballbearings and blast bombs. A volley of shots was also heard in the Glenbryn estate. Police figures stated that 41 police officers and two soldiers had been injured, fifteen blast bombs and 250 petrol bombs had been thrown, and four civilian cars had been damaged. Wednesday 5 September: As the parents and their children passed Glenbryn Parade, loyalists threw a blast bomb towards them. The device exploded, injuring four police officers and a police dog. Panic ensued. Children began screaming and "weeping uncontrollably" and one mother suffered a panic attack. All were taken to hospital. The Red Hand Defenders (RHD) said it was responsible for the attack. Afterward, Progressive Unionist Party (PUP) politician Billy Hutchinson said he was "ashamed to be a loyalist today after seeing these people attack young Catholic girls". However, he says he continued to stand with the protesters each morning to show leadership. John Reid, the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, called the attack "barbaric" and called for the protest to end immediately. Thursday 6 September: The protest was peaceful but very noisy as protesters used air horns (klaxons), blew whistles, and banged metal bin lids as the children passed through the security cordon. Four parents in the 'Right to Education' group were notified that death threats had been made against them by the RHD, who said they would be killed if they were seen taking their children to the school. John Reid, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, cut short his holiday and returned to Northern Ireland because of the situation. Friday 7 September: Loyalists held a silent protest as children and parents passed through the security cordon. The silent protest was a mark of respect for Thomas McDonald (16), a Protestant killed in a hit-and-run incident after he had attacked a car with bricks and stones in another part of north Belfast on Tuesday. Catholic parents also held a minute's silence before beginning their walk to the school. Inside the school grounds, prayers involving clergymen from both denominations were said. Week two Monday 10 September: The protesters were quiet as the children and their parents passed, but when the parents returned home the protesters used air horns (klaxons), blew whistles, and banged metal bin lids. Some of the protesters shouted "Fenian scum" at the parents. In London, Richard Haass, the United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland, discussed the protest with John Reid. Senior Sinn Féin member Gerry Kelly introduced a private members' motion in the Northern Ireland Assembly, proposing that "the Assembly supports the right to education of children attending the Holy Cross Primary School in north Belfast". Unionist members proposed an amendment to the motion to make it apply to all schools in the area. The Assembly passed the amended motion. Tuesday 11 September: The protest followed the pattern of yesterday. Father Aidan Troy, Chairman of the school's Board of Governors, together with a local Protestant clergyman, held a meeting with representatives of the Concerned Residents of Upper Ardoyne (CRUA) who were organising the protest. John Reid also held a meeting with the representatives. Fr Troy said of the protest: "I really found it hard to comprehend the hatred that was shown to the school girls ... I walked with them and because of that I was spat on by the protesters. They held up posters accusing me of being a paedophile and they showed the children pornographic images. The intensity of the protest was hard to comprehend; I don't think people can really understand that from watching it on television". Wednesday 12 September: The protest followed the pattern of Monday and Tuesday. However, before going to the school the children and parents held a prayer service and a minute's silence for the victims of the September 11 attacks. On Friday, the protesters halted their protest for one day as a mark of respect for the victims of 11 September attacks. Week three Thursday 20 September: Protesters reverted to the earlier tactic of making a lot of noise as the children passed. Six men appeared before Belfast Magistrates Court on public order offences related to the school protest. The six men were remanded on bail but told not to take part in the protest. As a result of the arrests, the group representing the protesters, CRUA, announced that it had "suspended all business until further notice". Week four Wednesday 26 September: Protesters threw fireworks at children and parents returning from the school during the afternoon. That evening, a loyalist protest which blocked the nearby Crumlin Road turned into a riot. Police said they moved to protect Catholic homes from loyalists and were attacked by gunfire, pipe bombs and petrol bombs. They responded with plastic bullets, and 33 officers were injured. There was further violence in the area the following night, and police came under fire from loyalists on Cambrai Street. Thirteen officers were injured in the violence and a woman was shot in the leg. Week five Monday 1 October: Protesters continued their noisy protest as children and parents entered and left the school. Some protesters threw urine-filled balloons at the children and parents. Cups of cold tea and water were also thrown by protesters. Reg Empey (Ulster Unionist Party), then Acting First Minister of Northern Ireland, and Seamus Mallon (Social Democratic and Labour Party), then Acting Deputy First Minister, met with local representatives to discuss the situation. Empy said there was no excuse for the ongoing protest. Tuesday 2 October: British Conservative MP Quentin Davies, then Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, accompanied parents and children as they returned home through the protest. Davies called the protest "utterly unacceptable". Week six Tuesday 9 October: Aidan Troy, chairman of the school's Board of Governors, said he was considering taking legal action to try to end the protest. He said: "The weeks of suffering for these small girls were never justified ... This is no longer a legitimate protest; it is a form of child abuse". The cost of policing the protest was reported as having reached £1 million. Wednesday 10 October: Many of the protesters had begun to hide their identity and some were wearing masks of characters from horror movies. Local doctor Michael Tan said that some of the schoolchildren's families were near "breaking point" and parents and children were in need of professional psychological care. Brice Dickson, head of the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, visited the scene of the protest. He spoke to some of the protesters but was criticised by some of the parents of the children for not walking the route with them as Quentin Davies had done. One of the protesters displayed a threatening letter allegedly sent by a group called the "Catholic Reaction Force". Meanwhile, it was announced that the security wall between the loyalist and nationalist areas would be extended. Week seven Monday 15 October: Brice Dickson again visited the protest and called for it to end. He said "The treatment of these children is inhumane and their right to effective education is being affected". Protestant parents in north and west Belfast said that there had been rising attacks on buses carrying Protestant schoolchildren. Wednesday 17 October: As children and parents were returning home from the school, a loyalist bomb exploded at the back of a house on Alliance Avenue. No one was injured but the householder, and a number of parents and children, were described as being "in shock". Week eight Wednesday 24 October: There were disturbances on the Crumlin Road, not far from the school. Loyalists blocked the main road at about 4:30PM, stopping Catholic schoolchildren from getting home. Catholic families arrived to try to escort their children home. Bricks and bottles were thrown by both groups and police moved in to keep the sides apart. The Crumlin Road is the 'alternative' route that loyalists want the Holy Cross children and their parents to use when going to and from the school. Friday 26 October: Two people were arrested during the protest outside the school. Loyalists had tried to block the road and stop children parents from getting to the school. That night, loyalists threw a pipe bomb at a group of soldiers and police on the road, badly wounding a soldier and injuring several officers. The school was closed the following week after Halloween. Week nine Monday 5 November: Protesters said they had reached an "understanding" with the Police Service of Northern Ireland (the former RUC, now renamed) over the weekend. As a result, the police were not wearing full riot gear when the protest took place. Wednesday 7 November: The mother of a child attending the school began legal proceedings against John Reid and the police. The mother said that police had not given enough protection to her daughter and had failed to identify, arrest, or prosecute protesters who broke the law in full public view. While on a visit to Northern Ireland, Archbishop Desmond Tutu met some of the schoolchildren and their parents. Tutu also met some of those involved in the protest. Friday 9 November: The protest was halted for one day. Some of the schoolchildren sat their "11-plus" exams. Mary McAleese, then President of Ireland, called for an end to the protest. Week ten Monday 12 November: There was a change in the policing tactics used at the protest. Instead of gathering together all the Catholic parents and children and escorting them to the school as a group, the police specified a time period in which parents could walk to the school. About 400 police officers (an eighth of the total in Belfast) were there to ensure that the children could get to school. The day's operation cost an estimated £100,000. Some Catholic parents complained that the new police tactics left them more exposed to the protesters. Police arrested a nationalist who was taking a video of the protesters. Week eleven Monday 19 November: The media reported that the father of one of the schoolgirls had begun a hunger strike. The man said that he felt so frustrated by the protest that he was refusing food in an attempt to end the blockade. It was also revealed that a split had occurred in CRUA, the protest group. It was reported that as many as five of its committee members may have resigned. They are believed to include spokesmen Stuart McCartney and Jim Potts. Tuesday 20 November: The Belfast Education and Library Board (BELB) provided two buses for those schoolchildren and parents who wished to use them to get through the protest. However, most of them made their way to the school on foot. Thursday 22 November: David Trimble (UUP), then First Minister, and Mark Durkan (SDLP), then Deputy First Minister, held a meeting with the protest group. Before calling an end to the protest the protesters asked for CCTV to be introduced, along with road-calming measures, and tighter security in the area. Friday 23 November: In the afternoon there was a rally in the middle of Belfast in support of the schoolchildren. About 500 people attended. In the evening the protest group held a meeting and announced that the protest would be "suspended". For months after the protest ended, police and British Army armoured vehicles sat outside the school and at the junction of Alliance Avenue each day. However, eventually parents were able to walk their children to school without a police and Army escort. January 2002 On Wednesday 9 January 2002, there were confrontations outside the school during the early afternoon. Disturbances and rioting quickly spread throughout Ardoyne during the evening and into the night. Catholic parents and Protestant residents each claimed that the other side had started the trouble. Catholic parents said that they had faced increased verbal abuse since Monday during their walks to and from school and that they were attacked while leaving the school on Wednesday afternoon. A Catholic mother claimed she was punched in the face as she walked home from the school with her child. Police officers said they arrived at a confrontation between a Protestant woman and a Catholic woman near the school. The police moved to make an arrest but the person was protected by other residents. Police officers said they had to draw their weapons. There was a report that loyalists had driven a car at the school gates in an attempt to break in. Some schoolchildren had to be taken home through the grounds of another school while a bus carrying other children was attacked on its way down Ardoyne Road. Protestant residents claimed the trouble started when Catholics removed a wreath from a lamp-post. Up to 500 loyalists and nationalists were involved in the disturbances on the Ardoyne Road, Crumlin Road and Brompton Park areas. About 130 petrol bombs, acid bombs and fireworks were thrown. Four Catholic youths were hospitalised after being hit by shotgun pellets at Hesketh Park; loyalists petrol-bombed and destroyed a police vehicle; Catholic homes were attacked on the Upper Crumlin Road; a Catholic woman was knocked-down by a car on Twaddell Avenue; a Catholic man was struck by a police vehicle, and a 13-year-old Protestant schoolboy was injured when a bus was attacked. The police fired eight plastic bullets and arrested three people. As the trouble worsened, 200 police officers, backed by 200 soldiers, were deployed. At least 14 police officers were injured. The following day, the Holy Cross school was forced to close for the day. Some other schools in the area closed early due to fears about the safety of schoolchildren. In the morning, six loyalists, one with a gun, rampaged through the grounds of Our Lady of Mercy Catholic girls' secondary school, smashing 18 cars with crowbars. Parents rushed to collect their hysterical daughters. In the afternoon, Protestant pupils from Boys' Model Secondary School were ferried home in police armoured Land Rovers past nationalist crowds on Crumlin Road. Catholic parents and Protestant residents held separate meetings to discuss the situation. On Friday 11 January, the Red Hand Defenders issued a death threat against all Catholic teachers and all other staff working at Catholic schools in north Belfast. That weekend, two Catholic schools were set on fire and teachers' cars were attacked. On Monday, more than 750 armed police officers and soldiers were sent to guard Catholic schools in north Belfast while armoured vehicles lined Ardoyne Road. There was no protest outside the school and there was no serious violence, although there were a few minor scuffles. The Northern Ireland Office announced that permanent CCTV cameras would be installed on the Ardoyne Road. A temporary system was to be put in place while waiting for the permanent installation. In February 2002, Holy Cross schoolchildren travelled to County Galway for a free holiday as guests of Peacock's Hotel. The owners of the hotel had made the offer of the holiday following the 2001 protests. Twenty of the schoolchildren also met Bertie Ahern, then Taoiseach, during a short visit to Dublin. Ahern said it would show support for the children from the people of the Republic. In June, James Adair—brother of Ulster Defence Association leader Johnny Adair—was jailed for six months for riotous behaviour and given a concurrent sentence of four months for obstructing police during the riots. Outcomes The Holy Cross protest was said to have heightened sectarian tensions in Northern Ireland in a way not seen since the Drumcree dispute in the mid-1990s. PUP politician Billy Hutchinson said "The protest was a disaster in terms of putting their cause forward but it was a genuine expression of their anger and frustration and fear over what is happening in that part of North Belfast". A month before the protest was ended the Department of Social Development announced a housing redevelopment package for Glenbryn. This angered some Catholics and nationalists, particularly in north Belfast, where almost 80% of those on the housing waiting list were Catholics. They saw the package as a "buy-off" for Glenbryn residents. Ardoyne Sinn Féin councillor Margaret McClenaghan says the common perception was that loyalists were being rewarded for intimidating schoolgirls. However, one Protestant community activist said "There is no victory for our area despite all the hype. It is actually a strategy of social political engineering between the NlO and the Housing Executive, to solve the issue of interface tension". He explained that 186 houses would be demolished and that only about 20% would be replaced. This, he said, would mean a shrinking of the Protestant population in Glenbryn. During the protest, a number of schoolchildren were moved to other schools. Applications for enrolment at Holy Cross had dropped by almost half. Since the end of the protest, steps have been taken to heal relations. The North Belfast Community Action Unit was set up to foster inter-community talks, focusing on social and economic issues of interest to Ardoyne and Glenbryn. Nevertheless, community workers from both sides admit progress has been slow. Effect on the schoolchildren Brendan Bradley, head of the Survivors of Trauma group (which deals with victims of Troubles-related violence), said that the trauma experienced by the children was "almost without parallel" in the history of the Troubles:It wasn't as though this abuse lasted for a couple of days or was a one-off; it went on for months. Many needed counselling, some long-term counselling, in the wake of it all. Parents told how their daughters had changed from being fun-loving to being very withdrawn. Fr Aidan Troy said that some of the schoolgirls had been "put on heavy tranquillizers such as diazepam ... because of the trauma they were experiencing". Parents spoke of how their children had been wetting the bed and had started to throw tantrums and become withdrawn. When Holy Cross teachers asked girls in Primary 6 (aged 9–10) to draw a picture many had drawn mothers and fathers crying, surrounded by people with angry faces. Later incidents In 2003, Loyalists placed a pipe bomb at the entrance of the school, it was defused and there were no injuries. In 2003, a BBC televised drama called Holy Cross was made about the dispute, though it was filmed in Liverpool. Fr Aidan Troy, head of the board of governors of the school, expressed concern that the drama could reignite the problem. In April 2013, loyalists erected Union Jacks and loyalist flags outside the school and painted the kerbstones at its entrance red, white and blue. On 25 April the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) were called to the school to disperse a loyalist protest being held outside it. The protest was sparked by false rumours on social networks that Belfast City Council employees were due to arrive to remove the flags and the paint. In the early hours of Sunday 23 April 2017, a bomb was found by a police patrol outside the gates of Holy Cross Boys' Primary School in Ardoyne. The police said the bomb was "significant in terms of its [undisclosed] shape", and that police on foot patrol were the likely target. A sense of outrage was reported in the area. References External links BBC Q & A on the Holy Cross dispute – CAIN Chronicle of the Conflict for 2001 – Guardian map of the disputed route 2001 in Northern Ireland 2002 in Northern Ireland 2000s in County Antrim 21st century in Belfast Anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland Attacks on schools in Europe Crime in Belfast Crimes against children Education in Northern Ireland Militant unionism Protests in Northern Ireland Riots and civil disorder in Northern Ireland Sectarian violence The Troubles in Belfast	6,345
doc-en-11303_0	A comparison of Canadian football and rugby union is possible because of the games' shared origins, despite their dissimilarities. Most significant differences The most significant difference in play is the allowance of blocking for the ball carrier, which is to say preventing a defender from tackling the player with the ball. This rule in Canadian football allows top-flight teams to include hundreds of different plays in each and every match. It also slows the game down, causing frequent stoppages and less spontaneity in play. The laws against this in rugby union allow for each team to contest possession at all stages of a game. This determines the fluid and rapid nature of rugby where possession of the ball may change back and forth between teams without a break in play for long periods. This means that although rugby teams practice and execute a large number of pre-rehearsed plays the players at the top level especially must be quick thinking and tactically adept to cope with an unpredictable, fast moving game. Composition of teams Professional and most scholastic Canadian football team play has evolved from a single team with all players except limited substitutions playing the entire game, to a specialized "platoon" system consisting of three separate units (offensive, defensive, and "special teams" used for kicking and punting) with only one of the three being on the field at a time. That is to say that in Professional Canadian football, the majority of players only play in one specialization (or "one side of the ball") -- however, every player is eligible to play in any specialization. In rugby the teams are divided into eight forwards and seven backs. Both groups of players partake on attacking and defensive plays and are on the pitch at the same time. The eight forwards however only take part in the "set pieces" which are ways to contest ball possession when there is a minor rule infringement or the ball passes out of bounds. These are the scrums, a test of strength, and the line outs. A persons build and skill level determines which group they can play in. All forwards must be heavy and strong to scrummage well but not so heavy that they are too slow to partake in attacking plays. The backs are lighter and faster and include the expert kickers. The forwards numbered 6 through 8 are the players that need to have good all round rugby skills as well as speed and strength. In professional rugby there are very few players who can play equally well in a variety of positions and most will play in the same position from youth. Every position in rugby has its own unique name (except for number 8) and associated skill base. In the majority of club and schoolhouse Canadian Football the majority of players play both offence and defence only being substituted for injury. Substitutes in Canadian football can return to the game at any stoppage in play. In rugby union, any player substituted off for any reason except for minor bleeding is not allowed to return to the game (with the possible exception of front-row forwards). Rugby teams may make up to eight substitutions. There are fifteen players on the pitch at all times. Players who are verified as bleeding by an independent medical official are sent to the "blood bin," where they can receive medical treatment, and replaced until they have stopped bleeding. Ejected players in Canadian football can be replaced with a substitute, while in rugby union ejection means the team must play a man down the remainder of the game. This is known as being "red carded" and is punishment for especially dangerous play. Players who are red carded typically are banned for a number of games or even permanently. Duration of game A rugby union game is divided into two halves of 40 minutes (or shorter for lower grade games) separated by a 10-minute half time period. Most notably, a rugby union game will continue after the scheduled end of a half (half-time or full-time) until the ball is kicked into touch, a team scores, or the losing side commits a penalty. Time may also be added onto each half at the referee's discretion to make up for time lost due to treatment of injuries, etc. (this usually amounts to less than 5 minutes). Most commonly, however, the clock will be stopped by the referee to allow for treatment of injured players during the game, removing the need for added injury time. In contrast Canadian football matches are made up of four quarters of 15 minutes each, but the clock stops and starts according to specific rules, so that the 15 minutes quarter lasts slightly longer. In the professional (televised) version of this sport the game is often paused for the airing of commercials and advertisements; this does not occur outside of the televised environment where breaks in play are comparable to those in rugby union. In addition to this, the half time break is typically 12- to 15-minutes; this intermission allows for resetting of strategy in both rugby and Canadian football and adjusting to the opponents schemes. During the period entertainment is played for the crowd, ranging from marching band performances in high school and college games to big-name entertainment (e.g. Black Eyed Peas and The Tragically Hip) for the Grey Cup. The entertainment in rugby varies from club to club but traditionally would involve a band performance. The typical game in a non-televised environment lasts for around 120 minutes. Game play Rugby union matches are timed for 80 minutes, in two 40-minute halves. Canadian football games are timed for two 30-minute halves, each of which is further divided into 15-minute quarters. In both sports, the primary objective of the game is to carry the ball over the opponents goal line. In both sports the ball may be passed backwards an unlimited number of times, but in Canadian football the ball may be passed forward and sideways as long as the passer is behind the line of scrimmage, as opposed to rugby union where the ball cannot be passed but only kicked forward. The secondary scoring objective is to kick the ball through the opponents goalposts and over its crossbar. In Canadian football, "play" is stopped when a player is ruled down or out of bounds, whereas the play in rugby union continues until a player or the ball goes out of bounds, a player/team commits a foul or a player scores. The forward pass and the stoppage when a player is grounded results in short plays and a generally staccato game play in Canadian football, as opposed to the longer and more fluid passages of play found in rugby union. If a player in rugby is tackled then the ball must be released and any player arriving at the scene may pick up the ball and run with it. If two or more opposing players arrive at the same time then a ruck is formed and the players push each other to get at the ball before play continues. Rugby therefore involves far more running and less scrimmaging than Canadian football. In Canadian football, each team is allowed to stop the game clock one time per half (referred to as "timeouts"), and the officials will also stop the clock when there are three minutes to play in each half (referred to as the "Three minute warning"). There are no such stoppages in rugby. The game clock in Canadian football is also stopped at various times depending on how the previous play ended; for example if the ball carrier runs out of bounds, or if a forward pass is incomplete. Origins Various forms of football have been played in Britain for centuries with different villages and schools having their own traditional rules. Rugby-like games were first introduced into Canada by British soldiers and colonists in the mid-1800s. However at that time a standard set of rules did not exist and teams would negotiate the rules before playing a game. The Football Association was formed in England in October 1863. Differences of opinion about the proposed laws led to the formation of the first governing body for rugby in 1871 the Rugby Football Union. Laws were drawn up for rugby football which was now distinct from Association football (soccer). Rugby football proper in Canada dates back to the 1860s. Introduction of the game and its early growth is usually credited to settlers from Britain and the British army and navy in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Esquimalt, British Columbia. In 1864 the first recorded game of rugby in Canada took place in Montreal amongst artillery men. It is most likely that rugby got its start in British Columbia in the late 1860s or early 1870s when brief mentions of "football" appeared in print. F. Barlow Cumberland and Fred A. Bethune first codified rules for rugby football in Canada, in 1865 at Trinity College, Toronto, and the first proper Canadian game of rugby took place in 1865 when officers of an English regiment played local civilians, mainly from McGill University. Rugby is also an ancestor of Canadian football, currently its main competitor. A "running game", resembling rugby, was taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868. Back in England, a schism developed between those who favoured strict amateurism and those who felt that players should be compensated for time taken off work to play rugby. In 1895, this resulted in the formation of a break-away governing body, the Northern Union. The Northern Union began to make changes to the laws of rugby in 1906, which resulted in the sport of rugby league. The Rugby Football Union's version of rugby became as known as rugby union after its governing body. The field Dimensions Although both codes are played on similar sized rectangular fields, the dimensions of rugby union fields can vary up to maximum size that is larger than the fixed size of Canadian football fields. Rugby union fields are limited to a maximum length of 144 m long (and 100 m between goal lines) and width of 70 m, while Canadian football fields have a fixed length of 150 yd (137 m) long and width of 160 ft (48.8 m). Both sets of measurements include scoring zones at each end. These are fixed to 20 yd and called the end zone in Canadian football, but of unspecified length in rugby union. The Canadian football field is long and wide with end zones deep. At each goal line is a set of goalposts, which consist of two uprights joined by a crossbar which is above the goal line. The goalposts may be H-shaped (both posts fixed in the ground) although in the higher-calibre competitions the tuning-fork design (supported by a single curved post behind the goal line, so that each post starts above the ground) is preferred. Lines The border between the regular field of play and a scoring zone is called the goal line in Canadian football and the try line in rugby union. The outer perimeters of both fields are demarcated with sidelines (ends of rugby union field border the scoring zone being called dead ball lines and longitudinal sides touch lines). The central playing field of rugby is divided into halves by a halfway line; however, when the Canadian football field was marked, the centre line was marked as 55yards or C which stands for centre. Additional lines differ markedly with Canadian football fields marked at every 5 yard interval, whereas rugby union fields only have two further solid lines called the 22 metre lines and four broken lines each halving a half (resulting in four quarters and being translated as "quarter lines" in some languages). The dotted lines are made of two 10 metre lines on each side of the halfway line and two 5 metre lines before each goal line. Rugby union fields also have another set of dotted 5 metre lines. The yard lines in Canadian football are vitally important during game play, because a team's advance is measured against these lines, which in turn determines ball possession, whereas the halfway, 22 and 10 yards lines only determine the position of players during various rugby union kick-offs (which could be from the halfway line or 22s) or line-out in the case of the broken line 5 yd from the side lines. Goalposts Both codes also have goalposts at each end of the field: on the goal line in the case of rugby union, same as in Canadian football. Canadian football goalposts consist of two vertical posts 18.5 feet apart (24 feet in high school football) rising from a horizontal crossbar mounted on single (usually) post raising it 10 ft off the ground (resulting in a combined Y-shape of sorts). Rugby union goalposts are 5.6 m (18.3 ft) apart and extend vertically from the ground being connected by a crossbar at 3 m (9.8 ft), creating an H-shape. In both cases, only kicks passing between the uprights and above the crossbar score points. The scoring areas of both types of goalposts are therefore similar. Advancing the ball In Canadian football, the team that is in possession of the ball, the offence, has three downs to advance the ball 10 yards towards the opponent's end zone. If the offence gains 10 yards, it gets another set of three downs. If the offence fails to gain 10 yards after 3 downs, it loses possession of the ball. The ball is put into play by a snap. All players line up facing each other at the line of scrimmage. One offensive player, the centre, then passes (or "snaps") the ball between his legs to a teammate, usually the quarterback. Players can then advance the ball in two ways: By running with the ball, also known as rushing. One ball-carrier can hand the ball to another; this is known as a handoff. A ball-carrier can also perform a lateral or backward pass as in Rugby. By passing the ball forwards to a teammate as long as the passer is behind the line of scrimmage. A down ends, and the ball becomes dead, after any of the following: The player with the ball is tackled. A forward pass goes out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught. This is known as an incomplete pass. The ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. The ball or the player with the ball goes out of bounds. A team scores. Rugby union is based on the 'right to contest possession'. A team is not required to surrender possession when the ball carrier is tackled, in contrast to Canadian football, where a team must surrender their possession when a player is tackled and no downs remain. Rugby union players must win possession in open play, unless the team in possession makes an infringement, scores, or the ball leaves the field of play. A team in rugby union can advance the ball in two ways: By running forward with the ball. The ball carrier typically passes to a teammate just before he is tackled, to permit another player to continue the run towards the try line, thus quickly gaining ground. The ball carrier cannot pass to any teammate that is closer to the try line. This would be a forward pass, which is illegal. By kicking the ball forwards and attempting to recover it (illegal in Canadian Football, unless the ball is first touched by another player). In rugby the method of attack is typically decided by the person in the number ten jersey (the flyhalf). Once the forwards gain possession of the ball after a scrum, line out or ruck the ball is usually passed to this player who is the midpoint between the forwards and the backs. He/she must read the oppositions defensive strategy and calls a play accordingly either running, passing or kicking to other players. After the set piece or ruck the no.10 is the first player who has time to control the play and must therefore be an expert at a wide variety of kicks and an expert passer. The rule differences mean that there are a wider variety of kicks and kicking strategies in rugby compared to Canadian football. Possession may change in different ways in both games: When the ball is kicked to the opposing team; this can be done at any time but it is normal to punt on the last down in Canadian football when out of field goal range. Following an unsuccessful kick at goal. When an opposing player intercepts a pass. When the player in possession drops the ball and it is recovered by an opposition player. This is called a fumble in Canadian football. In rugby union the opposition are awarded a scrum if the player in possession drops the ball forwards or makes the ball go forwards with any part of his body other than his feet and the opposition are unable to gain an advantage from the lost possession. This is called a knock-on. In rugby union if the ball goes out of play, the opposition are awarded a line-out, this is called ball back. However, if the ball was kicked out of play as the result of the awarding of a penalty the team that kicked the ball out throws the ball in. Both teams can contest in a line-out. In Canadian football possession changes hands following a successful score with the scoring team kicking off to the opposition. In rugby union the team who conceded the score must kick off to the team who scored. In Canadian football, an automatic handover takes place when the team in possession runs out of downs. In both codes, tactical kicking is an important aspect of play. In Canadian football, it is normal to punt on the last down, but, as in rugby union, a kick can take place at any phase of play. Passing In Canadian football, the offence can throw the ball forward once on a play from behind the line of scrimmage. The forward pass is a distinguishing feature of Canadian football as it is strictly forbidden in rugby. The ball can be thrown sideways or backwards without restriction in both games. In Canadian football this is known as a lateral and is much less common than in rugby union. In both codes, if the ball is caught by an opposition player this results in an interception and possession changes hands. Tackles and blocks See also tackle (football move) In both games it is permitted to bring down the player in possession of the ball and prevent them making forward progress. In rugby, unlike in Canadian football, the ball is still in play. Players from either team can take possession of the ball. The tackled player must present the ball (release the ball) so that open play can continue. Rugby union rules do not allow tackles above the plane of the shoulders. Only the player who has possession of the ball can be tackled. The arms of the attacker must also wrap around the player being tackled. If a maul or ruck is formed, a player may not "ram" into the formation without first binding to the players. In Canadian football, tacklers are not required to wrap their arms around the ball carrier before bringing him to the ground; in fact, the ball carrier is often "tackled" by the defender taking a running start and hitting the ball carrier to knock them to the ground. Tackles can also be made by grabbing the ball carrier's jersey and pulling him to the ground (though pulling down a ball carrier by the pads behind his neck is known as a "horse collar", a move now illegal at all levels of the Canadian game). If a ball carrier is stopped for more than a few seconds, the referee can blow the whistle, declare the player's forward progress stopped, and end the play even though the ball carrier is not actually tackled to the ground. In Canadian football, players are allowed to 'block' players without the ball, this is not permitted in rugby union and would be considered 'obstruction', resulting in a penalty. Scoring A touchdown is the Canadian equivalent of a try. Unlike Canadian football, both codes of rugby require the ball to be grounded, whereas in Canadian football it is sufficient for the ball to enter the end zone (in-goal area) when in the possession of a player (making the term "touchdown" a misnomer). In Canadian football a touchdown scores 6 points; in rugby union a try is worth 5 points. In both games, following a try / touchdown, there is the opportunity to score additional points by kicking the ball between the posts and over the bar. In Canadian football this is called an extra point (worth 1 point); in rugby union it is known as a conversion (worth 2 points). (The result is that both the touchdown/extra point combination and the try/conversion combination, when successful, total to 7 points.) One key difference between an extra point and a conversion is that a conversion kick must be taken from a position in line with where the try was scored, although the distance from the try line from which the conversion kick is taken is not fixed. Hence, it is advantageous to ground the ball under the posts rather than in the corner which makes for a more difficult kick. Also, Canadian football features the option of the going for a 2-point convert, where the attacking team gets one chance from 5 yards out to get the ball in the endzone again. This would be worth 2 points on top of the 6 already awarded for the touchdown. In Canadian football teams often opt to go for a field goal (worth 3 points) rather than attempt a touchdown. The rugby equivalent is a drop goal (worth 3 points in union and only one in league). The key difference between a field goal and a drop goal is that a field goal attempt is normally kicked with a teammate holding the ball, whereas in rugby the ball must hit the ground and be kicked from a half-volley. A similar concept in rugby is the penalty goal. Following the award of the penalty, the attacking team may opt to kick for goal rather than advance the ball by hand or punting. This scores 3 points. The penalty goal is similar to a field goal in Canadian football in that the ball is kicked from the ground, but it cannot be charged. There is no direct equivalent to a penalty goal in Canadian football. A rare play called a "fair catch kick" is analogous to a goal from mark which existed in rugby union at one time. Canadian football has one further method of scoring which does not exist in rugby. If the team with possession causes the ball to enter their own endzone, and the ball carrier is then tackled while within the endzone, then this results in a safety which scores 2 points for the attacking team and results in the defending team having to kick the ball to the team who recorded it. In rugby union this does not score any points but results in a scrum 5 meters from the try zone with the tackling team in possession. In Rugby, If the ball is kicked past the try line and the receiving team grounds it without returning to the field of play, a drop kick from the 22-metre line ensues. In Canadian football, if a kick-off or punt goes into the endzone and the receiving team downs it without leaving the endzone, the result is a "rouge" and the receiving team gains possession of the ball but give up a point to the punting team for failing to advance the ball out of the endzone. An important difference between the two sports involves the aftermath of a score. In Canadian football, the scoring team kicks off, except after a safety. In rugby union, the team scored upon kicks off (in rugby sevens, a variant of rugby union featuring seven players per side, the scoring team kicks off). Players See also Canadian football#Players, Rugby union positions Canadian teams have twelve players on the field per side. Different players may be interchanged at will for offence and defence as well as special teams for specific activities. A Canadian football team consists of an offensive unit, a defensive unit and a "special teams" unit (involved in kicking and kick returns). Twelve players can be on the field at any time. Players are allowed to play on more than one of the units, this is the norm for all but the highest levels of play (professional and large schools). The kicking unit, with the exception of a few specialists, is usually made up of reserve players from the offence and defence. In both kinds of rugby the same players have to both defend and attack. There are fifteen players in a rugby union team (except in sevens and tens). Many of the positions in each code have similar names, but, in practice, the roles of those positions can be different. A fullback in Canadian football is very different from a fullback in rugby. Some of the positions are fairly similar; a Rugby fly-half carries out a similar role to a quarterback in Canadian football; however, quarterbacks touch the ball on almost every offensive play. Broadly speaking linemen and linebackers in Canadian football correspond to forwards in rugby, and running backs, receivers, and quarterbacks have roles similar to backs in rugby. Because of the playing time, number of pauses, number of players and the nature of the game in general, rugby players will typically need higher physical endurance than Canadian football players while more short-term bursts of physical strength, power, and speed are required in Canadian football (amongst equivalent positions and weights). Collisions between players in rugby union tend to last significantly longer than Canadian football, in which collisions are more often "hits" in which the momentum of the player is enough to bring the other player to ground or at least forcing an error or fumble. In rugby union tackles must at least show an attempt to bind the opposing player. These hits are not usually at the speed of Canadian football both because of the nature of the game and the lack of protective equipment. Additionally, rugby offsides rules and the lack of a forward pass significantly reduce the chance of a player receiving a "blind-side" hit (i.e. being hit and/or tackled from behind). In Canadian football, players receiving a forward pass are often vulnerable because they must concentrate on catching the ball, often jumping very high or stretching out and thereby exposing their body to punishing hits; in rugby a player is not allowed to be tackled in the air, leaving the receiver of the kick with more time to assess his surroundings. Ball carriers in rugby can usually anticipate a hit and can brace themselves accordingly. In rugby, the contact times between players are usually longer, as a more wrestling approach is required to bring players down, as momentum cannot always be relied upon particularly when the lines between the teams are consistently close, not allowing for significant momentum to be developed before meeting a defender. In rugby, rucks and mauls may develop following a tackle when multiple players from each team bind together to move the ball in play (on the ground or in-hand respectively). In Canadian football, equivalents to rucks and mauls are virtually non existent, as play stops when the ball carrier is stopped. This difference can be summed up in the idea that in Canadian football the objective is to bring the player to ground or to disrupt a pass to end the play, whereas in rugby the main objective is to stop the player from breaking the try line. Canadian football quarterbacks - and increasingly, their coaches - have several seconds to decide what the next play they will run in many occasions during the game, thus allowing for both complex tactics displayed within individual plays and overall game-wide strategy in play calling and play selection. In rugby union, the continuous nature of the game implies that there is no time to discuss team strategy, therefore offensive actions may seem to lack a definite direction for some periods of time. Rugby is more movement based than Canadian football in which short bursts are needed. Rugby players often continue to participate in the game long after they have left school. In Canada, amateurs who have left school rarely play full tackle football, but often play touch football or flag football. Attire Rugby union players are allowed to wear modest padding on the head, shoulders and collarbone, but it must be sufficiently light, thin and compressible to meet IRB standards. The headguard, also called a "scrum cap", is now commonly worn throughout all levels of the game. Protective headgear which is becoming essential because of the quantity of cuts and head injuries that can occur, particularly by the boots of players involved in rucking. Hard plastic or metal are prohibited in rugby kit. This includes hard plastic shin guards. No form of metal is allowed in any rugby kit, except for IRB-approved soft aluminum studs on boots. An essential part of the safety equipment needed for rugby is the gumshield or mouthguard. Players also have the option to use fingerless gloves which have been introduced recently to the game allowing players to better grip the ball. Canadian football players wear much bulkier protective equipment, such as a padded plastic helmet, shoulder pads, hip pads and knee pads. These protective pads were introduced decades ago and have improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players. A Canadian football helmet consists of a hard plastic top with thick padding on the inside, a facemask made of one or more metal bars, and a chinstrap used to secure the helmet. An unintended consequence of all the safety equipment has resulted in increasing levels of violence in the game which unprotected would be extremely dangerous. In previous years with less padding, tackling more closely resembled tackles in rugby union, with less severe impacts and less severe structural injuries. See also Comparison of American football and rugby union Comparison of Canadian and American football Comparison of rugby league and rugby union Canadian football Rugby union Players who have converted from one football code to another Sources HS Rugby Ban: Inattention To Safety? Coaching Strength or size - which is the significant component for rugby players? American football explained External links NFL's Digest of Rules The Laws of Rugby Union References Canadian football Rugby union in Canada Canadian football and rugby union	6,251
doc-en-11310_0	The Nurse with Wound list is a list of musicians and bands that was included with Chance Meeting on a Dissecting Table of a Sewing Machine and an Umbrella (1979), the first album by Nurse with Wound. There are 291 entries on the list. The list was expanded with Nurse with Wound's second album, To the Quiet Men from a Tiny Girl (1980). The list was compiled by the original Nurse with Wound trio of Steven Stapleton, John Fothergill, and Heman Pathak. It was intended as a homage to the artists who influenced the Nurse with Wound project. It has since become a type of 'shopping list' for collectors of outsider and avant-garde music. Given their obscurity, some of the artists named on the list have been a mystery for many collectors. Stapleton has even boasted that some of the names on the list were invented, a statement denied by John Fothergill. A Agitation Free, German rock group. Pekka Airaksinen, Finnish musician and member of the group Sperm (see below). Airway, project of Joe Potts as part of the Los Angeles Free Music Society collective. Albrecht/d., German artist with ties to the Fluxus scene. He has worked with Joseph Beuys and Throbbing Gristle (see below). , German rock group. Älgarnas Trädgård, Swedish rock group. All 7-70, see Ritual All 770 (below) Alternative TV, British group led by Mark Perry of Sniffin' Glue fame. Has worked with Throbbing Gristle (see below). Also see Good Missionaries (below). , Chilean singer and multi-instrumentalist. Famous for his "singing nose". Once a member of the pre-Clash band The 101ers. Ame Son, French rock group. AMM, British improv group. Currently the core members are just Eddie Prévost and John Tilbury, but has in the past included Keith Rowe, Lou Gare, Cornelius Cardew, Lawrence Sheaff, and Christopher Hobbs. Has worked with the MEV (see below). Amon Düül, German commune and rock group Amon Düül II, German rock group. Anal Magic and Reverend Dwight Frizzell, American Dwight Frizzell assisted by a number of friends. Anima, German rock group sometimes going by the name Anima-Sound. Led by husband and wife and with assistance of Friedrich Gulda (see below) on some albums. , German rock group. Aksak Maboul (Aqsak Maboul), Belgian group led by Marc Hollander. Have worked with Fred Frith (see below) and Chris Cutler of Henry Cow (see below). , Swedish rock group. Arcane V, French rock group. Archaïa, French zeuhl group. , Swedish rock group. Area, Italian rock group. Members included Demetrio Stratos (see below), Paolo Tofani (see below), and Patrizio Fariselli (see below). , French musician and leader of the groups Lard Free (see below) and Urban Sax. Also a member of Clearlight, Delired Cameleon Family, Operation Rhino (see below), and Catalogue. Note there are no known recordings (before 1980) released under his solo name. Art Bears, British based trio of Fred Frith (see below), Chris Cutler, and Dagmar Krause, all of whom were members of Henry Cow (see below). Art Zoyd (Art Zoyd III), French rock/modern-classical group. Arzachel, British rock group sometimes going by the name Uriel. Later became the group Egg. Robert Ashley, American composer and experimentalist. Member of the ONCE Group and the Sonic Arts Union with David Behrman, Alvin Lucier (see below), and Gordon Mumma. Ash Ra Tempel, German rock group led by Manuel Göttsching. Part of the supergroup Cosmic Jokers. Released an album with Timothy Leary. Later albums credited as Ashra. Association P.C., jazz ensemble led by Dutchman Pierre Courbois. B Il Balletto di Bronzo, Italian rock group. Banten, Dutch group. Members include , Ernst Reijseger, and . Franco Battiato, Italian singer, composer, and songwriter. Han Bennink, Dutch jazz percussionist. One of the founding members of the Instant Composers Pool (with Misha Mengelberg and Willem Breuker). Has also worked with Peter Brötzmann, Fred Van Hove, Derek Bailey, Evan Parker, and Steve Beresford (see below). Steve Beresford, British multi-instrumentalists who has worked in a wide range of fields including jazz, film score, and pop. Some of these include Alterations, Derek Bailey, Han Bennick (see above), Flying Lizards (see below), and the Portsmouth Sinfonia. Jacques Berrocal, French trombonist, trumpeter, and all around multi-instrumentalist. Has worked with Nurse with Wound. Member of the groups Operation Rhino (see below) and Catalogue. , French musician and soundtrack/library music composer. Was a member of the group Pôle (see below). Biglietto per l'Inferno, Italian rock group. Birgé Gorgé Shiroc, French trio of Jean-Jacques Birgé, Francis Gorgé, and Shiroc. After the departure of Shiroc and the addition of Bernard Vitet they became the group Un Drame Musical Instantane. Birgé played also with , Operation Rhino, Tamia, Luc Ferrari, Colette Magny and Raymond Boni (see below). He made light-shows for Gong (see below) and Red Noise (see below). Blue Effect, see Modry Efekt (below). , Danish group. Bomis Prendin, American group led by Bomis Prendin. , French guitarist. Don Bradshaw-Leather, mysterious British musician once rumoured to be the creation of Robert John Godfrey (of the group The Enid). , German rock group. Brainticket, Belgian-led European rock group. Brast Burn, Japanese group. Labelmates of Karuna Khyal on Voice Records. Brave New World, German rock group. , Swiss sound experimentalist and maultrommel player. Has interpreted scores by Adolf Wölfli. Brühwarm Theatre, German performance artist Corny Littmann backed by the group Ton Steine Scherben (see below). Franz de Byl, German guitarist C Cabaret Voltaire, British group, originally a trio of Stephen Mallinder, Richard H. Kirk, and Chris Watson (also an early member of Hafler Trio). Labelmates of Throbbing Gristle (see below) on Industrial Records. John Cage, famous 20th-century American composer. Student of Henry Cowell and Arnold Schoenberg. Has worked with Merce Cunningham, David Tudor, Marcel Duchamp, Morton Feldman, Christian Wolff, Max Neuhaus, Lou Harrison, and Sun Ra. Can, German rock band. See Technical Space Composers Crew below. , Italian rock group (but promoted as British). Captain Beefheart, American musician Don Van Vliet. Led the group The Magic Band which included Alexis Snouffer and Gary Lucas. Has worked with Frank Zappa (see below). Chamberpot, British jazz ensemble of Richard Beswick, Simon Mayo, Philipp Wachsmann, and Tony Wren. , German rock grou Chillum, British rock group. Side-project of the group Second Hand (see below). Henri Chopin, French sound poet. Published the audio-visual magazines Cinquième Saison and OU which featured works by members of Lettrisme, Fluxus, as well as Brion Gysin and William S. Burroughs. Chrome, American group consisting mainly of Damon Edge and Helios Creed. Cohelmec Ensemble, French jazz ensemble of , Jean Cohen, Jean-Louis Mechali, and Joseph Dejean. Jean Cohen-Solal, French flute player. Has played with Cohelmec Ensemble (see above), Béatrice Tekielski (see below), and Olga Forest. Collegium Musicum, Slovak rock group. , Italian record producer who has recorded some solo rock albums. Come, William Bennett's pre-Whitehouse group (see below). Companyia Elèctrica Dharma, Catalan group. Comus, British folk group. Cornucopia, German rock group. Crass, British group. Members of which have worked with Nurse with Wound and Current 93. Creative Rock, German rock group. Cromagnon, American rock group. David Cunningham, British musician, composer, and producer. Also see Flying Lizards below. Cupol, duo of Graham Lewis and Bruce Gilbert, both from the British group Wire. Also see Dome (below). D Dadazuzu, German group that has only ever made 1 track for a compilation release. Wolfgang Dauner, German jazz pianist. Debris', American rock group. Decayes, American group. An offshoot of the Los Angeles Free Music Society. Dedalus, Italian rock group. The Deep Freeze Mice, British rock group. Deutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (DAF), German group. Became a duo after a small number of LPs, moved to England, and made more commercial albums. Dharma Quintet, French jazz ensemble. Dies Irae, German rock group. Dome, another Wire side project by Graham Lewis and Bruce Gilbert. See Cupol above. Not to be confused with German group DOM. Doo-Dooettes, part of the Los Angeles Free Music Society. Philippe Doray, French musician. Has worked with Thierry Muller (see below). Roger Doyle, Irish musician and composer. In the group Operating Theatre which had an album released on United Dairies. Jean Dubuffet, French artist and creator of Art brut. Dzyan, German rock group. E , German jazz-rock group. Emtidi, German space kraut-folk duo of Maik Hirschfeldt and Dolly Holmes. Eroc, German drummer and multi-instrumentaluist Joachim H. Ehrig. Was a member of Grobschnitt (see below). Etron Fou Leloublan, French rock group. Part of the Rock in Opposition movement. Exmagma, German rock group. They have no relation to the French band Magma. F Family Fodder, British rock group led by Alig Fodder. Patrizio Fariselli, Italian pianist and member of Area (see above). Faust, German rock group. Has worked with Slapp Happy and Tony Conrad. A later version of the group has worked with Nurse with Wound. Luc Ferrari, French composer and musique concrète practitioner. , French rock group. Floh de Cologne, German rock group. Flying Lizards, British group led by David Cunningham (see above). Also see Steve Beresford (above). Food Brain, Japanese rock group. Förklädd Gud (God in Disguise), Swedish rock group. Walter Franco, Brazilian singer and composer. Free Agents, project of Pete Shelley of Buzzcocks fame. Friendsound, American rock group led by Drake Levin of Paul Revere & the Raiders fame. Fred Frith, British guitarist and multi-instrumentalist. Was in the groups Henry Cow (see below) and Art Bears (see above). G Gash, German rock band. Ron Geesin, British composer, musician, producer. Has worked with Pink Floyd. Gila, German rock group. Jef Gilson, French musician. Glaxo Babies, British rock group. God in Disguise, see Förklädd Gud (above) Gomorrha, German rock group. Gong, British/French rock group. Good Missionaries, side-project of Alternative TV (see above). Le Grand Magic Circus, French performance group. Danny Elfman was once a member. John Greaves and Peter Blegvad (and Lisa Herman), collaboration between members of Henry Cow (see below) and Slapp Happy. , Italian contrabass player with ties to the Fluxus scene. , Swedish electronic musician composer. Grobschnitt, German rock group. Also see Eroc (above). Group 1850, Dutch rock group. Jean Guérin, French multi-instrumentalist. Friedrich Gulda Austrian pianist and composer. Was a member of Anima-Sound (see above). Guru Guru, German rock group. Also see Uli Trepte (below). H , German rock group. Hampton Grease Band, American rock group. Henry Cow, British group founded by Fred Frith (see above) and Tim Hodgkinson. Part of the Rock in Opposition movement. Collaborated with the group Slapp Happy and eventually merged with them. Other members have included Chris Cutler, John Greaves, Dagmar Krause, Peter Blegvad, Anthony Moore (see below), Geoff Leigh, Lindsay Cooper, and Georgie Born. Also see Art Bears (above), Fred Frith (above), and Greaves and Blegvad (above). Pierre Henry, French electronic music composer. Collaborated with Pierre Schaeffer on the invention of Musique concrète. Has worked with Spooky Tooth, Urban Sax, and The Violent Femmes. Heratius, French rock group. Hero, Italian rock group. Juan Hidalgo, Spanish musician. Hugh Hopper, British musician, bass player for Soft Machine. , French rock group. Horrific Child, French musician Jean-Pierre Massiera. Goes under the aliases Herman's Rocket, Charlie Mike Sierra, and Les Maledictus Sound. I Ibliss, German rock group. Includes former members of Organisation/Kraftwerk (see below). , Quebecois rock group. International Harvester, Swedish rock group. Have also released albums as Pärson Sound, Harvester, and Träd, Gräs & Stenar. , Swedish jazz group. Not to be confused with Iskra 1903. Island, Swiss rock group. J Martin Davorin-Jagodić, Croatian composer. Has worked with John Cage (see above). Jan Dukes de Grey, British folk group. K King Crimson, British group led by Robert Fripp. Violinist David Cross has released a track on a United Dairies compilation. Basil Kirchin, British musician and film composer. Osamu Kitajima, Japanese composer and musician. Kluster, German trio of Hans-Joachim Roedelius, Dieter Moebius, and Conrad Schnitzler. Later split into Cluster and Conrad Schnitzler solo. Related to the band Eruption. (misspelled Kolges on the list), German musician. , German rock group. Has worked with Ton Steine Scherben (see below). Not to be confused with Kollektiv. , French rock group. Kraftwerk, German electronic-rock group. Former members have gone into Ibliss (see above), Neu! (see below), and Fritz Müller Rock (see below). Krokodil, Swiss rock group. L Steve Lacy, American jazz saxophonist & composer. Member of The Jazz Composer's Orchestra. Has worked with Cecil Taylor, Don Cherry, Michael Mantler (see below), Alvin Curran, Frederic Rzewski, Michel Waisvisz (see below), Han Bennink (see above), and Brion Gysin. Lard Free, French rock group led by Gilbert Artman (see above). Le Forte Four, part of the Los Angeles Free Music Society. Lemon Kittens, British duo of Karl Blake and Danielle Dax. Released an album on United Dairies. , German rock group. Limbus 3/Limbus 4, two versions of a German rock group. The 3 & 4 refers to the number of members, not album number (thus there is no Limbus 1 or Limbus 2). Bernard Lubat, French jazz musician. Alvin Lucier, American musician and composer. Part of the Sonic Arts Union. M Magical Power Mako, Japanese rock group. Magma, French rock group led by Christian Vander (see below). Colette Magny, French singer, songwriter, and composer. Mahjun, French rock group led by . Mahogany Brain, French rock group. Malfatti-Wittwer, jazz duo of Austrian Radu Malfatti and Swiss Stephan Wittwer. Mama Dada 1919, American rock group. Michael Mantler, Austrian musician. Member of The Jazz Composer's Orchestra. Has worked with Steve Lacy (see above), Carla Bley, Terje Rypdal (see below), and Robert Wyatt (see below). Albert Marcoeur, French musician. Mars, American rock group. Members: Sumner Crane, Nancy Arlen, Mark Cunningham, and China Burg. Maschine Nr. 9, German studio project of Hans Eichleiter, Georg Deuter, and Hans Greb with assistance from a large number of real and sampled voices. Mate and Vallancien, French duo of Philippe Mate and Daniel Vallancien. Costin Miereanu, French composer and musician. Min Bul, Norwegian jazz-rock trio of Terje Rypdal (see below), Bjørnar Andresen, and Espen Rud. Mnemonists, American group. Later became the group Biota. Modry Efekt (Blue Effect), Czech rock group. Moolah, American duo of Maurice Roberson and Walter Burns. Anthony Moore, British musician. Was member of Slapp Happy and Henry Cow (see above). Mothers of Invention, American rock group featuring Frank Zappa (see below). Some other members included Jimmy Carl Black, Don Preston, Bunk Gardner, and Ray Collins. Moving Gelatine Plates, French group. Fritz Müller (Fritz Müller Rock), German musician . Was member of Kraftwerk (see above) and Neu! (see below). Thierry Müller, French musician and leader of the group Ilitch. Also in the group Ruth with Ruth Ellyeri and Philippe Doray (see above). Musica Elettronica Viva (MEV), American-European improv group. Members have included Alvin Curran, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, Allan Bryant, Ivan Coaquette, and Ivan Vandor. Has worked with AMM (see above). Music Improvisation Company, British jazz ensemble led by Derek Bailey. Mythos, German rock group. N , Italian rock group. Negativland, American group. Neu!, German duo formed by ex-members of Kraftwerk (see above). La Düsseldorf is a related band. Also see Fritz Müller (above). New Phonic Art, French jazz ensemble led by Vinko Globokar. Also featuring Michel Portal (see below), Jean-Pierre Drouet, and Carlos Roqué Alsina. Nico, German singer best known for being on the first Velvet Underground (see below) album. Night Sun, German rock group. Nihilist Spasm Band, Canadian rock group. Nine Days Wonder, German rock group. Nosferatu, German rock group. Nu Creative Methods, French jazz duo of Bernard Pruvost and Pierre Bastien. O Oktober, German rock group. Yoko Ono, Japanese artist involved in the Fluxus scene. Later married John Lennon of the Beatles. Operation Rhino, French jazz ensemble of Gilbert Artman (see above), Pierre Bastien, Claude Bernard, Jacques Berrocal (see above), Raymond Boni (see above), Evan Chandlee, Mino Cinélu, Dominique Christian, Daniel Deshays, Harald Kenietzo, Tonia Munuera, Itaru Oki, Alain Pinsolle, Philippe Pochan, Patrice Raux, Richard Raux, François Tusques, and Mallot Vallois. Opus Avantra, Italian rock group led by Alfredo Tisocco and . Orchid Spangiafora, American audio collage artist. Out of Focus, German rock group. Ovary Lodge, British group led by Keith Tippett. Tony Oxley, British jazz drummer. P Parker and Lytton, British duo of Evan Parker and Paul Lytton. Pataphonie, French rock band. Pauvros and Bizien, French duo of and Gaby Bizien Pere Ubu, American rock group. Also see Red Krayola (below). Pierrot Lunaire, Italian rock group. Der Plan, German group originally consisting of Frank Fenstermacher, Moritz R, and Pyrolator. Plastic Ono Band, group led by John Lennon and Yoko Ono (see above). Plastic People of the Universe, Czech rock group. Poison Girls, British rock group on Crass Records. Pôle, French rock group led by Paul Putti. Members also included Jean-Louis Rizet and Philippe Besombes (see above). Not to be confused with the Besombes-Rizet album titled Pôle. The Pop Group, British rock group. Michel Portal, French clarinettist Public Image Ltd, British musician John Lydon's post-Sex Pistols group. Notable members included Keith Levene, Jah Wobble, and Martin Atkins R Red Krayola (Red Crayola), American rock group led by Mayo Thompson. Has collaborated with Art & Language and Jim O'Rourke. Thompson was also once a member of the group Pere Ubu (above). Red Noise, French rock group led by Patrick Vain (see below). Not to be confused with Bill Nelson's Red Noise. Reform Art Unit, Austrian jazz ensemble founded by , , and and Kristin Novotny. Steve Reich, American composer and musician. Achim Reichel, German guitarist and leader of the group A.R. & Machines. The Residents, American group. Catherine Ribeiro + Alpes, French avant-rock group. Boyd Rice, American musician and creative force behind NON. Terry Riley, American composer and musician. Ritual ALL-7-70, American group led by Alan Sondheim. Claudio Rocchi, Italian musician. , Italian jazz-rock group. Ron 'Pate's Debonairs, American performance-rock group featuring Fred Lane. Roth, Rühm, & Wiener, see Selten Gehörte Musik (below). Ray Russell, British guitarist. Terje Rypdal, Norwegian jazz guitarist. S Martin Saint-Pierre, Argentinian percussionist. Samla Mammas Manna, Swedish rock group. , German guitarist. Second Hand, British rock group. also see Chillum (above). , Danish rock group. Seesselberg, German electronic duo of Eckart and Selten Gehörte Musik, Austrian group featuring Dieter Roth, Gerhard Rühm, and . Part of the Viennese Actionism art movement which also included Rudolf Schwarzkogler and Hermann Nitsch. Semool, French rock group. Sonny Sharrock, American jazz guitarist. Silberbart, German rock group. Siloah, German rock group. Smegma, part of the Los Angeles Free Music Society. LaDonna Smith and Davey Williams, American musicians and founders of the Trans Museq record label. Sally Smmit, project of Sally Timms who is a member of the British group Mekons. Alan Sondheim, see Ritual All 770 (above). Snatch, American duo of Judy Nylon and Patti Palladin. Has worked with Brian Eno. Soft Machine, British rock group. , Finnish group led by Pekka Airaksinen (see above). Sphinx Tush, German group that became Tomorrow's Gift' (see below). Only recorded one song (but appears in two different versions). Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and pioneer of electronic music. Stooges, American rock band. Demetrio Stratos, Greek singer and musician. Was a member of the Italian group Area (see above). , Dutch rock band. T Taj Mahal Travellers, Japanese group led by Takehisa Kosugi. , French singer. Tangerine Dream, German group. Ghédalia Tazartès, French composer and musician. Technical Space Composers Crew, duo of Holger Czukay and Rolf Dammers. Holger later went on to join Can (see above). , French singer. Theatre du Chene Noir, French performance/rock group. Third Ear Band, British rock group. Thirsty Moon, German rock group. This Heat, British trio of Charles Hayward, Charles Bullen, and Gareth Williams. , French jazz musician. , German jazz-rock group. Throbbing Gristle, British group and founders of Industrial Records. , Italian musician. Was member of the group Area (see above). , Japanese performance-rock group. Tolerance, Japanese rock group. Tomorrow's Gift, German rock group. Also see Sphinx Tush (above). Ton Steine Scherben, German rock group. Trans Museq, see LaDonna Smith & Davey Williams (above). Uli Trepte, bass player and 'founding member of Guru Guru (see above). , a.k.a. 2066 and Then, German rock group. U Univers Zero, Belgian rock group. Part of the Rock in Opposition movement. V Christian Vander, French musician and leader of the group Magma (see above). Velvet Underground, American rock group with ties to Andy Warhol's Factory. Members included Lou Reed, John Cale, Moe Tucker, Sterling Morrison, and Nico (see above). Vertø, French duo of Gilles Goubin and Jean-Pierre Grasset. Patrick Vian, French musician. Was in the group Red Noise (see above). L. Voag, British musician Jim Welton. Has works under a number of aliases such as Amos and The Just Measures. Was a member of the group The Homosexuals. W Michel Waisvisz, Dutch electronic music designer and performer. Igor Wakhevitch, French multi-instrumentalist. Lawrence Weiner, American visual and soundtext artist. Trevor Wishart, British musician. James White and the Contortions, refers to two groups led by American James White: The Contortions and James White and the Blacks. Whitehouse, British group led by William Bennett. Preceded by the group Come (see above). Has worked with Nurse with Wound. Wired, German jazz ensemble led by Michael Ranta. Woorden, Dutch rock group. Robert Wyatt, British drummer, vocalist and multi-instrumentalist. Was a member of the groups Soft Machine (see above) and Matching Mole. X Iannis Xenakis, Greek composer for orchestra and electronics. Xhol Caravan/Xhol, German rock group. Y Ya Ho Wha 13, American commune and rock group. Recorded under various names such as Father Yod And The Spirit Of '76 and Fire, Water, Air. Sky Saxon, from the group The Seeds, was once a member of the commune, though he did not participate in the rock band. La Monte Young, American composer and musician. Z Frank Zappa, American musician and composer. Was member of the Mothers of Invention (see above) and has worked with Captain Beefheart (see above). ZNR (Zazou 'n' Racaille), French rock group led by Hector Zazou and . Zweistein, German rock group. References External links An annotated Nurse with Wound list The Audion Guide to the Nurse with Wound List NWW List at Discogs WFMU's Adventures of the Nurse with Wound list, parts 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The Irregular Show, a weekly radio show/podcast on KWVA from the campus of The University of Oregon that features examples of every artist on the list. Lists of musicians	6,448
doc-en-4662_0	Catch-22 is a satirical war novel by American author Joseph Heller. He began writing it in 1953; the novel was first published in 1961. Often cited as one of the most significant novels of the twentieth century, it uses a distinctive non-chronological third-person omniscient narration, describing events from the points of view of different characters. The separate storylines are out of sequence so the timeline develops along with the plot. The novel is set during World War II, from 1942 to 1944. It mainly follows the life of antihero Captain John Yossarian, a U.S. Army Air Forces B-25 bombardier. Most of the events in the book occur while the fictional 256th US Army Air Squadron is based on the island of Pianosa, in the Mediterranean Sea west of Italy, though it also covers episodes from basic training at Lowry Field in Colorado and Air Corps training at Santa Ana Army Air Base in California. The novel examines the absurdity of war and military life through the experiences of Yossarian and his cohorts, who attempt to maintain their sanity while fulfilling their service requirements so that they may return home. The book was made into a film adaptation in 1970, directed by Mike Nichols. In 1994, Heller published a sequel to the 1961 novel entitled Closing Time. Synopsis The development of the novel can be split into segments. The first (chapters 1–11) broadly follows the story fragmented between characters, but in a single chronological time in 1944. The second (chapters 12–20) flashes back to focus primarily on the "Great Big Siege of Bologna" before once again jumping to the chronological present of 1944 in the third part (chapter 21–25). The fourth (chapters 26–28) flashes back to the origins and growth of Milo's syndicate, with the fifth part (chapter 28–32) returning again to the narrative present and maintaining the tone of the previous four. The sixth and final part (chapter 32 and on) remains in the story's present, but takes a much darker turn and spends the remaining chapters focusing on the serious and brutal nature of war and life in general. Previously the reader had been cushioned from experiencing the full horror of events, but in the final section, the events are laid bare. The horror begins with the attack on the undefended Italian mountain village, with the following chapters involving despair (Doc Daneeka and the chaplain), disappearance in combat (Orr and Clevinger), disappearance caused by the army (Dunbar) or death of most of Yossarian's friends (Nately, McWatt, Kid Sampson, Dobbs, Chief White Halfoat and Hungry Joe), culminating in the horrors of Chapter 39, in particular the rape and murder of the innocent young woman, Michaela. In Chapter 41 the full details of the gruesome death of Snowden are finally revealed. Nevertheless, the novel ends on an upbeat note with Yossarian learning of Orr's miraculous escape to Sweden and Yossarian's pledge to follow him there. Style Many events in the book are repeatedly described from differing points of view, so the reader learns more about each event from each iteration, with the new information often completing a joke, the setup of which was told several chapters previously. The narrative's events are out of sequence, but events are referred to as if the reader is already familiar with them so that the reader must ultimately piece together a timeline of events. Specific words, phrases, and questions are also repeated frequently, generally to comic effect. Much of Heller's prose in Catch-22 is circular and repetitive, exemplifying in its form the structure of a Catch-22. Circular reasoning is widely used by some characters to justify their actions and opinions. Heller revels in paradox. For example: "The Texan turned out to be good-natured, generous and likable. In three days no one could stand him"; and "The case against Clevinger was open and shut. The only thing missing was something to charge him with." This atmosphere of apparently logical irrationality pervades the book, especially. This style is also recognizable regarding how exactly Clevinger's trial would be executed by Lieutenant Scheisskopf: "As a member of the Action Board, Lieutenant Scheisskopf was one of the judges who would weigh the merits of the case against Clevenger as presented by the prosecutor. Lieutenant Scheisskopf was also the prosecutor. Clevinger had an officer defending him. The officer defending him was Lieutenant Scheisskopf." While a few characters are most prominent, especially Yossarian and the Chaplain, the majority of named characters are described in detail with fleshed out or multidimensional personas to the extent that there are few if any "minor characters". There are no traditional heroes in the novel, reflecting the underlying commentary that war has no heroes, only victims. Although its nonchronological structure may at first seem random, Catch-22 is highly structured. It is founded on a structure of free association; ideas run into one another through seemingly random connections. For example, Chapter 1, titled "The Texan", ends with "everybody but the CID man, who had caught a cold from the fighter captain and come down with pneumonia." Chapter 2, titled "Clevinger", begins with "In a way, the CID man was pretty lucky because outside the hospital the war was still going on." The CID man connects the two chapters like a free association bridge and eventually Chapter 2 flows from the CID man to Clevinger through more free association links. Themes Paradox Yossarian comes to fear his commanding officers more than he fears the Germans attempting to shoot him down and he feels that "they" are "out to get him". The reason Yossarian fears his commanders more than the enemy is that as he flies more missions, Colonel Cathcart increases the number of required combat missions before a soldier may return home; he reaches the magic number only to have it retroactively raised. He comes to despair of ever getting home and is greatly relieved when he is sent to the hospital for a condition that is almost jaundice. In Yossarian's words: Tragedy and farce Much of the farce in the novel is fueled by intentional and unintentional miscommunication, occasionally leading to tragic consequences. For example, Cathcart's desire to become a general is thwarted by ex-P.F.C. Wintergreen sabotaging his correspondence. Major Major's and Yossarian's mis-censoring of correspondence is blamed on the Chaplain, who is threatened with imprisonment as a result. Theodicy Yossarian questions the idea that God is all-powerful, all-good, and all knowing. The narrator seems to believe that God, if not evil, is incompetent. In chapter 18, Yossarian states that he "believes in the God he doesn't believe in", this version of God having created Hitler, the war, and all the failures of human life and society, as exemplified in the following passage:"And don't tell me God works in mysterious ways", Yossarian continued, hurtling over her objections. "There's nothing so mysterious about it. He's not working at all. He's playing or else He's forgotten all about us. That's the kind of God you people talk about—a country bumpkin, a clumsy, bungling, brainless, conceited, uncouth hayseed. Good God, how much reverence can you have for a Supreme Being who finds it necessary to include such phenomena as phlegm and tooth decay in His divine system of creation? What in the world was running through that warped, evil, scatological mind of His when He robbed old people of the power to control their bowel movements? Why in the world did he ever create pain? … Oh, He was really being charitable to us when He gave us pain! [to warn us of danger] Why couldn't He have used a doorbell instead to notify us, or one of His celestial choirs? Or a system of blue-and-red neon tubes right in the middle of each person's forehead. Any jukebox manufacturer worth his salt could have done that. Why couldn't He? … What a colossal, immortal blunderer! When you consider the opportunity and power He had to really do a job, and then look at the stupid, ugly little mess He made of it instead, His sheer incompetence is almost staggering. …"Later Heller writes of Yossarian wandering through a war-torn Italian city (Chapter 39): "Yossarian quickened his pace to get away, almost ran. The night was filled with horrors, and he thought he knew how Christ must have felt as he walked through the world, like a psychiatrist through a ward full of nuts, like a victim through a prison full of thieves. What a welcome sight a leper must have been. At the next corner a man was beating a small boy brutally in the midst of an immobile crowd of adult spectators who made no effort to intervene ..." Anti-capitalism While the military's enemies are Germans, none appear in the story as enemy combatants. This ironic situation is epitomized in the single appearance of German personnel in the novel, who act as pilots employed by the squadron's mess officer, Milo Minderbinder, to bomb the American encampment on Pianosa. This predicament indicates a tension between traditional motives for violence and the modern economic machine, which seems to generate violence simply as another means to profit, quite independent of geographical or ideological constraints which creates a military–industrial complex. Heller emphasizes the danger of profit-seeking by portraying Milo without "evil intent". Milo's actions are portrayed as the result of greed, not malice. Characters Influences Heller wanted to be a writer from an early age. His experiences as a bombardier during World War II inspired Catch-22; Heller later said that he "never had a bad officer". In a 1977 essay on Catch-22, Heller stated that the "antiwar and antigovernment feelings in the book" were a product of the Korean War and the 1950s rather than World War II itself. Heller's criticisms are not intended for World War II but for the Cold War and McCarthyism. The influence of the 1950s on Catch-22 is evident through Heller's extensive use of anachronism. Though the novel is ostensibly set in World War II, Heller intentionally included anachronisms like loyalty oaths and computers (IBM machines) to situate the novel in the context of the 1950s. Many of the characters are based on or connected to individuals from the 1950s: Milo Minderbinder's maxim "What's good for M&M Enterprises is good for the country" alludes to the former president of General Motors Charles Erwin Wilson's statement before the Senate: "What's good for General Motors is good for the country." The question of "Who promoted Major Major?" alludes to Joseph McCarthy's questioning of the promotion of Major Peress, an army dentist who refused to sign loyalty oaths. Czech writer Arnošt Lustig recounts in his book 3x18 that Joseph Heller told him that he would never have written Catch-22 had he not first read The Good Soldier Švejk by Jaroslav Hašek. In 1998, some critics raised the possibility that Heller's book had questionable similarities to Louis Falstein's 1950 novel, Face of a Hero. Falstein never raised the issue between Catch-22 publication and his death in 1995 and Heller claimed never to have been aware of the obscure novel. Heller said that the novel had been influenced by Céline, Waugh and Nabokov. Many of the similarities have been stated to be attributable to the authors' experiences, both having served as U.S. Army Air Forces aircrew in Italy in World War II. However, their themes and styles are different. Concept A "Catch-22" is "a problem for which the only solution is denied by a circumstance inherent in the problem or by a rule." For example, losing something is typically a conventional problem; to solve it, one looks for the lost item until one finds it. But if the thing lost is one's glasses, one cannot see to look for them – a Catch-22. The term "Catch-22" is also used more broadly to mean a tricky problem or a no-win or absurd situation. In the book, Catch-22 is a military rule typifying bureaucratic operation and reasoning. The rule is not stated in a precise form, but the principal example in the book fits the definition above: If one is crazy, one does not have to fly missions; and one must be crazy to fly. But one has to apply to be excused, and applying demonstrates that one is not crazy. As a result, one must continue flying, either not applying to be excused, or applying and being refused. The narrator explains: There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one's safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind. Orr was crazy and could be grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions. Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he didn't, but if he were sane he had to fly them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn't have to, but if he didn't want to he was sane and had to. Yossarian was moved very deeply by the absolute simplicity of this clause of Catch-22 and let out a respectful whistle. (p. 56, ch. 5) Other forms of Catch-22 are invoked throughout the novel to justify various bureaucratic actions. At one point, victims of harassment by military police quote the MPs' explanation of one of Catch-22's provisions: "Catch-22 states that agents enforcing Catch-22 need not prove that Catch-22 actually contains whatever provision the accused violator is accused of violating." Another character explains: "Catch-22 says they have a right to do anything we can't stop them from doing." Yossarian comes to realize that Catch-22 does not actually exist, but because the powers that be claim it does, and the world believes it does, it nevertheless has potent effects. Indeed, because it does not exist, there is no way it can be repealed, undone, overthrown, or denounced. The combination of force with specious and spurious legalistic justification is one of the book's primary motifs. The motif of bureaucratic absurdity is further explored in 1994's Closing Time, Heller's sequel to Catch-22. This darker, slower-paced, apocalyptic novel explores the pre- and post-war lives of some of the major characters in Catch-22, with particular emphasis on the relationship between Yossarian and tail gunner Sammy Singer. Literary allusions Catch-22 contains allusions to many works of literature. Howard Jacobson, in his 2004 introduction to the Vintage Classics publication, wrote that the novel was "positioned teasingly ... between literature and literature's opposites – between Shakespeare and Rabelais and Dickens and Dostoevsky and Gogol and Céline and the Absurdists and of course Kafka on the one hand, and on the other vaudeville and slapstick and Bilko and Abbott and Costello and Tom and Jerry and the Goons (if Heller had ever heard of the Goons)." One critic argues that it is Kafka's influence that can be seen most strongly in the novel: "Like Kafka's heroes, Yossarian is riddled with anxiety and caught in an inexorable nightmare – in his case created by Colonel Cathcart and the inevitability of his raising the number of missions he has to fly." Historical context The idea for Catch-22 was based on Joseph Heller's personal experience in World War II. The feelings that Yossarian and the other bomber crew felt were taken directly from problems he suffered while on duty. Heller flew 60 bombing missions from May to October in 1944. Heller was able to make it out of the war, but it took until 1953 before he could start writing about it. For this reason, the book contains references to post World War II phenomena like IBM computers and loyalty oaths. The war experience turned Heller into a "tortured, funny, deeply peculiar human being". After publication in 1961, Catch-22 became very popular among teenagers at the time. Catch-22 seemed to embody the feelings that young people had toward the Vietnam War. A common joke was that every student who went off to college at the time took along a copy of Catch-22. The popularity of the book created a cult following, which led to more than eight million copies being sold in the United States. On October 26, 1986, professor and author John W. Aldridge wrote a piece in The New York Times celebrating the 25th anniversary of the publishing of Catch-22. He commented that Heller's book presaged the chaos in the world that was to come: The comic fable that ends in horror has become more and more clearly a reflection of the altogether uncomic and horrifying realities of the world in which we live and hope to survive. Title The title refers to a fictional bureaucratic stipulation that embodies illogical and immoral reasoning. The opening chapter of the novel was first published, in 1955, by New World Writing as Catch-18, but Heller's agent, Candida Donadio, asked him to change the title, to avert its confusion with Leon Uris's recently published Mila 18. The implications in Judaism of the number 18 — which refers to chai, meaning "alive", in Gematria — were relevant to Heller's somewhat greater emphasis on Jewish themes in early drafts of his novel. Parallels among a number of character exchanges in the novel suggested the doubled-one title of Catch-11, but the 1960 release of Ocean's Eleven eliminated that. Catch-17 was rejected so as not to be confused with the World War II film Stalag 17, as was Catch-14, apparently because the publisher did not believe that 14 was a "funny number". Eventually, the title came to be Catch-22, which, like 11, has a duplicated digit, with the 2 also referring to a number of déjà vu-like events common in the novel. Publication and movie rights Catch-22 was sold to Simon & Schuster, where it had been championed by editor Robert Gottlieb, who, along with Nina Bourne, would edit and oversee the marketing of the book. Gottlieb was a strong advocate for the book along with Peter Schwed and Justin Kaplan. Henry Simon, a vice president at Simon & Schuster, found it repetitive and offensive. The editorial board decided to contract the book when Heller agreed to revisions; he signed for . Officially published on October 10, 1961, the hardcover sold for $5.95. The book was not a best-seller in hardcover in the United States. Though twelve thousand copies were sold by Thanksgiving, it never entered The New York Times Best Seller list. It received good notices and was nominated for the National Book Award in March 1962, though Walker Percy's The Moviegoer won. Catch-22 went through four printings in hardcover but sold well on only the East Coast. The book never established itself nationally until it was published in paperback for 75 cents. Upon publication in Great Britain, the book became the No. 1 best-seller. Don Fine of Dell Paperbacks bought the paperback reprint rights to Catch-22 for $32,000. Between the paperback's release in September 1962 and April 1963, it sold 1.1 million copies. In August 1962, Donadio brokered the sale of movie rights to Columbia Pictures for $100,000 plus $25,000 to write a treatment or a first draft of a screenplay. Reception The initial reviews of the book ranged from very positive to very negative. There were positive reviews from The Nation ("the best novel to come out in years"), the New York Herald Tribune ("A wild, moving, shocking, hilarious, raging, exhilarating, giant roller-coaster of a book") and The New York Times ("A dazzling performance that will outrage nearly as many readers as it delights"). On the other hand, The New Yorker ("doesn't even seem to be written; instead, it gives the impression of having been shouted onto paper", "what remains is a debris of sour jokes") and a second review from the New York Times ("repetitive and monotonous. Or one can say that it is too short because none of its many interesting characters and actions is given enough play to become a controlling interest") disliked it. One commentator of Catch-22 recognized that "many early audiences liked the book for just the same reasons that caused others to hate it". The book had a cult following though, especially among teenagers and college students. Heller remarks that in 1962, after appearing on the Today show he went out drinking with the host at the time, John Chancellor, who handed him stickers that Chancellor had got privately printed reading "YOSSARIAN LIVES". Heller also said that Chancellor had been secretly putting them on the walls of the corridors and executive bathrooms in the NBC building. Although the novel won no awards upon release, it has remained in print and is seen as one of the most significant American novels of the 20th century. Scholar and fellow World War II veteran Hugh Nibley said it was the most accurate book he ever read about the military. ten million copies have been sold. Although he continued writing, including a sequel novel Closing Time, Heller's later works were inevitably overshadowed by the success of Catch-22. When asked by critics why he'd never managed to write another novel as good as his first, Heller would retort with a smile, "Who has?" Challenges Catch-22 has landed on the list of the American Library Association's banned and challenged classics. In 1972, the school board in Strongsville, Ohio removed Catch-22, as well as two books by Kurt Vonnegut, from school libraries and the curriculum. Five families sued the school board. The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected the claim, stating that school boards had the right to control the curriculum. The decision was overturned on appeal in 1976. The court wrote, "A library is a storehouse of knowledge. Here we are concerned with the right of students to receive information which they and their teachers desire them to have." In 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court employed a similar rationale in its decision in Island Trees School District v. Pico on the removal of library books. Because the book refers to women as "whores", it was challenged at the Dallas, Texas, Independent School District (1974) and Snoqualmie, Washington (1979). Rankings The Modern Library ranked Catch-22 as the 7th (by review panel) and 12th (by public) greatest English-language novel of the 20th century. The Radcliffe Publishing Course rank Catch-22 as number 15 of the 20th century's top 100 novels. The Observer listed Catch-22 as one of the 100 greatest novels of all time. Time puts Catch-22 in the top 100 English-language modern novels (1923 onwards, unranked). The Big Read by the BBC ranked Catch-22 as number 11 on a web poll of the UK's best-loved book. Adaptations Catch-22 was adapted into a feature film of the same name in 1970, directed by Mike Nichols. Alan Arkin portrayed Capt. Yossarian, with an ensemble cast including Art Garfunkel as Nately, Jon Voight as Milo Minderbinder, Orson Welles as General Dreedle, and Martin Balsam as Colonel Cathcart, amongst many others. A pilot for a comedy series based upon Catch-22 was made and televised in 1973, with Richard Dreyfuss in the starring role of Yossarian. Catch-22 play: Aquila Theatre produced a stage adaptation of Catch-22, based on Heller's 1971 stage adaption. It was directed by Peter Meineck. This production toured the US in 2007/8 with a Bexhill on Sea production in the fall of 2008. A six-episode miniseries produced by, and co-starring, George Clooney was picked up by Hulu for a straight-to-series order. It streamed on May 17, 2019. It was also broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom. Kyle Chandler portrays Colonel Cathcart and Christopher Abbott portrays Yossarian. Selected releases This list covers the first and most recent printed publications by the original publisher Simon & Schuster as well as all other formats. Other print publishers include Dell, Corgi, Vintage, Knopf, Black Swan, Grasset & Fasquelle, and Wahlström & Widstrand. The original manuscript is held by Brandeis University. See also Antinomy Hobson's choice Morton's fork Order No. 227 References External links Librarything.com with many photos of other Catch-22 covers Photos of the first edition of Catch-22 Catch-22 as a figure of speech Catch-22 study guide – analysis, themes, quotes, and teaching guide Why a novel so acclaimed took 46 years to make it to the stage: How the cult classic was adapted for the stage History of combat crew rotation - World War II and Korean War Historical Sources for the Events in Joseph Heller's Novel, Catch-22 By Daniel Setzer Fiction set in 1943 1961 American novels American comedy novels American novels adapted into films American novels adapted into plays American philosophical novels American satirical novels American war novels Anti-war novels Aviation novels Black comedy books Fiction about the United States Army Books with cover art by Paul Bacon Censored books Military humor Novels by Joseph Heller Postmodern novels Satirical novels Simon & Schuster books Suicide in fiction Novels set during World War II Books about Assyrian people Bureaucracy in fiction 1961 debut novels Nonlinear narrative novels	5,732
doc-en-11360_0	Kiliia Raion () was a raion (district) in Odessa Oblast of Ukraine. It was part of the historical region of Bessarabia. Its administrative center was the city of Kiliia. The small sector of the Danube Delta that lies in Ukraine lied partially in this raion. The raion was abolished and its territory was merged into Izmail Raion on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Odessa Oblast to seven. The last estimate of the raion population was The raion was formed on November 11, 1940, first as part of the Ackerman region, and from December of the same year — the Izmail region. On February 15, 1954 the territory of the raion was included in the Odesa region. Liquidated in accordance with the Resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine «On the formation and liquidation of raion» of July 17, 2020, № 807-IX. The territory of the raion became part of the re-founded Izmail raion. The population of the raion lived in 20 settlements, including 2 cities, 16 villages, and 2 settlements, which were part of 2 cities and 13 village councils. The administrative center of the raion is the city of Kiliia. The number of the population of the raion on December 1, 2011, was 53,646 people, of which 55% are urban population. The industry of the raion was represented by enterprises of mining, food industry, processing of agricultural products, and mechanical engineering. The area had a strong potential for the development of tourist services. The area had reserves of brick raw materials (under arable land), building stone (limestone), and building sand. A large area of the raion was occupied by checks for growing rice. The Rostov-Odesa-Reni E87 M15 highway passed through the raion. The length of public roads was 244.1 km, all paved. The station of the Odesa-Ismail-Dzinilor railway line was located in the north-west of the Kiliia raion. The area was served by water transport through the Danube port — Ust-Dunaisk and the checkpoints Kiliia and Vylkove. There were 2 sewerage networks in the raion, there was a water supply system in 6 settlements. In the Danube Delta in the extreme southwest of the raion, the city of Vylkovo was located, known as Ukrainian Venice, thanks to numerous Jericam channels, gun along the streets. In the south, there is one of the oldest cities of Ukraine — Kiliia. In the Black Sea, there is a single sea island in Ukraine — snake, near the coast of which rare objects were found, the age of which reaches an era of antiquity. Near the village of Liski was created by the botanical reserve of the local scales. Much of the islands of Delta Danube and large territories of the Danube flooded that in the southwestern part of the raion are part of the Danube Biosphere Reserve. In the Danube Delta on the territory of Kiliia and Ismail raions, the Regional Landscape Park `Ismail Islands` was created. Physical and geographical characteristics Location Kiliia raion was located in the southwestern part of Ukraine, in the extreme southeast of Odesa region. The territory of the raion stretches for 61 km in length and 56 km in latitude. To the west, on land and partly on Lake China, the raion borders the Ismail raion. Its neighbor in the north-west is Artsyz raion, in the north — Tatarbunary raion, the border with which partly passes through the estuary Sasyk. To the south, the Kiliia raion is bounded by the state border with Romania along the Danube. A total of 182 km of the state border runs within the raion. In the east, the territory of the raion is limited by the waters of the Black Sea, the seacoast of which reaches a length of almost 60 km. The Kiliia raion also includes a number of islands in the Danube Delta and the sea island of Zmiiny, which is 37 kilometers away from the mainland. Administrative and territorial structure As of January 1, 2012, the system of local self-government of Kiliia raion consists of 15 administrative-territorial units, including 13 village and 2 city councils, which, in turn, consist of 20 settlements, namely 2 cities of raion importance, 16 villages and 2 settlements. The power of self-government bodies of 9 villages and 1 city extends to only one settlement; 4 village councils and 1 city council have 2 settlements each. On the island of Zmiiny, there is the only settlement in Ukraine completely separated from the mainland: the village of Bile on Snake Island. Raion authorities are the Kiliia raion Council and the Kiliia raion State Administration. The territory of Kiliia raion occupies 135,869.5 hectares, which is 4.08% of the area of the Odesa region (13th place in the region). Of these: agricultural land occupies 74,038.52 hectares, 1,321.14 hectares are occupied by farm buildings and yards, 1,268 hectares are under farm roads and girders, 2,501 hectares are forest lands, 3,910.7994 hectares are built-up lands, swamps - 29,566.73 ha, open lands without vegetation cover or with insignificant cover —1,708.8106 ha and 21,554.5 ha are underwater. The total land area of settlements is 7,458.6 hectares — 5.1% of the raion. Climate Kiliia raion is located in the temperate-continental climate zone. The temperature difference in the area reaches 5 °C. The average annual temperature is +11.1 °C. Winter is mild, short and light snow with frequent thaws, lasts from mid-November to late March (4.5 months), the average temperature is +0.8 °C. The coldest month of the year is January, with an average temperature of −1 °C and a minimum temperature of −22.8 °C. Summer is long, warm, rarely hot, but with insufficient humidity, lasts from mid-May to late September (4.5 months), average temperature +20.8 °C. The warmest month is July, the average temperature is +24 °C, the maximum is +37.8 °C. The duration of the frost-free period varies in the range of 250–260 days, the growing season — up to 297 days. Air temperature 300–600 mm of precipitation falls per year. The wettest months are June, July and November, during which the monthly rainfall is about 60–80 mm. The driest months are January and February, when 20–30 mm of precipitation falls. The average annual humidity is 75%. The highest humidity occurs in the cold season (November — February 85-90%), the lowest — in May 56-60%. Blizzards are quite rare in winter, the snow cover reaches a height of not more than 4 cm. Occasionally there are droughts, accompanied by dry winds and dust storms. Fogs and dew are common. They can be observed throughout the year, but most fogs appear in the cold half of the year (November – May), while dew—in the summer. Monthly precipitation The average annual wind speed is 3.8 m/s. From September to April, the northern (18–41%) and north-western winds (12–26%) have the highest frequency. Only in May, there is no clear predominance of any wind direction. In June–August, prevailing winds from the south and east, the frequency of each direction, reaches 35%. The highest wind speed and the highest number of days with wind speeds above 15 m/s are observed in the cold season (November — March). Wind speed gradation The average duration of daylight, which particularly affects the process of photoperiodic of living organisms, is 11 hours 46 minutes. The longest day in June is up to 15 hours and 50 minutes, while the shortest is in December — 8 hours and 35 minutes. Relief The territory of Kiliia raion lies on the south-western edge of the Eastern European plain within the Black Sea lowlands and borders the Danube River, due to which some parts of it differ markedly in their natural conditions. The surface is mostly flat, rising above sea level by 5–42 m with a slope from northwest to southeast, to the Black Sea coast and the Danube Delta. The plain is crossed by shallow river valleys, ravines and gullies. The location on the Eastern European platform minimizes the manifestations of such natural phenomena like earthquakes and volcanism. The nature reserve and park fund of the raion consist of 22 objects with a total area of 52,362.1 ha (39% of the territory of Kiliia raion), including 19 parks of garden and park art (9.3 ha), the Botanical Reserve of local significance Liski and 46,402, 9 ha of the Danube Biosphere Reserve — a protected area of national importance. The soil layer of the raion was formed on forest rocks and is represented mainly by chernozems, namely the southern chernozems and dark-chestnut slightly saline soils common in the raion. Sod-sandy soils are formed on a coastal spit and overflow, in the Danube delta — sod-gley, silt-gley and peat-gley soils. The average thickness of humus horizons is 53 cm, with an average fertility (soil-agrochemical index) of 53 points. In order to protect the soil cover from weathering, prevent freezing of crops and soil erosion, the territory of the northern Kiliia raion is covered with a network of forest belts. Kiliia raion does not have a great variety of minerals. The most common are solid non-metallic minerals of local importance — sand, loam, gravel, limestone, pebbles, marl, which are used as building materials. Together with Saratsky, it is part of the oil and gas field. The Black Sea shelf is being studied more actively to identify oil and gas fields. Aquatic resources The raion has large reserves of surface water belonging to the Danube and Northern Black Sea basins. In the south flows the main waterway in Europe - the Danube River, namely the Kiliia raion estuary, 58 km of which belong to the raion. The river is of great economic importance in irrigation, shipping, and in providing drinking water to the inhabitants of the region. On the left bank of the lower Danube, in the valley from the mouth of the Kiliia to the north, there are many reservoirs, including small rivers of local importance: Dracula (21.2 km), Nerushai (12 km), Yenikoy (11.5 km), Aliaga (8.7 km), and Kyrgyz-China (5.5 km); 3 flowing beams: Priozerna (5.5 km), Kanazir (5 km) and Kazeyka (4.8 km), about 100 small estuaries, rivers and streams, and about 100 lakes, estuaries and ponds with a water volume of about 8 million m³. Among the latter are the artificially isolated estuary of the Sasyk (Kunduk) lagoon, separated from the sea only by a narrow strip of sand-shell alluvium, and the freshwater lake of the floodplain-estuary China, as well as Lakes Zeleny Kut and Lebedynka, Limba Lake. Dracula and Kazei Reservoirs, Pukalovsky Estuary, Karachev Estuary (Shvedovo), Small Salt Estuary, Grabovsky Estuary, Liskovsky Ponds and Furmanovsky Pond; Trudovsky and Shevchenkivsky fish farms, Kiliysky and Vilkivsky PTRH, and Bazarchuk Bay. In the east, the raion is washed by the Black Sea, on the shores of which are the Primorye resort and entertainment zone and Vilkivsky recreational complex of green tourism. The total area occupied by water is 21,554.5 hectares, which is about 16% of the raion. Of these, natural watercourses make up 4,105.63 ha of the raion, artificial watercourses — 4,059.63 ha, under lakes and estuaries — 12,063.09 ha; ponds — 5,919 hectares, and 1,266.96 hectares are occupied by artificial reservoirs. Due to hydrological and geological-geomorphological conditions, the depth of groundwater from the earth's surface is 1–15 m. Flora The area lies in the steppe zone, respectively, the natural vegetation of the region — steppe. The south is characterized by meadow vegetation, which occupies the plains of riparian and floodplain ridges, and is represented by groups of swampy, saline, true, and steppe meadows, grassy swamps, and swampy meadows. Wetland vegetation (reeds, hornbeams) is a characteristic element of the Danube floodplains and lake vegetation. Saline and saline vegetation is represented by rather insignificant areas. With the advance to the north, more steppe species appear, among which herbaceous plants predominate (over 90% of species), which are adapted to conditions of medium humidity and drought. The range of leading families consists of aster, cereals, legumes, sedges, crucifers, quince, carnations, labiate, buckwheat, umbrella, buttercups, rough-leaved, etc. In the south and southwest of the raion there are small areas of forest vegetation. It is dominated by different species of willows. Among them, the most common are white willow and brittle willow. A significant place in the flora of the raion belongs to aquatic vegetation. It is represented by unrooted free-floating, rooted submerged, rooted with floating leaves, and air-water forms. Common toaster (seaweed), phyllophora (red algae), chara, and other algae. There are also many very small unicellular algae (phytoplankton) in the water column. Especially developed diatoms and dinoflagellants. The number and biomass of planktonic algae are highest in the surface layer of water, reaching several tens of millions of cells per liter in summer. Numerous species of flora of Kiliia raion are listed in the Red Book of Ukraine. Among the Red Book species are protected, in particular, floating salvinia, floating water nut, floating thyme, swordfish, sword-grass marsh, Aldrovanda vesicular, cuckoo marsh, marsh marigold, and hellebore, white-flowered. Fauna Due to its geographical location and climatic conditions, Kiliia raion differs from other regions of Ukraine by diverse fauna, ichthyo- and ornithofauna, hunting and other species of fauna, represented by 1,500 species of invertebrates and more than 400 species of vertebrates. The most numerous and most important group of vertebrates of the raion in terms of both conservation and ecology are birds. More than 320 species of birds have been registered, including rare species such as cormorants, woodpeckers, gray, red, red and great white egrets, quacks, terns and grouse, pink and curly, white-tailed eagles and white-tailed eagles. Among amphibians, the most numerous are lake and edible frogs, common terns and Danube newts. Also found crested newt, red-bellied godmot her, grass. Among the reptiles are numerous marsh turtles, common snakes and agile lizards. There are colorful foot-and-mouth disease, Crimean lizards, water snakes, common and eastern steppe vipers. Common representatives of mammals are hares, hamsters, gophers. There are also roe deer, wild boar, fox, badger, marten and others. Of particular interest is the only representative of pinnies in the Black Sea — the monk seal, some individuals of which until the ‘80s were observed in the Ukrainian part of the Danube Delta in the reserve. In the Black Sea there are populations of dolphins (bottlenose dolphin, white-tailed deer, Azov). Among the amphibians - the inhabitants of freshwater: introduced muskrats and raccoons, as well as rare Red Book — ermine, river otter, European mink. The forest cat is seldom found in floodplains. The ichthyofauna of rivers is diverse. Rivers and lakes are home to bream, pike perch, catfish, pike, carp, perch and other fish species. Breed silver carp, grass carp, carp. In the Danube area there are species of fish included in the IUCN Red List: thorn, Atlantic sturgeon, Black Sea and Danube salmon, umber, chop large and small, sterlet, carp, Danube snipe, shemaia, ruff stripe, beluga, beluga, in the fresh waters of Europe), and others. The most valuable industrial species are sturgeon and Danube herring. Of the species of wild fauna of the Kiliia raion, many are listed in the Red Book of Ukraine and the IUCN Red List: gogol, burial eagle, field and steppe kite, pink starling, and others. History In the first and third centuries, the northwestern Black Sea coast was conquered by the Romans, who were replaced in the third century by the Goths from the northwest, and at the end of the fourth century by the Huns who invaded from the east. In the 8th century, Albanian-Bulgarian tribes settled between the Danube and Dniester rivers. During the times of Kievan Rus, Slavs lived here, which in turn in the XII century. Expelled the Pechenegs from here. Later, the Polovtsians migrated here, which was replaced in the 13th century by the Mongol-Tatar hordes, whose rule led to the gradual transformation of the Northern Black Sea Coast into the so-called Wild Field. But in the XV century, these territories were conquered by the Ottoman Empire. In the XV century. From the disintegrating Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate emerged, whose rulers controlled the territory between the Dniester and the Southern Bug. The Transnistria part, then called Budzhak, came under the rule of the Moldavian principality, which gradually became under the control of the Ottoman Empire from the middle of the 15th century. In 1475, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, which since then and for almost three hundred years has turned the Northern Black Sea coast into a springboard for Ottoman-Tatar attacks on the northern lands. At the beginning of the XIX century, vast areas of the former Wild Field began to be gradually inhabited by immigrants (mostly runaway peasants) from the Commonwealth, the Russian Empire and Moldova. The Russian Empire needed three Russo-Turkish wars (1768–1774, 1787–1792, and 1806–1812) to finally drive the Turks out of modern-day Kiliia. However, in 1856, as a result of the unsuccessful Crimean War for the Russian Empire, the Danube passed from it to the Ottoman Empire and was returned only in 1878. In 1918–1920, the territory of the raion underwent foreign military intervention and was occupied by the Kingdom of Romania (1918), of which it was a part until 1940. On November 11, 1940, after the departure of Bessarabia to the USSR under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a new administrative-territorial unit was formed, first in the Ackerman region (August 7-December 7, 1940), and later in the Ismail region, the Kiliia raion. The period of uncertainty was the war years of World War II, when the area was occupied by troops of the Kingdom of Romania. In 1944 the raion finally became part of the Ukrainian SSR. With the arrival of Soviet troops, the mobilization of the able-bodied population into the ranks of the RSCA began. On the fronts of Central and Southern Europe, 2,063 people died and went missing. The names of Soviet Kiel soldiers and fellow villagers who died during World War II have been engraved on the slabs and stelae of 18 monuments and obelisks in the towns and villages of the raion. Beginning on February 15, 1954, the territory of the Ismail region was included in the Odesa region. As a result of Khrushchev's reforms of the administrative division on December 30, 1962, the raion were consolidated. Kiliia raion was liquidated, and its territory is divided between Ismail and Tatarbunary raions. Thus the city of Kiliia was allocated to the city of regional subordination on subordination to it of the city of Vylkovo. After the removal of Khrushchev from 1965 to 1966, many former raions were restored. Thus, on January 4, 1965, the Kiliia raion was restored from parts of the Izmail and Tatarbunary raions and the Kiliya City Council. On February 5, 1965, by the Decree of the Presidium of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR, the Novoselivka Village Council of the Izmail raion was transferred to the Kiliia raion. 94 primary party, 153 trade union, 98 Komsomol organizations are being created. 11 monuments to VI Lenin are erected. Agriculture is actively developing, there are 11 collective farms, 3 fish farms, 5 state farms, which are assigned 69.6 thousand hectares of agricultural land. Swamps are being drained, on the basis of which checks for rice cultivation are being built. Already at the end of the ‘60s rice crops in the area occupy about 5.5 thousand hectares. 20 industrial enterprises are starting to work, employing 14,400 Kiliia. In 1969, the population was served by 35 medical institutions, which involved 110 doctors and 450 employees with secondary special education. In 26 secondary schools, including 15 secondary, 9 eight-year, and 2 schools of working and rural youth during this period, 770 teachers teach almost 11,000 students. There are 3 cinemas, 21 stationary cinemas. Cultural and educational work is carried out by 20 houses of culture, 6 clubs, 35 libraries, and a museum of history and local lore on a voluntary basis. Cells of parts of the city (Omarbia, Miyaki). Omarbia is named after the Ottoman naval admiral who in 1341 stormed the Venetian Kiliia with his flotilla. The lighthouse, which used to raise cattle, comes from the Ottoman `miyaki`, which means that it smells of milk and butter. Lake China is named after one of the leaders of the Tatar tribe, which was called China. The village of China (Red Yar) received the same name due to its location on the shores of the lake of the same name. Karamahmet - in honor of the last Ottoman commander of the Kiliia fortress, Kara Mahmet, who owned the lands of the modern village of Shevchenkove. Karashikir (Mirne) — in the name of the Ottoman lord who owned the lands of the village. Old Trojans, from the name of the Trojan shaft on both sides of which the village stretches. Colony Yenikioy took the name of the previous small Tatar settlement in the same place (literally sounds like `New Village`). Lipovania was named after the runaway schismatic Old Believers and the Don and Zaporozhian Cossacks. The village of Chamachur (Priozerne), which means `laundry`, was founded by Moldovan shepherds from the Carpathians. The village of Furmanivka took the name of the Tatar settlement. Many words remain from the Moldavian-Romanian domination in the vernacular — papushoya (corn), chapa (onion), ashak (donkey), brine (ear sauce), lamp, etc. The Ukrainian language of the Kiliia region underwent some changes under the influence of Russia, as a result of which the Southern Bessarabian dialect was formed. With the proclamation of Independence of Ukraine on August 24, 1991, Kiliyshchyna became a part of Ukraine. In 2003, Snake Island was placed under the administrative jurisdiction of the Kiliia raion. As a result of many wars and changes of government in the Kiliia raion, many historical monuments have been preserved. The Tatars and Turks preserved the geographical names of small rivers and lakes (China), settlements (Karamakhmet, Galilee), in the city. During 2014, during an anti-terrorist operation in the east of Ukraine, the victims of the territorial expansion of the Russian Federation and the liquidation of terrorist organizations became three inhabitants of the Kiliia raion. Socio-economic characteristics Population The population of Kiliia raion as of January 1, 2012 amounted to 54,843 inhabitants, including urban — 29.8 thousand people (54.3%) and rural — 25.0 thousand people (45.7%). Industry The industry of the raion is represented by enterprises of various forms of ownership, which are engaged in shipbuilding and ship repair, processing of agricultural products, as well as the manufacture of many types of industrial products of the food and processing industries. During 2011, the industrial enterprises of the raion produced UAH 99 million, 23 thousand. Marketable products (6% of the region's production). The main enterprises are Titan LLC, whose share in total production is 39%, Lad LLC — 29%, Kiliia Shipbuilding and Shiprepair Plant — 21%, Vylkivsky Fleet Repair and Maintenance Base — 6% and others. Agriculture Agriculture is one of the main branches of material production in the raion in terms of production and employment. It employs about 35% of the population, concentrates more than half of the production assets, produces 42% of gross domestic product, 80% of consumer goods. Due to the special climatic conditions, Kiliia raion belongs to the grain and livestock zone of production specialization of agriculture, where viticulture and pig breeding are actively developing. The share of the raion in the total volume of gross agricultural output in the region exceeds 5.3%, grain — 7.5%, sunflower — 8.1%, grapes — 45.5%, meat — 4.5%, milk — 4.8%, eggs — 6.3%. The share of plant products in the total gross agricultural output of the raion is 62%, livestock — 38%. Education There are 20 preschools, 6 out-of-school, and 23 secondary schools in the raion, including 8 in urban settlements and 15 in rural settlements. In summer, the raion children's health and recreation institution `Sputnik` works. General secondary education covered 6,903 students, preschool education — 1,133 pupils (43% of the number of preschool children), extracurricular education covered 3,321 pupils, expanded the number of clubs and sections of out-of-school institutions operating in villages. References Former raions of Odessa Oblast Ukrainian raions abolished during the 2020 administrative reform	6,077
doc-en-9290_0	St. Louis Lambert International Airport , formerly Lambert–St. Louis International Airport, is an international airport serving metropolitan St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Commonly referred to as Lambert Field or simply Lambert, it is the largest and busiest airport in Missouri. The airport sits northwest of downtown St. Louis in unincorporated St. Louis County between Berkeley and Bridgeton. In January 2019, it saw more than 259 daily departures to 78 nonstop domestic and international locations. Named for Albert Bond Lambert, an Olympic medalist and prominent St. Louis aviator, the airport rose to international prominence in the 20th century thanks to its association with Charles Lindbergh, its groundbreaking air traffic control (ATC), its status as the primary hub of Trans World Airlines (TWA), and its iconic terminal. St. Louis Lambert International Airport is the metropolitan area's primary airport; it is connected by MetroLink light rail to MidAmerica St. Louis Airport, a secondary airport about to the east. It is the largest medium hub airport in the U.S. History Beginnings The airport had its beginnings in 1909, when the Aero Club of St. Louis created a balloon launching base called the Permanent Aviation Field and Dirigible Harbor in Kinloch Park, a suburban development of the 1890s. In October 1910, the airfield hosted the first International Air Meet, attracting "many famous persons," including the Wright brothers, who brought six airplanes and their Exhibition Team. President Theodore Roosevelt accepted the club's telegraphed invitation to attend, and after initially ruling out a flight, took off on October 11 with pilot Arch Hoxsey, becoming the first U.S. president to fly. The following year, the airfield—generally called Kinloch Field—was the takeoff point for what is generally regarded as the first parachute jump from an airplane. The club's lease on the land expired in 1912, and the field was closed and its grandstand demolished. Efforts to revive the facility were unsuccessful. In June 1920, a nearby 170-acre field was leased to the Missouri Aeronautical Society, which named its facility the St. Louis Flying Field. Among the Society's leading members was Albert Bond Lambert, an Olympic silver medalist golfer in the 1904 Summer Games, president of Lambert Pharmaceutical Corporation (which made Listerine), and the first person to receive a pilot's license in St. Louis. So vigorous was Lambert in his efforts to promote St. Louis aviation that in 1923 the field was renamed Lambert-St. Louis Flying Field. "Major" Lambert (his "rank" was given by the Aero Club and not the military) purchased the field outright in February 1925, and added hangars and a passenger terminal. In the late 1920s, the airport became the first with an air traffic control system–albeit one that communicated with pilots via waving flags. The first controller was Archie League. Charles Lindbergh's first piloting job was flying airmail for Robertson Aircraft Corporation from the airfield; he left the airport for New York about a week before his record-breaking flight to Paris in 1927. In February 1928, the City of St. Louis leased the airport for $1. Later that year, Lambert sold the airport to the city after a $2 million bond issue was passed, making it one of the first municipally owned airports in the United States. In 1925, the airport became home to Naval Air Station St. Louis, a Naval Air Reserve facility that became an active-duty installation during World War II. In 1930, the airport was officially christened Lambert–St. Louis Municipal Airport by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd. The first terminal building opened in 1933. By the 1930s, Robertson Air Lines, Marquette Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines provided passenger service to St. Louis, as did Transcontinental & Western Air (later renamed Trans World Airlines). In August 1942, voters passed a $4.5 million bond issue to expand the airport by and build a new terminal. During World War II, the airport became a manufacturing base for the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (later McDonnell Douglas, now Boeing) and Curtiss-Wright. After World War II: expansion, Ozark Airlines hub After the war, NAS St. Louis reverted to a reserve installation, supporting carrier-based fighters and land-based patrol aircraft. When it closed in 1958, most of its facilities were acquired by the Missouri Air National Guard and became Lambert Field Air National Guard Base. Some other facilities were retained by non-flying activities of the Naval Reserve and Marine Corps Reserve, while the rest was redeveloped to expand airline operations at the airport. Ozark Air Lines began operations at the airport in 1950. To handle increasing passenger traffic, Minoru Yamasaki was commissioned to design a new terminal, which began construction in 1953. Completed in 1956 at a total cost of $7.2 million, the three-domed design preceded terminals at John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) in New York City and Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport. A fourth dome was added in 1965 following the passage of a $200 million airport revenue bond. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 44 weekday TWA departures; American, 24; Delta, 16; Ozark, 14; Eastern, 13; Braniff, 6 and Central, 2. The first scheduled jet was a TWA 707 to New York on July 21, 1959. In 1971, the airport became Lambert–St. Louis International Airport. In the 1970s, St. Louis city officials proposed a new airport in suburban Illinois to replace Lambert. After Missouri residents objected in 1977, Lambert received a $290-million expansion that lengthened the runways, increased the number of gates to 81, and boosted its capacity by 50 percent (a proposed Illinois airport was later built, though not near the originally intended site; MidAmerica St. Louis Airport opened in 1997 in Mascoutah, Illinois). Concourse A and Concourse C were rebuilt into bi-level structures with jet bridges as part of a $25 million project in the mid-1970s designed by Sverdrup. The other concourses were demolished. Construction began in the spring of 1976 and was completed in September 1977. A $20 million, extension of Concourse C for TWA and a $46 million, Concourse D for Ozark Airlines (also designed by Sverdrup) were completed in December 1982. Ozark Airlines established its only hub at Lambert in the late 1950s. The airline grew rapidly, going from 36 million revenue passenger miles in 1955, to 229 million revenue passenger miles in 1965. The jet age came to Ozark in 1966 with the Douglas DC-9-10 and its network expanded to Denver, Indianapolis, Louisville, Washington, D.C., New York City, Miami, Tampa, and Orlando. With the addition of jets, Ozark began its fastest period of growth, jumping to 653 million revenue passenger miles in 1970 and 936 million revenue passenger miles in 1975; Ozark soon faced heavy competition in TWA's new hub at Lambert. In 1979, the year after airline deregulation, STL's dominant carriers were TWA (36 routes) and Ozark (25), followed by American (17) and Eastern (12). Other carriers at STL included Air Illinois, Air Indiana, Braniff International Airways, Britt Airways, Brower Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Frontier Airlines, Northwest Orient, Republic Airlines, Texas International Airlines, Trans-Mo Airlines, and USAir. Trans World Airlines hub After airline deregulation in 1978, airlines began to change their operations to a hub and spoke model. Trans World Airlines (TWA) was headquartered in New York City but its main base of employment was at Kansas City International Airport (KCI) and had large operations at Chicago O'Hare International Airport (ORD) as well as St. Louis. TWA deemed Kansas City's terminals unsuitable to serve as a primary hub. TWA reluctantly ruled out Chicago, as its Chicago operation was already losing $25 million a year under competition from American Airlines and United Airlines. This meant that St. Louis was the carrier's only viable option. TWA proceeded to downsize Chicago and build up St. Louis, swapping three Chicago gates for five of American's St. Louis gates. By December 1982, St. Louis accounted for 20% of TWA's domestic capacity. Lambert's terminal was initially too small for this operation, and TWA was forced to use temporary terminals, mobile lounges and airstairs to handle the additional flights. After Concourse D was completed in 1985, TWA began transatlantic service from Lambert to London, Frankfurt, and Paris. TWA's hub grew again in 1986 when the airline bought Ozark Airlines, which operated its hub from Lambert's B, C, and D concourses. In 1985, TWA had accounted for 56.6% of boardings at STL while Ozark accounted for 26.3%, so the merged carriers controlled over 80% of the traffic. As of 1986, TWA served STL with nonstop service to 84 cities, an increase from 80 cities served by TWA and/or Ozark in 1985, before the merger. Lambert again grew in importance for TWA after the airline declared bankruptcy in 1992 and the following year moved its headquarters to St. Louis from Mount Kisco, New York. TWA increased the number of cities served and started routing more connecting passengers through its hub at Lambert. The total number of passengers departing Lambert jumped almost 20% in a year, from 19.9 million passengers in 1993 to 23.4 million in 1994. Growth continued, to 27.3 million by 1997 and the airport's all-time peak of 30.6 million in 2000. By September 1999, Lambert was TWA's main hub, with 103 destinations served by 515 daily flights: 352 on TWA mainline aircraft and 163 on Trans World Express flights operated by its commuter airline partners. Lambert became the eighth-busiest U.S. airport by flights. Congestion caused delays during peak hours and was exacerbated when bad weather reduced the number of usable runways from three to one, and traffic projections made in the 1980s and 1990s predicted enough growth to strain the airport and the national air traffic system. As a result, city leaders decided to build a runway, dubbed Runway 11/29, parallel to the two larger existing runways. At $1.1 billion, it was the costliest public works program in St. Louis history. It required moving seven major roads and destroying about 2,000 homes, six churches, and four schools in Bridgeton. Work began in 1998 and continued even as traffic at the airport declined after the 9/11 attacks, the collapse of TWA and its subsequent purchase by American, and American's flight reductions several years later. American Airlines hub As TWA entered the new millennium, its financial condition deteriorated; it was purchased by American Airlines in April 2001. The last day of operations for TWA was December 1, 2001, including a ceremonial last flight to TWA's original and historic hometown of Kansas City before returning to St. Louis one final time. The following day, TWA was officially absorbed into American Airlines. The plan for Lambert was to become a reliever hub for the existing American hubs at Chicago–O'Hare and Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW). American was looking at something strategic with its new St. Louis hub to potentially offload some of the pressure on O'Hare as well as provide a significant boost to the airline's east/west connectivity. The September 11 attacks depressed air service nationwide: total airline industry domestic revenue passenger miles dropped 20% in October 2001 and 17% in November 2001. Overnight, American no longer had the same need for a hub that bypassed its hubs at Chicago and Dallas, which suddenly became less congested. As a result of this and the ongoing economic recession, service at Lambert was reduced to 207 flights by November 2003. Total passenger traffic dropped to 20.4 million that same year. On the international front, flights to Paris went to seasonal in December 2001 and transatlantic service was soon discontinued altogether when American dropped flights to London in late 2003. In 2006, the United States Air Force (USAF) announced plans to turn the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard into the 131st Bomb Wing. The wing's 20 F-15C and F-15D aircraft were moved to the Montana Air National Guard's 120th Airlift Wing at Great Falls International Airport/Air National Guard Base, Montana and the Hawaii Air National Guard's 154th Wing at Hickam AFB, Hawaii. The pilots and maintainers moved to Whiteman AFB, Missouri to fly and maintain the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber as the first Air National Guard wing to fly the aircraft. Lambert Field Air National Guard Base formally shut down on June 13, 2009, when the final two F-15C Eagles did a low approach over the field and then flew away, ending an 86-year chapter of Lambert's history. 2006 also saw the completion of the W-1W airport expansion after eight years of work. The culmination of this program was the opening of Runway 11/29, the airport's fourth, on April 13, 2006, when American Airlines Flight 2470 became the first commercial airliner to land on the new runway. In 2008, Lambert's position as an American Airlines hub faced further pressure due to increased fuel costs and softened demand because of a depressed economy. American cut its overall system capacity by over 5% during 2008. At Lambert, American shifted more flights from mainline to regional. Total passengers enplaned fell 6% to 14.4 million in 2008, then fell another 11% to 12.8 million passengers in 2009. In 2009, American announced that as a part of the airline's restructuring, it would close its St. Louis hub by reducing its operations from about 200 daily flights to 36 daily flights by summer 2010. American's closure of the St. Louis hub coincided with its new "Cornerstone" plan, wherein the airline would concentrate itself in several major markets: Chicago, Dallas/Fort Worth, Miami, New York, and Los Angeles. Recent years In the aftermath of the American hub closure, Southwest Airlines boosted daily departures from 74 to 83, adding six new destinations for a total of 31. Southwest quickly replaced American as the carrier with the most daily flights, and continues to dominate the airport to this day. On April 22, 2011, a tornado (rated EF4 nearby but not at the airport itself) struck the airport's Terminal 1, destroying jetways and breaking more than half of the windows. The wind damaged a Southwest Airlines aircraft by pushing a baggage conveyor belt into it. Four American Airlines aircraft were damaged, including one that was buffeted by crosswinds while taxiing after landing. Another aircraft, with passengers still on board, was moved away from its jetway by the storm. The FAA closed the airport at 8:54 pm CDT, and reopened it the following day at temporarily lower capacity. The damage to Concourse C even forced several airlines to use vacant gates in the B and D concourses. Concourse C underwent renovations and repairs and reopened on April 2, 2012. In late 2016, officials with the City of St. Louis announced that brand researchers had found that travelers might be confused by the name "Lambert–St. Louis International Airport". They said they might rename it St. Louis International Airport at Lambert Field to freshen up the airport's image and emphasize "St. Louis" in the name. Descendants of Albert Bond Lambert opposed the change, arguing that it de-emphasized the importance of Maj. Lambert to the airport's history and the history of aviation. The proposal was amended, and the St. Louis Airport Commission voted unanimously to change the name to St. Louis Lambert International Airport. In 2018, WOW air began four weekly A321 flights between St. Louis and Reykjavík, marking a return of transatlantic service to the airport for the first time since 2003. Despite strong sales, WOW announced in October 2018 that it would end the route due to the airline's financial struggles. Other domestic carriers such as Sun Country Airlines and Spirit Airlines have begun flying from Lambert in recent years. In December 2021, Lufthansa announced nonstop service between St. Louis and Frankfurt beginning in June 2022. The flight will be the first full service transatlantic flight from St. Louis since American Airlines ended their London route in 2003, and is being backed by several area corporations, including Sigma-Aldrich and Monsanto, both of which have been acquired by German firms in recent years. Future In early 2022, airport officials released a plan that would consolidate both existing terminals into one, at the existing Terminal 1 site. The proposal would gradually demolish Concourses A, B, C and build a single new concourse with 62 gates in its place, while retaining the iconic domed terminal building. Following the completion, Terminal 2 would be demolished or repurposed. Facilities Terminals The airport has two terminals with a total of five concourses with 86 gates. All international flights without border preclearance are processed in Terminal 2. Terminal 1 features an American Airlines Admirals Club and one of the largest USO facilities in the nation. Terminal 2 features a common use lounged operated by Wingtips. Terminal 1 contains 68 gates across four concourses, lettered A–D. Terminal 2 contains 18 gates across one concourse, lettered E. Runways The airport has four runways, three of which are parallel with one crosswind. The crosswind runway, 6/24, is the shortest of the four at . The newest runway is 11/29, completed in 2006 as part of a large expansion program. The airport's current ~156-foot (~47.6-meter) control tower opened in 1997 at a cost of approximately $15 million. Ground transportation Metro Train To City The airport is connected to MetroLink's Red Line via stations at both Terminal 1 and Terminal 2. MetroLink lines provide direct or indirect service to downtown St. Louis, the Clayton area and Illinois suburbs in St. Clair County. The airport is served by I-70; eastbound leads to downtown St. Louis and Illinois with a north–south connection at I-170 immediately east of the airport, while westbound leads to St. Louis exurbs in St. Charles County with a north–south connection at I-270 immediately west of the airport. Art and historical pieces Black Americans in Flight is a mural that depicts African American aviators and their contributions to aviation since 1917. It is located in Terminal 1 / Main Terminal on the lower level near the entrance to gates C and D and baggage claim. The mural consists of five panels and measures tall and long. The first panel includes Albert Edward Forsythe and C. Alfred Anderson, the first black pilots to complete a cross-country flight, the Tuskegee Institute and the Tuskegee Airmen, Eugene Bullard, Bessie Coleman, and Willa Brown (first African American woman commercial pilot in United States). The second panel shows Benjamin O. Davis Jr., Clarence "Lucky" Lester, and Joseph Ellesberry. The third panel shows Gen. Daniel "Chappie" James, Capt. Ronald Radliff, and Capt. Marcella Hayes. The fourth and fifth panels show Ronald McNair, who died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, Guion Bluford, who in 1983 became the first African American in space, and Mae Jemison, the first African American woman in space. Spencer Taylor and Solomon Thurman created the mural in 1990. The mural had a re-dedication ceremony in 2012. One aircraft from the Missouri History Museum currently hangs from Lambert's ceilings. This aircraft, a red Monocoupe 110 Special manufactured in St. Louis in 1931, hangs in the ticketing hall of Terminal 2. The airport has also played host to two other aircraft. A Monocoupe D-127 hung near the eastern security checkpoint in Terminal 1. Charles Lindbergh bought it in 1934 from the Lambert Aircraft Corporation and flew it as his personal aircraft. It was removed in 2018 and returned to the Missouri Historical Society, from which the aircraft had been on loan since 1979, for preservation purposes. Until 1998, a Ryan B-1 Brougham, a replica of the Spirit of St. Louis, hung next to the D-127. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Airport traffic Accidents and incidents Accidents August 5, 1936: Chicago and Southern Flight 4, a Lockheed 10 Electra headed for Chicago, crashed after takeoff, killing all eight passengers and crew. The pilot became disoriented in fog. January 23, 1941: a Douglas DC-3 of Transcontinental & Western Air crashed 0.4 miles west of St. Louis Municipal Airport during a landing attempt in adverse weather, killing two occupants out of the 14 on board. August 1, 1943: during a demonstration flight of an "all St. Louis-built glider", a Waco CG-4A, USAAF serial 42-78839, built by sub-contractor Robertson Aircraft Company, lost its starboard wing due to a defective wing strut support and plummeted vertically to the ground at Lambert Field, killing all on board, including St. Louis Mayor William D. Becker; Maj. William B. Robertson and Harold Krueger, both of Robertson Aircraft; Thomas Dysart, president of the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce; Max Doyne, director of public utilities; Charles Cunningham, department comptroller; and Henry Mueller, St. Louis Court presiding judge. The failed component had been manufactured by Robertson subcontractor Gardner Metal Products Company, of St. Louis, which, coincidentally, had been a casket maker. September 6, 1944: the starboard engine of the sole completed McDonnell XP-67 fighter prototype, USAAF serial 42-11677, caught fire during a test flight. Test pilot E.E. Elliot executed an emergency landing at Lambert Field and escaped, but the fire rapidly spread, destroying the aircraft. This event was a crippling setback for the XP-67; the program had already been plagued by delays and technical problems, and the other prototype was only 15% complete, so flight testing could not promptly resume. Soon after the accident, United States Army Air Forces leaders declared the XP-67 unnecessary, canceling the program. May 24, 1953: a Meteor Air Transport Douglas DC-3 crashed on approach to the airport, killing six of the seven people on board. February 28, 1966: astronauts Elliot See and Charles Bassett – the original crew of the Gemini 9 mission – were killed in the crash of their T-38 trainer while attempting to land at Lambert Field in bad weather. The aircraft crashed into the same McDonnell Aircraft Corporation building (adjacent to the airport) where their spacecraft was being assembled. March 20, 1968: a McDonnell F-4 Phantom II jet fighter crashed on takeoff during a test flight. The aircraft pitched up and stalled almost immediately after lifting from the runway; both crewmen were able to eject and were not seriously injured. The aircraft was destroyed in the ensuing explosion and fire. The crash was allegedly caused by a wrench socket, mistakenly left in the cockpit by maintenance crews, becoming lodged inside the control stick well on takeoff, jamming the stick in the full aft position. March 27, 1968: at about 6 p.m., an Ozark DC-9, operating as Flight 965, and a Cessna 150F on a training flight collided in flight approximately 1.5 miles north of the airport. Both aircraft were in the landing pattern for Runway 17 when the accident occurred. The Cessna was destroyed by the collision and ground impact, and both occupants were fatally injured. The DC-9 sustained light damage and was able to effect a safe landing. None of its 44 passengers or five crewmembers were injured. The probable cause was determined to be a combination of inadequate VFR procedures in place at the airport, the failure of the DC-9 crew to notice the other aircraft in time, the controller's failure to ensure that the Cessna had received and understood important landing information, and the Cessna crew's deviation from their traffic pattern instructions and/or their continuation to a critical point in the traffic pattern without informing the controller of the progress of the flight. July 23, 1973: while on the approach to land at St. Louis International Airport, Ozark Air Lines Flight 809 crashed near the University of Missouri – St. Louis, killing 38 of the 44 persons on board. Wind shear was cited as the cause. A tornado had been reported at Ladue, Missouri, about the time of the accident but the National Weather Service did not confirm that there was a tornado. July 6, 1977: a Fleming International Airways Lockheed L-188 Electra, a cargo flight, crashed during the takeoff roll; all three occupants were killed. January 9, 1984: Douglas DC-3 registration C-GSCA of Skycraft Air Transport crashed on take-off, killing one of its two crew members. The aircraft was on an international cargo flight to Toronto Pearson International Airport, Canada. Both engines lost power shortly after take-off. The aircraft had been fueled with jet fuel instead of avgas. April 8, 1990: A Missouri Air National Guard F-4 Phantom II veered off the runway during takeoff, crashed, and burst into flames. The pilot suffered minor injuries after his ejection seat failed to deploy and he was forced to exit the burning wreckage while the weapons officer fractured his left leg when he ejected from the aircraft. November 22, 1994: TWA Flight 427 collided with a Cessna 441 Conquest, registration N441 km, at the intersection of runway 30R and taxiway Romeo. The TWA McDonnell Douglas MD-82 was taking off for Denver and had accelerated through when the collision occurred. The MD-82 sustained substantial damage during the collision. The Cessna 441, operated by Superior Aviation, was destroyed. The pilot and the passenger were killed. The investigation found the Cessna 441 had entered the wrong runway for its takeoff. See also List of airports in Missouri Missouri World War II Army Airfields References External links St. Louis Lambert International Airport official site Video of President Theodore Roosevelt's October 1911 flight, from the Library of Congress OpenNav airspace and charts for KSTL Passenger, Cargo and Flight Open Data for STL Airports established in 1923 1923 establishments in Missouri Airports in Greater St. Louis Concrete shell structures Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Missouri Transportation buildings and structures in St. Louis County, Missouri Berkeley, Missouri Government of St. Louis	5,766
doc-en-11419_0	Warner Bros. Movie World is a theme park on the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia. Owned and operated by Village Roadshow's Theme Parks division, the park opened on 3 June 1991. It is part of a entertainment precinct, with the adjacent Village Roadshow Studios and nearby Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast, among other sites operated by Village. Movie World is Australia's only film-related theme park and the oldest of the Warner Bros. parks worldwide (the others are at Madrid and Abu Dhabi). As of 2016, it receives a yearly average of 1.4 million visitors. In the late 1980s, a failed film studio lot and its adjacent land were bought out by Village. They entered a joint venture with Pivot Leisure (part-owners of the nearby Sea World) and Warner to develop the land into a theme park. Designed by C. V. Wood, the layout was inspired by Universal Studios Hollywood and Disney-MGM Studios Theme Park, and opening attractions were designed to educate guests about the processes behind filmmaking. The park has since expanded to include an array of attractions that are based on Warner and related DC Comics properties. It has survived financial hardships and remains among Australia's most popular tourist destinations. Attractions range from thrill rides such as Batwing Spaceshot and Superman Escape to family attractions such as Wild West Falls Adventure Ride and Justice League: Alien Invasion 3D, entertainment at the Roxy Theatre and the Hollywood Stunt Driver live show. Among the five operating roller coasters, DC Rivals HyperCoaster is Australia's tallest, fastest and longest, and Green Lantern Coaster has the world's third-steepest drop angle. Film characters regularly roam the grounds to interact and take photos with guests. Each afternoon, characters participate in a parade along Main Street. The seasonal Fright Nights and White Christmas events are hosted annually. History 1986–1991: Set-up and opening Hollywood interest in the Australian film industry grew rapidly during the 1980s. Italian-American film producer Dino De Laurentiis visited the country in 1986; he had worked with Australian film alumni in recent years and noted industry buzz over the film Crocodile Dundee. With De Laurentiis Entertainment Limited (DEL), he commissioned and constructed a film studio in Oxenford, near Surfers Paradise on the Gold Coast, Queensland. The studio was to produce the action film Total Recall, but after their finances were jeopardised by several box office bombs (such as Million Dollar Mystery), De Laurentiis left the failing DEL in December 1987. Production on Total Recall halted and AU$3.4 million worth of studio sets were dismantled. Village Roadshow, who had an established partnership with Warner Bros. in Australia, bought out DEL entirely in 1988 and opened Warner Roadshow Studios (now Village Roadshow Studios) in July. In October 1988, Village acquired a large lot of swampy land adjacent to the studio complex from investment company Ariadne Australia (which had been crippled by the 1987 Black Monday stock market crash). The following month, Village persuaded Warner to acquire 50% of the studio and announced that a theme park, provisionally named Warner World, was to be built on the recently acquired land. Warner recognised the value proposition in the theme park more than in the studio. In July 1989, the two companies entered a joint venture to develop the park with Pivot Leisure, part-owners of a property trust in Sea World, a local marine mammal park. American designer C. V. Wood was commissioned that year to design the park. He had six park designs in his portfolio at the time, including Six Flags Over Texas and Disneyland, and modelled Movie World's layout on Universal Studios Hollywood and Disney-MGM Studios Theme Park. It was scaled to let up to 13,000 guests visit all attractions in a single day, even during peak periods. Construction took about 16 months, relied on labour from local workers as much as possible and cost an estimated $120–140 million, of which Pivot contributed about $30 million. The opening ceremony held on 2 June 1991 was attended by more than 5,000 people, among them celebrities such as Clint Eastwood, Mel Gibson, Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell. To mark the occasion, Premier of Queensland Wayne Goss cut a novelty film reel with Eastwood and Bugs Bunny. The evening prior, 1 June, a special edition episode of Hey Hey It's Saturday ("Hey Hey It's Movie World") shot on-location had host Daryl Somers interview many of the celebrities in attendance, such as Eastwood and Russell. The park opened to the public on 3 June. Between 400 and 500 jobs were created upon its opening. The initial guest admission fee was $29 for adults and $19 for children. With increased international tourism to the Gold Coast since the 1980s, Village had hoped to tap into a market with American and Japanese customers; attractions were subtitled, and tour guides were trained, in Japanese. Described as the world's first "movie-based theme park" built outside the United States and the first "American-style" theme park since Tokyo Disneyland, it was expected to draw between one and 1.5 million visitors within its first year. 1991–1998: Early attractions Opening attractions at Movie World educated guests about the processes behind filmmaking. Marketing slogans billed it as "Hollywood on the Gold Coast" and its design was intended to capture the aesthetic of American theme parks such as Disneyland and Universal Studios. Beyond the Fountain of Fame opening plaza, Main Street featured replicas of buildings and facades from various Warner films, such as Rick's Café Américain from Casablanca, the bank robbed during Bonnie and Clyde and the Daily Planet building from Superman. A film studio tour included the Movie Magic Special Effects Show with audience participation on a live set. There were two live daily shows: the Western Action Show featured actors performing amusing stunts with live animals and the hour-long Police Academy Stunt Show staged shoot-outs and car chases for an audience of 1,500. The Warner Bros. Classics & Great Gremlins Adventure interactive dark ride had guests escape from a gremlin invasion of a studio set. Young Einstein Gravity Homestead, based on the 1988 film Young Einstein, featured sloped floors and optical illusions to simulate the effects of gravity. The Roxy Theatre screened 3D films. The Looney Tunes Land children's area featured several attractions, including the Looney Tunes River Ride dark water ride and the Looney Tunes Musical Revue live show. Batman Adventure – The Ride, a $13 million motion simulator ride, opened on 23 December 1992. The ride's four-minute film portion, directed by Hoyt Yeatman and produced at the Dream Quest Images animation studio, featured props and set pieces from the film Batman Returns. McFadden Systems, Inc. manufactured the motion platform and Anitech designed the 20-person simulation capsule. The ride was widely anticipated and immediately popular upon opening. More than 12,000 people visited on 30 December and set a single-day attendance record. In 1995, the Western Action Show was replaced by The Maverick Grand Illusion Show, based on the comedy film Maverick. Lethal Weapon – The Ride opened as the park's first roller coaster in December. The Suspended Looping Coaster by Vekoma was the first of its kind to feature a layout with a helix (or "bayern kurve"). It was Australia's first inverted coaster and its construction required more than 600 tonnes of steel. Marvin the Martian in 3D opened in December 1997 at the Roxy Theatre as the world's first animated 3D film and on Boxing Day, 26 December, Looney Tunes Land reopened as Looney Tunes Village with several new rides. Boxing Day 1998 saw the opening of the Wild Wild West (now Wild West Falls Adventure Ride). The flume ride by Hopkins Rides was at the time the largest single ride investment in Australia and featured an artificial mountain that was approximately wide and tall. Originally to be called Rio Bravo after the 1959 Western film of the same name, the ride was renamed to tie-in with the 1999 film Wild Wild West. In their annual report, Village identified Wild Wild West as a crowd-pleaser and credited it with the attendance spike that year. 2000–2008: Expansion Road Runner Rollercoaster, a Vekoma Junior model, opened on Boxing Day 2000; it was Australia's first coaster designed for children. During 2001, the Great Gremlins and Gravity Homestead attractions closed, and the Looney Tunes Splash Zone was added to Looney Tunes Village. Two new attractions opened on Boxing Day: Batman Adventure – The Ride 2, a refurbishment of the original, and the Harry Potter Movie Magic Experience. Built on the Gravity Homestead's footprint, the $2 million Harry Potter attraction was a direct tie-in to the film series' first film, The Philosopher's Stone, and featured a walk-through replica of Diagon Alley and a live owl show. The following year, it was updated with the release of The Chamber of Secrets to feature film set pieces such as the flying car and creatures of the Forbidden Forest. Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster opened on 17 June 2002; the $13 million Wild Mouse coaster by Mack Rides was themed to the 2002 film Scooby-Doo. The indoor ride featured ghost train elements, an elevator lift and a coaster section. The Harry Potter attraction closed and was replaced in September 2003 by The Official Matrix Exhibit, which featured props from the Matrix film series. In 2005, Village announced expansion plans totalling $65 million for their Gold Coast parks, in which Movie World would receive a share with two new attractions. First, the Roxy Theatre was refurbished for a new film, Shrek 4D Adventure. Opened on 17 September, the experience used sensory effects, moving seats and animatronics. Superman Escape, the other attraction, opened on Boxing Day. The $16 million Accelerator Coaster by Intamin was the park's first major thrill ride in about a decade. Batwing Spaceshot, a $5 million Space Shot by S&S Power, opened in December 2006. Looney Tunes Village was renamed to Kids' WB Fun Zone in 2007, with two new rides added. Police Academy Stunt Show drew its final curtain call on 30 April 2008 after 16 years and 18,000 performances; the enduringly popular attraction was among the world's longest-running stunt shows at the time. Its replacement, the $10 million Hollywood Stunt Driver, opened on Boxing Day. A cast of 10 stunt drivers were selected from more than 200 applicants and, in preparation for the show, the venue was renovated to increase its stage area and seating capacity from 1,400 to 2,000 guests. Another new live show, Looney Tunes: What's Up Rock?, replaced The Musical Revue. In October, construction of a roof over Main Street was completed. The 4,000 square metre (43,000 sq ft) roof supplied by MakMax Australia was designed to improve guest protection from the elements and provide for a 2,000-person capacity venue for functions and events. 2011–present: Continued additions Looney Tunes River Ride and Batman Adventure – The Ride 2 closed in 2011. Showtime FMX's MotoMonster Xtreme show temporarily replaced Hollywood Stunt Driver from 26 June to 18 July as alternative winter holiday entertainment. Green Lantern Coaster opened on 23 December: the El Loco coaster by S&S Worldwide featured a 120.5° drop angle–the Southern Hemisphere's steepest and world's third-steepest. Lethal Weapon – The Ride closed in January 2012 for a $2 million refurbishment. The coaster received a new train manufactured by Kumbak with lap bar restraints and on-board audio. It was renamed Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy, themed to the Batman: Arkham video games; the ride building transformed into an Arkham Asylum seized by the Joker and his cohorts. The ride reopened in April. Housed in the former Batman Adventure building, Justice League: Alien Invasion 3D opened in September 2012 and incorporated special effects, animatronics and 3D projections. The $9 million interactive dark ride attraction was manufactured by Sally Corporation, with additional technologies provided by Alterface, Threshold Entertainment, Bertazzon and others. Hollywood Stunt Driver closed and was replaced by its sequel on 20 February 2014, a revamped show that featured Showtime FMX motocross riders who performed more complex stunts than before. The $4 million Junior Driving School, where riders navigate a miniature Movie World replica, opened at the Kids' WB Fun Zone on 12 September. Built on the former Boot Hill Graveyard, the DC Comics Super-Villains Unleashed interactive precinct opened in September 2016. Its main attraction was Doomsday Destroyer, a Suspended Twin Hammer thrill ride designed by Intamin. Statues of DC supervillains (such as Harley Quinn and Scarecrow) were activated by RFID wristbands to interact with guests. The same month, optional virtual reality headsets were added to Arkham Asylum's ride experience. DC Rivals HyperCoaster opened on 22 September 2017. The $30 million Mack Rides hypercoaster was at its time the single largest ride investment in Village's history, and is Australia's tallest, fastest and longest coaster. An Aquaman exhibition opened on 13 December 2018 to feature props and costumes used in the film. Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster closed for maintenance from July to November; it was refurbished with new projection mapping technologies and other special effects, and rebranded as Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster: Next Generation for its re-opening in December. The WB Studio Showcase, opened on 1 November 2019, exhibited props, sets and costumes from numerous Warner films such as Suicide Squad, Mad Max: Fury Road and A Star Is Born. Later that month, Australian students of New York Film Academy (NYFA) began to offer guests a look at the filmmaking process with the NYFA – Hot Sets attraction. Arkham Asylum ceased operations in December. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the park closed on 22 March 2020 and reopened on 15 July at 50% guest capacity with social distancing and sanitisation policies in effect. Batman Legacy, an exhibition themed to the Batman films, opened at the WB Studio Showcase on Boxing Day 2021. Park layout Movie World is located in Oxenford on the Gold Coast, Queensland, approximately 20 km (13 miles) from Surfers Paradise. It is part of a precinct that includes three other Village properties: Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast, Australian Outback Spectacular and Paradise Country. The 15 attractions can be divided into five broad areas: Main Street, Kids' WB Fun Zone, the wild west, DC Comics Super-Villains Unleashed and the DC Comics superhero hub. The opening plaza encircles its centrepiece, the Fountain of Fame, just beyond the entrance. Main Street continues with guest services, dining, gift shops and other amenities lining the footpaths. The Roxy Theatre off Main Street screens Yogi Bear 4-D Experience. Hollywood Stunt Driver's crew perform motorcycle and rally car stunts daily. Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster passes corridors of eerie projections and booby traps before its elevator lift drops riders backwards into tight, unbanked turns. WB Studio Showcase exhibits props from the studio's oeuvre. Characters such as Batman, the Joker, Scooby-Doo, Austin Powers and the Looney Tunes cast roam the grounds and pose for photos; each afternoon, they parade with themed floats and vehicles along Main Street. Kids' WB Fun Zone features attractions from car rides and carousels to frog hoppers and splash pads. Patrons ride through Junior Driving School's miniature park replica and embark on the Road Runner Rollercoaster. DC Comics Super-Villains Unleashed displays DC supervillain statues amid criminal acts. Guests use RFID wristbands to help the villains destroy the area or hang upside-down on Doomsday Destroyer. In the DC Comics superhero hub, Batwing Spaceshot exerts 4 g-forces as it launches up a vertical tower. DC Rivals navigates a camelback and non-inverting loop while riders on each train's last row face backwards. Green Lantern drops beyond vertical into outer-banked turns and two inversions. Justice League patrons blast animatronic aliens on 3D screens. Superman Escape catapults from 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 2 seconds up a top hat element. Wild West Falls, which headlines its eponymous area, traverses a Native American village and ghost town before a splashdown finale. List of attractions Events and guest features Two seasonal events are held annually: Fright Nights during Halloween and White Christmas during the Christmas holidays. Fright Nights features mazes, street parades performed by Halloween characters and night rides on several attractions. It is a consistently popular event, with around 7,000 guests attending each Fright Night evening in October 2017. The park offers a paid Fast Track priority pass and free virtual queueing on select attractions, as well as mobile ordering and queueing at certain food outlets. Star Tours began in July 2016 and offer a behind-the-scenes look at several attractions. Included in the experience are Fast Track passes, priority seating for the afternoon parade and other features. A climb up the 282 steps of DC Rivals' lift hill began in September 2018. To celebrate the park's first anniversary in 1992, a daily parade featuring Bugs Bunny and other Looney Tunes characters was held each afternoon from 1 June. Evenings from 20 June onwards played host to Illuminanza—a sound and light show featuring Batman and Catwoman—followed by screenings of Batman Returns at the Roxy Theatre. Celebrations concluded by 19 July. Easter 1994 was marked with the $200,000 Bugs Bunny Megga Easter Party from 1 to 10 April. An evening parade starring 140 cast members concluded with a fireworks display. A 10th anniversary celebration hosted by B105 FM was held on 4 August 2001. More than 1,000 attendees were treated to live performances by Human Nature, Invertigo, A Touch of Class and Joanne Accom. Halloween Family Fun Night, the first Halloween event, was held on 31 October 2006 and offered guests night rides on several attractions. The sold-out event was immediately popular with more than 7,500 attendees, such that it was extended into the following evening. It has since become Fright Nights, an annual tradition. In 2010, a DC Heroes vs. Villains parade ran during the June–July school holiday period to celebrate DC Comics' 75th anniversary. In partnership with the Gold Coast's newspaper and AFL team, a Christmas charity event was held on 3 December for 3,000 disadvantaged locals. Later that month, the first annual White Christmas events were held for the public. More than one million Christmas lights decorated the park, which hosted festivities such as a Looney Tunes ice-skating show, a Christmas parade and a visit from Santa Claus. The event was immediately popular and reached its maximum 7,500 person capacity on several evenings. Throughout June–July 2014, Carnivale events were held on select evenings and featured music, parades and cuisine inspired by the Brazilian Carnival. Festivities and a parade commemorated the park's 25th anniversary on 3 June 2016. In 2020, Fright Nights was cancelled due to COVID-19 restrictions, while White Christmas went ahead. To celebrate the park's 30th anniversary, the Hooray for Hollywood event ran from 26 June to 18 July 2021, with guest interactions and a daily parade themed to classic Hollywood cinema. Attendance and performance 1991–2008 During its first year of operation, Movie World received 1.2 million visitors, exceeding its conservative target of one million. John Menzies, CEO of Warner Village Theme Parks, said that attendance at Sea World and local competitor Dreamworld was consistent with prior years. "So long as the themes are different, parks like this can [proliferate] ad infinitum", he said. Nationwide theme park attendance grew 12% from 1992 to 1993 and Movie World recorded 1.3 million visitors during the financial year. Park general manager Mark Germyn attributed attendance growth in part to success with the international market: about 25% of the park's visitors were from overseas, and half of these were from Japan. "We're coming on strong in the Asian markets", he said, "including Hong Kong, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore, Indonesia and Thailand". He further noted retail sales of about 2.6 million units of stock across its 25 outlets generating $17 million in revenue. In 1998, Village marketing manager Ken Minnikin highlighted the success of the "3 Park Super Pass", which recorded a 20% sales increase during Christmas 1997 over the prior year's period, and cited the Gold Coast's theme park industry as a major domestic tourism drawcard. A 20% decline in attendance during 2000 was attributed to Y2K hysteria, but the "Super Pass" deal continued to be popular, contributing about one third of park ticket sales. There were more than 10 million lifetime visitors by 2001. International visits that year were negatively impacted by the September 11 attacks and although park visits fell slightly during financial 2001, Sea World and Wet'n'Wild's attendance increased and Village's parks division posted an EBITDA rise of 23.1%. In 2003, visits by international tourists declined by about 50%, with the war on terror and 2002–2004 SARS outbreak cited as key factors. In response, daily operating hours for several rides were reduced. Visits from key Asian markets to the Gold Coast had dropped by about 95% and Village emphasised a need to target their domestic market with discounted tickets and Shopa Docket vouchers. In May 2006, Village acquired Warner's stake in their theme park division for $254 million but maintained the latter's licence and branding. The deal let Village take sole ownership of several park properties, including Movie World. Strong attendance figures over financial 2007 contributed in part to a net profit of around $45 million, offsetting $40 million in losses the previous year. More than 1.32 million people visited during 2007 (a 5.8% increase from the year prior) and the park was Australia's third highest attended that year. Village considered Superman Escape and Batwing Spaceshot's openings to be contributing factors to the increased attendance. A decline in attendance during financial 2008 was attributed to unseasonably poor weather during the key summer months. 2009–present Various discounting and marketing strategies were devised to offset hardship after the global financial crisis. A "Q150 Pass" promotion introduced in April 2009 was extended beyond its original September expiry into the Christmas–New Year holiday. The promotional efforts contributed to increased profitability and attendance over the following year. Inclement weather and subsequent flooding impacted attendance throughout early 2011, however attendance on 26 June reached a new peak since Christmas with more than 10,000 visitors. Sales of "VIP Pass" promotions throughout financial 2011 nearly doubled over the year prior. Green Lantern's opening helped visitor numbers during January 2012 and other additions throughout the year boosted attendance by 27% in financial half-year 2013 over the prior period. By financial year's end, more than 2 million annual visitors were recorded for the first time. Later in 2013, Village partnered with Dreamworld owner Ardent Leisure for a $15 million Gold Coast marketing campaign. 2014 additions such as the Carnivale event and Junior Driving School attraction were highlighted as yearly attendance draws. Fright Nights had its most successful season to date and White Christmas attendance grew 22% over the year prior. By 2016, the park had received an average of 1.4 million visitors per year. The fallout from Dreamworld's October 2016 Thunder River Rapids incident, in which four patrons were killed, had a significant impact on industry performance. By January 2017, combined attendance at Movie World, Wet'n'Wild and Sea World had dropped 12%. The $30 million investment for DC Rivals—Australia's first major theme park attraction since the River Rapids incident—inspired Village's optimism for a financial turnaround; it was the largest single ride investment in their history and Australia's most expensive coaster. Its opening set a daily attendance record for September with 11,500 guests. By November, to cut debts after a $66.7 million loss the prior financial year, Village sought to sell the Oxenford precinct's land through a 90-year leaseback agreement. Village posted a narrow profit margin of $200,000 in August 2018 and stated that while April school holiday theme park attendance was inhibited by the 2018 Commonwealth Games, July results were strong with high season pass sales. In February 2020, Village posted an EBITDA increase of 7% to $39 million for the financial half-year and overall attendance at their theme park properties rose 12% to 2.58 million; these results were attributed to a 6% ticket price hike, increased visitors and Fright Nights' continued success. Throughout the year, COVID-19 closures had a detrimental impact on park performance. The impact was felt through financial 2021 as Village's theme parks operated at a $4.6 million loss over the period. Reception and accolades Reviewing soon after the park's 1991 opening, The Sydney Morning Herald Andrew Conway highlighted its emphasis on experiences that captured the "magic world of movies" over thrill rides. He considered Police Academy Stunt Show the standout among several well-themed attractions, but felt the park lacked the scale and grandeur of American influences Disneyland and Universal Studios. He said that "if you've been to the mega-parks of the United States, Movie World may well disappoint" but it nonetheless offered great family entertainment. Guest exit surveys during opening year signalled highly positive public reception, with around 95% of respondents rating their experience as "excellent". In 1993, The Sydney Morning Heralds Robyn Willis praised the breadth of a day's entertainment but cautioned its high cost. At the 1994 Australian Tourism Awards, it won the "Major Tourist Attraction" category. The 1998 awards saw Village win the "Tourism Marketing and Promotional Campaigns" category. At the 2002 IAAPA Awards, the park received an honourable mention in the "Best Supervisory Training Program" category. Movie World and Sea World received joint awards for "Specialty Meeting Venue" at the 2005 Meetings and Events Australia awards. According to a 2014 Newspoll study, the park was Australia's fourth most popular tourist attraction of all time. In 2020, Finder.com.aus Chris Stead thought the park was laid out well in a compact area but offered minimal shade from the heat and suffered long queue times during peak periods. He thought that children aged six to ten would have a limited experience unless they were tall enough to brave the bigger rides, and that visits were best suited to adult thrill-seekers or families with teenagers. Incidents While the park was closed on 5 December 2003, a fire caused more than $1 million in damage to Wild West Falls' upper section; the ride was repaired and reopened several weeks later. On 15 March 2015, one of Green Lantern's cars became detached from the rails when a wheel mechanism broke. Although riders were stranded for several hours and had to be rescued by the fire brigade, there were no major injuries. An investigation revealed a design flaw in a bolted joint on the wheel assembly. S&S Worldwide redesigned the flawed components, the ride was tested and it reopened in December. References Notes Footnotes External links 1991 establishments in Australia Amusement parks in Queensland Amusement parks opened in 1991 Tourist attractions on the Gold Coast, Queensland Warner Bros. Global Brands and Experiences City of Gold Coast	5,970
doc-en-8812_0	The Amazing Race Vietnam: Cuộc đua kỳ thú 2013 is the second season of the reality television game show, The Amazing Race Vietnam. It featured nine teams of two in a race around Vietnam for 300 million₫. The program premiered on 26 July on VTV3 and will air every Friday (20:00 UTC+7). The host for the second season is Huy Khánh, replacing Dustin Nguyen who directed and hosted the first season. Model and singer Thu Hiền and Diệp Lâm Anh were the winners of this season. Production Development and filming Filming for this show began in June 2013. This season was also the first time the show had teams travelling outside Vietnam. Cast This season was a celebrity edition featuring many celebrities who were chosen to race on the show. The cast was announced on 6 June. After being eliminated, Tiến Đạt proposed to Hari and she accepted. The two separated in November 2015. Future appearances Pha Lê Nguyễn and Hà Việt Dũng, Anh Tuấn Phạm and Thanh Hoa Đỗ Thị, and Nhan Phúc Vinh and Thùy Dung Nguyễn, as well as Thu Hiền Trần Thị and Tiến Đạt Đinh (who competed as separate composite teams), later returned to compete on the fifth season in 2016. S.T Sơn Thạch also returned to compete on the sixth season in 2019. Marketing The show was sponsored by Sting Energy Drink and Singapore Airlines. Results The following teams participated in the season, with their relationships at the time of filming. Note that this table is not necessarily reflective of all content broadcast on television due to inclusion or exclusion of some data. Key A team placement means the team was eliminated. A indicates that the team decided to use the Express Pass on that leg. A indicates that the team won a Fast Forward. A team's placement indicates that the team came in last on a non-elimination leg. An team's placement indicates that the team came in last on a non-elimination leg and was "Marked for Elimination"; if the team did not finish 1st on the next leg, they would receive a 30-minute penalty. An team placement indicates that the team was the last to arrive at a pit stop in a non-elimination leg. The teams were forced to relinquish all of their money. In addition, they were not allotted money for the next leg and were not allowed to collect money until the next leg started for them. A team placement indicates that the team would have to wait an extra 30 minutes before departing on the next leg. An underlined leg number indicates that there was no mandatory rest period at the Pit Stop and all teams were ordered to continue racing. An underlined team placement indicates that the team came in last and was ordered to continue racing. Notes Đoàn Mạnh & Linh Sơn initially arrived 3rd, but were issued a five-minute penalty for not getting the clue from BHD Cinema. This did not affect their placement. Diệp Lâm Anh & Thu Hiền initially arrived 4th, but were issued a 15-minute penalty for trading bowls of beef noodles at Food Creative. Hari & Tiến Đạt and Anh Tuấn & Thanh Hoa checked-in during the penalty time, dropping Diệp Lâm Anh & Thu Hiền to 6th. Thùy Dung & Đức Hưng initially arrived 7th, but were issued a 15-minute penalty for tracing a number of beans on the dirt. This did not affect their placement. S.T & Lâm Hùng Phong initially arrived 8th, but were issued a 30-minute penalty for being "marked for elimination" and not arriving first. Anh Tuấn & Thanh Hoa checked in during their penalty time, dropping S.T and Lâm Hùng Phong to last place and resulting in their elimination. Pha Lê was unable to complete the Roadblock on Leg 5, and she & Hà Việt Dũng were issued a four-hour penalty at the Roadblock site. Long after every other teams had checked-in at the Pit Stop, Huy came to the Roadblock location to inform them of their elimination, without the four-hour penalty issued. Đức Hưng & Thùy Dung initially arrived 2nd, but were issued a 15-minute penalty for receiving help from local people to complete the additional task. Three teams checked in during the penalty time, dropping Đức Hưng and Thùy Dung to fifth. Linh Chi & Nhan Phúc Vinh initially arrived 2nd, but had lost their Roadblock clue. They were required to go and retrieve it before being allowed to check in. Diệp Lâm Anh & Thu Hiền and Đức Hưng & Thùy Dung checked in while they went back, dropping Linh Chi and Nhan Phúc Vinh to 4th. Linh Sơn & Đoàn Mạnh served their 30-minute penalty at the start of Leg 8 as they wrote down numbers during the step-counting challenge, which was explicitly prohibited in the clue. Linh Chi & Nhan Phúc Vinh used the Express Pass to bypass the Roadblock in Leg 11. Before using the Express Pass, Nhan Phúc Vinh elected to perform the Roadblock; this is reflected in the total Roadblock count. Diệp Lâm Anh & Thu Hiền and Hari & Tiến Đạt elected not to eat the foul-tasting stew; both teams were issued 45-minute penalties at the site. Linh Chi & Nhan Phúc Vinh initially arrived at the Finish Line 1st, but were issued three ten-minute penalties totalling 30 minutes (one was for using notes during the calligraphy challenge, and two for not abandoning the taxi after the taxi driver incurred a traffic infraction on both times, both of which was prohibited by the rules (one for driving the wrong way down a one-way street and another through a red light)). Diệp Lâm Anh & Thu Hiền checked in during their penalty time first and won, dropping Linh Chi & Nhan Phúc Vinh to 2nd. Đức Hưng was unable to complete the Roadblock due to injuring his hands, and so Thùy Dung was permitted to complete it for him. Since they crossed the Finish Line last, they were not issued a penalty. Prizes Leg 1 – The Express Pass () – an item that can be used to skip any one task of the team's choosing up until the 11th leg. Leg 3 – Two nights at Romana Resort, Phan Thiết and two nights at Amiana Resort, Nha Trang. Leg 4 – One night at Sheraton Hotel, Nha Trang. Leg 6 – Two nights at Ba Na Resort, Da Nang. Leg 8 – Two nights at Sun Spa Resort, Quảng Bình. Leg 9 – Two business class round-trip tickets from Hanoi to Singapore and three nights at Ramada Hotel, Singapore. Leg 11 – Two vouchers for Suối Hoa Lan Resort, Nha Trang. Leg 12: 1st Place – 300,000,000₫ 2nd Place – Two shopping vouchers (Linh Chi & Nhan Phúc Vinh chose to concede the prize to Đức Hưng & Thùy Dung) Race summary Leg 1 (Ho Chi Minh City) Airdate: 26 July 2013 Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Reunification Palace) (Starting Line) Ho Chi Minh City (Bitexco Financial Tower – 47th Floor) Ho Chi Minh City (Bitexco Financial Tower – BHD Star Cineplex) Ho Chi Minh City (Bitexco Financial Tower – Food Creative) Ho Chi Minh City (Bến Thành Market or Underground Cafe) Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon Opera House) In this season's first Roadblock, one team member had to enter room number 1 in BHD Cinema Icon 68 and find their next clue, which was hidden under a seat. This season's first Detour was a choice between (Streets) or (Stages). In Streets, teams had to sells 500,000₫ worth of peanut taffy () from a taffy stall in front of Ben Thanh Market to receive their next clue. In Stages, teams had to sing while standing in four boxes full of worms, caterpillars, swamp-eels, ice cubes and put their head into a box full of rats for each song to receive their next clue. Additional tasks At the Reunification Palace, teams had to find three out of 380 nón lá which form the phrase "" to receive their next clue. At the Bitexco Financial Tower, teams had to travel on foot to the 49th floor, where they had to search for their next clue. Then, teams had to find their next clue outside the BHD Star Cineplex on the third floor. After the Roadblock, teams had to find a stall at Food Creative, where each member had to eat three bowls of bún bò to receive their next clue. Leg 2 (Ho Chi Minh City → Cà Mau) Airdate: 2 August 2013 Ho Chi Minh City (Bến Xe Miền Tây) to Cà Mau, Cà Mau Province (Bến Xe Khách Cà Mau) Cà Mau (Nhà Dây Thép Cà Mau) Năm Căn (Ông Tình Bridge to Bến Tàu Tượng Đài) Năm Căn (Bến Tàu Tượng Đài) to Đất Mũi (Observatory) Đất Mũi (Cape Cà Mau) This leg's Detour was a choice between (Fishery) or (Crop). In Fishery, teams had to catch 20 fish in a pond and cook them to receive their next clue. In Crop, teams had to properly separate and count the soya beans and moon beans to receive their next clue. In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to put a python on their neck and walk up the stairs to the top of the observatory to receive their next clue. Additional tasks After arriving in Cà Mau, teams had to find a history vestige (The Old Camau Post Office) through a riddle Built by the French colonial in 1910 to find their first clue. Under Ông Tình Bridge, teams had find their next clue hidden from view. Then, they had to patch a bicycle tire and travel by these bicycles to (Monument Port) to find their next clue. En route to Đất Mũi, teams had find their next clue hidden in the fishing trap within five minutes. When the time expired, teams had to return to the port and wait for their next turn. After finding the clue in the fishing trap, teams could continue to Đất Mũi. Leg 3 (Cà Mau → Đồng Nai → Bình Thuận) Airdate: 9 August 2013 Cà Mau (Bến Xe Khách Cà Mau) to Biên Hòa, Đồng Nai Province (Bến xe Biên Hòa) Long Thành (Đồng Nai Dairy Company) Mũi Né, Phan Thiết, Bình Thuận Province (Resort Romana) Mũi Né, Phan Thiết (Mui Yen Conservation Area) Mũi Né, Phan Thiết (Huỳnh Thúc Kháng Road) Mũi Né, Phan Thiết (Mui Ne Beach) This leg's Detour was a choice between (Grass) or (Milk). In Grass, teams had to cut of pasture grass and take it to feed the cows to receive their next clue. In Milk, teams had to produce of milk from the cows to receive their next clue. In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to paraglide down the hills of Mui Yen to a target on the ground to receive their next clue. Additional tasks At Biên Hòa Station, teams had to search for a taxi driver who was carrying a bag with the show's logo on it. At the Resort Romana, one team member would be blindfolded. The other team member would have to direct their partner using noise, but not words, and help them hit and break a series of six hanging pots and balloons in the right order to receive their next clue. After the Roadblock, teams received a 500,000₫ banknote and had to turn it into change, with the help of locals, until they at had least one of each denomination of Vietnamese đồng, including all possible banknotes and coins. Teams could then exchange the money at Huỳnh Thúc Kháng Road for their next clue. Leg 4 (Bình Thuận → Khánh Hòa) Airdate: 16 August 2013 Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province (Amiana Resort) (Pit Start) Vĩnh Lương (Long Phú Wharf) Vĩnh Lương (Monkey Island) Ninh Vân (Suối Hoa Lan Ecotourism Zone) Nha Trang (Sheraton Nha Trang) In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to snorkel in the water and search for an underwater coconut with the next location inside. This leg's Detour was a choice between (Fish) or (Birds). In Fish, teams had to pick up a tied up crocodile and deliver it on foot across the ecotourism zone to a marked hut to receive their next clue. In Birds, teams had to ride an ostrich around a marked course while holding a glass of Sting energy drink with only one hand. If teams spilled less than the designated line on the glass, they would receive their next clue. Additional tasks At Amiana Resort, teams had to go to the Bacaro Restaurant and count the number of properly set places at tables (84) to receive their next clue. If teams give an incorrect answer, they would be penalized ten minutes. After the Roadblock, teams would be taken by rowboat to Monkey Island. After the Detour, one team member had to ride a zipline through the ecotourism zone across a pond. The other team member would be standing on an island in the pond and carrying a bucket. The one riding the zipline had to throw the ball into their partner's bucket to get the next clue. If they failed, they would incur a 15-minute penalty and then had to try again. At the Sheraton, teams had to find the cooking school on the sixth floor. There, they had to properly make a bundle of noodles following a traditional method and use them to make a bowl of phở. After the cooking task, teams made their way to the hotel's pool. There, both team members would have their hands tied behind their back, and they would then have to eat a cake to find a passcard to the 30th floor baked inside and receive their next clue. Leg 5 (Khánh Hòa → Đắk Lắk & Đắk Nông) Airdate: 23 August 2013 Nha Trang (Bến Xe Phía Nam) to Buôn Ma Thuột, Đắk Lắk Province (Bến Xe Phía Bắc) Buôn Đôn, Buôn Ma Thuột (Ancient House of Ama Kong) (Overnight Rest) Buôn Đôn, Buôn Ma Thuột (Suspension Bridge Centre) Cư Jút, Đắk Nông Province (Coffee Plantation or Brick Factory) Buôn Ma Thuột, Đắk Lắk Province (Đray Nur Waterfall ) Srepok River, Đắk Nông Province (Đray Sáp Waterfall ) Srepok River (Đray Sáp Longhouse) This leg's Detour was a choice between (Tree) or (Soil). In Tree, teams had to count the number of coffee trees in a marked area. Using this number and following a selection of information, teams had to solve complex math problems to determine how much raw coffee seeds, dried coffee seeds, processed coffee seeds and coffee powder could be created with this amount of trees to receive their next clue. In Soil, teams had to use an old cart to transport 250 unbroken bricks along a bumpy road to receive their next clue. In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to swim up river to the base of the waterfall and then climb a rope ladder to the top. After getting their clue, they would rappel back down and reunite with their partner. Additional tasks After getting their clue from the house of Ama Kong, teams had to find a local from the ancient village who would let them sleep overnight at their house. Afterwards, they would be released the next morning in the order they gained approval. At the Suspension Bridge Centre, teams would hear the sound of a gong and had five minutes to figure out which gong had been hit to receive their next clue. At Đray Sáp Waterfall, one team member had to rappel down to the bottom of the waterfall, where they would be told a four-digit combination. They had to shout these numbers to their partner on the other side of the river, amongst the roar of the waterfall. This combination would open up a chest that the team member on the shore has, which contained their next clue. Leg 6 (Đắk Nông → Quảng Nam → Da Nang) Airdate: 30 August 2013 Buôn Ma Thuột (Buon Ma Thuot Airport) to Da Nang (Da Nang International Airport) Duy Phú, Quảng Nam Province (Mỹ Sơn) Duy Vinh (Sedge Mats) (Overnight Rest) Da Nang (Sculpture Park) Da Nang (Da Nang Diving Club) Da Nang (Bà Nà Hills) Da Nang (Tien Son Sports Stadium) In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to dive to the bottom of a swimming pool and use a set of keys to unlock boxes until they found a bottle of Sting Energy Drink. They then were lifted by pulley up to the building's roof, where they had to throw the bottle into a basket to receive their next clue. Racers had 90 seconds to complete the diving portion and one minute to complete the throwing portion. If either of these time limits expired, racers had to move to the back of the queue. This leg's Detour was a choice between (High Tower) or (Deep Tunnels). In High Tower, teams had to take a cable car to the highest point of the Bà Nà Hills, where they would enter a castle. They had to climb up thousands of spiraling stairs and take five boards with random numbers one at a time back to the bottom of the stairs so that they came to an exact total of 20,000 to receive their next clue. In Deep Tunnels, teams traveled by cable car to the largest wine cellar in Da Nang and had search among thousands of wine bottles for one with an Amazing Race flag attached to it to receive their next clue. During this Detour task, one leg of each team member would be tied together. Additional tasks At the Mỹ Sơn ruins, teams had to search amongst many fake clay toys for five real ones to receive their next clue. The real ones could be identified because they could be played as a horn. During this task, team members were forbidden to talk to one another. After the Mỹ Sơn task, teams were told to find a local village whose famous local product is related to sleeping. They had to figure out that this related to the sedge mats of Duy Vinh. In Duy Vinh, teams had to deliver three sledge mats at once to a woman's house using a bicycle. They would then stay there overnight before resuming the leg in Da Nang in the morning. Leg 7 (Da Nang → Quảng Bình) Airdate: 6 September 2013 Đồng Hới, Quảng Bình Province (Đồng Hới Citadel) (Pit Start) Đồng Hới (Mẹ Suốt Statue) Son Trach (Paradise Cave) Đồng Hới (Tuyết Family House) Đồng Hới (Cocos Coffee Shop) Đồng Hới (Home of Hà Thị Viễn) Đồng Hới (Sun Spa Resort) In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to build a traditional broom from scratch to receive their next clue. Additional tasks At the Mẹ Suốt statue, teams had to listen to a performance of a love song, and then had to learn the lyrics and perform it themselves to receive their next clue. At Paradise Cave, teams had to count the number of steps in a marked area to receive their next clue. At Cocos Coffee Shop, teams had to look for a man named "Phúc" who would give them their next clue and a gift, which they would later give to Hà Thị Viễn. Leg 8 (Quảng Bình) Airdate: 13 September 2013 Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Ho Chi Minh Highway) (Pit Start) Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Bản Đoòng Village) Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Én Cave) Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Bãi Columns) Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Son Doong Cave) (Overnight Rest) Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Én Cave Entrance) This leg's Detour was a choice between (Learn) or (Practice). In Learn, teams would have to teach a young child from the village (who did not speak Vietnamese very well) to write out a short Vietnamese poem with good handwriting to receive their next clue. In Practice, teams had to carry a bucket down to the river, fill it up, and then water some plants to the satisfaction of a local to receive their next clue. In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to eat a serving of unpleasant-tasting food, including specially-prepared rice, fish and sauce to receive their next clue. Additional tasks From the Ho Chi Minh Highway, teams had to hike to Bản Đoòng Village to find their next clue. At Son Doong cave, teams had to build a shelter out of sticks and leaves, then gather firewood to start a fire and heat a pot of water. Teams spent the night in these shelters. In the morning, teams would enter the cave and would have to carefully traverse around a series of ropes. If they disturbed any of the ropes and rang the bells attached to them, they would have to start again. After completing this task, they would receive their next clue from Howard Limbert, a University of Hanoi alumni who explored the cave in 1990. Deeper inside of Son Doong cave, teams would have to rappel down into the cave and search the labyrinth inside for their next clue, which was hidden away. They would also meet Hồ Khanh, who discovered the cave. Leg 9 (Quảng Bình → Singapore) Airdate: 20 September 2013 Hanoi (International Centre – Singapore Airlines Hanoi Office) Hanoi (Noi Bai International Airport) to Singapore (Changi Airport) Singapore (Merlion Park) Singapore (Days Hotel Zhongshan Park) (Overnight Rest) Singapore (Flight Experience Singapore) Singapore (VivoCity – Food Republic) Singapore (Sentosa – iFly Center) Singapore (G-Max Reverse Bungy) Singapore (Gardens by the Bay) In this leg's first Roadblock, one team member had to properly complete a flight simulation training exercise to receive their next clue. In this leg's second Roadblock, one team member would experience a skydiving simulation inside of a vertical wind tunnel and had to successfully rise to the top of the tunnel to receive their next clue. Additional tasks At Merlion Park, teams had to look for a lady who had their next clue. At the Days Hotel, teams would observe a properly made hotel room. Then, they had to properly make another room to the hotel's standards to receive a departure time for the next morning. At VivoCity's Food Republic, teams had to make ten Singaporean powdered cakes to receive their next clue. At the G-Max Reverse Bungee, teams had to take a ride on the wild bungee ride. Then, once on the ground, they had to thread ten needles within three minutes to receive their clue. Otherwise, they would have start threading over again. Leg 10 (Singapore → Hanoi → Haiphong) Airdate: 27 September 2013 Singapore (Changi Airport) to Hanoi, Vietnam (Noi Bai International Airport) Hanoi to Haiphong Hai Phong to Cát Bà (Gia Luận Ferry Landing) Cát Bà (Bến Bèo) Cát Bà (Cát Bà Main Pier and Cát Cò Beach 3) Cát Bà (Prince Beach 2) Cát Bà (Prince Beach 1) Cát Bà (Prince Beach 2) Cát Bà (Jade Mountains) Cát Bà (Monkey Island) In this season's only Fast Forward, both team members had to completely shave each other's heads. They then had to travel to Cát Cò Beach 3, where they had to stand outside of a box in the sand and headbutt a volleyball to each other five times without letting it touch the ground to win the Fast Forward award. In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to rock climb up a sheer cliff face to retrieve a bottle of Sting and three eggs from baskets to receive their next clue. Additional tasks Teams traveled from Gia Luận to Bến Bèo by motorbikes. At Prince Beach 2, teams had to search under many sandcastles for their next clue. Any sandcastle they destroyed, they would have to rebuild. Teams traveled from Prince Beach 2 to Prince Beach 1 and back again by kayak. At Prince Beach 1, one team member would ride a parasail behind a motorboat and would pass over five basket boats in the water with coloured panels. They would then have to place markers on a board, recalling the order of the coloured panels they saw. The other team member would have to paddle their kayak out to pick them up. If teams were correct, they would receive their next clue. After returning to Prince Beach 2, both teams had to climb on top of a buoyant platform in the water and balance atop it. One team member had to perform a series of poses, while the other photographed them to receive their next clue. Leg 11 (Haiphong → Lào Cai) Airdate: 4 October 2013 Hanoi (Hanoi Railway Station) to Lào Cai, Lào Cai Province (Lào Cai Railway Station) Sa Pa (Stone Church) Sa Pa (Vinh Mai Art Shop) Sa Pa (Ta Phin – Ly Sai Sen's House) Sa Pa (Sin Chai – San Sả Hồ Community) Sa Pa (Mount Sẻ – Ranger Station) Sa Pa (Mount Sẻ – 2200m Rest Station) Sa Pa (Cát Cát – Vọng Cảnh Observation Point) In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to properly sew an intricate floral pattern onto traditional clothing using a needle and thread to receive their next clue. This leg's Detour was a choice between (Animal) or (Plants). In Animal, teams had to chase after a tiny piglet with a number attached and corral it into the corresponding pen to receive their next clue. They could not touch it or bribe it with food. In Plants, teams had to use a carabao to plow a marked section of a muddy field and then plant rice seedlings to receive their next clue. Additional tasks At the Vinh Mai Art Shop, teams had to dress in traditional outfits from the Red Dao minority group matching a given mannequin within five minutes, which they would wear during the next task, to receive their next clue. Before ascending Mount Sẻ, teams would pick up provisions from the ranger station at the base. Unbeknownst to them, this food would be pig's meat, and teams would have to chop off of a pig to receive their next clue. If not, they would have to start again with a new pig. After this, team members had to each eat a serving of Thang Co, a traditional stew made with animal entrails, to receive their next clue. 2200m up Mount Sẻ, teams had to play Ném Còn by having one team member throw a traditional toy through a hoop that was extremely high in the air, and the other team member had to catch it to receive their next clue. Leg 12 (Lào Cai → Hanoi) Airdate: 18 October 2013 Lào Cai (Lào Cai Railway Station) to Hanoi (Hanoi Railway Station) (Pit Start) Hanoi (Vietnam National Museum of Fine Arts) Hanoi (Thăng Long Water Puppet Theatre or National Library of Vietnam) Hanoi (Hoàn Kiếm Lake) Hanoi (The Garden Shopping Center) Hanoi (Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long) This season's final Detour was a choice between (Water Puppet) or (Library). In Water Puppet, teams had to learn and perform a water puppet performance to a panel of judges to receive their next clue. In Library, teams received a partially filled key for pigpen cipher and had to use this to translate a series of codes, which they had to use to retrieve certain books from the shelves of the library that they could exchange for their next clue. In this season's final Roadblock, one team member had to participate in a firefighting training exercise. They had to climb a rope up a building, shimmy around a ledge, and then ascend to the top. There, they would 'rescue' their partner and use the ladder-equipped fire truck to bring them down to safety to receive their next clue. Additional tasks From the Hanoi Railway Station, teams had to find a store selling old propaganda posters, purchase one, and deliver it to the Museum of Fine Arts to receive their next clue. At Hoàn Kiếm Lake, teams had to properly use calligraphy to draw six Chinese characters to receive their final clue. If they drew any incorrectly, they would have to serve a short penalty before trying again. At the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long, teams had to complete a sliding puzzle of the locations they visited during the season. Once it was completed, they could proceed to the Finish Line while carrying the puzzle with them. References External links Vietnam 2013 Vietnamese television seasons Television shows filmed in Vietnam Television shows filmed in Singapore	7,270
doc-en-10764_0	Gliwice ( ) is a city in Upper Silesia, in southern Poland. The city is located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Kłodnica river (a tributary of the Oder). It lies approximately 25 km west from Katowice, the regional capital of the Silesian Voivodeship. Gliwice is the westernmost city of the Upper Silesian metropolis, a conurbation of 2.0 million people, and is the third-largest city of this area, with 177,049 permanent residents as of 2020. It also lies within the larger Upper Silesian metropolitan area which has a population of about 5.3 million people and spans across most of eastern Upper Silesia, western Lesser Poland and the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic. Gliwice is bordered by three other cities and towns of the metropolitan area: Zabrze, Knurów and Pyskowice. It is one of the major college towns in Poland, thanks to the Silesian University of Technology, which was founded in 1945 by academics of Lwów University of Technology. Over 20,000 people study in Gliwice. Gliwice is an important industrial center of Poland. Following an economic transformation in the 1990s, Gliwice shifted from steelworks and coal mining to automotive and machine industry. Founded in the 13th century, Gliwice is one of the oldest settlements in Upper Silesia, with a preserved Old Town core. Gliwice's most historical structures include St Bartholomew's Church (15th century), Gliwice Castle and city walls (14th century), Armenian Church (originally a hospital, 15th century) and All Saints Old Town Church (15th century). Gliwice is also known for its Radio Tower, where Gleiwitz incident happened shortly before the outbreak of World War II and which is thought to be the world's tallest wooden construction, as well as Weichmann Textile House, one of the first buildings designed by world-renowned architect Erich Mendelsohn. Gliwice hosted the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019 which took place on 24 November 2019. Etymology In Slavic languages, the root or suggests terrain characterized by loam or wetland. In South Slavic languages, or refers to mushrooms, with meaning little mushrooms. History Early history Gliwice was first mentioned as a town in 1276, however, it was granted town rights earlier by Duke Władysław Opolski of the Piast dynasty. It was located on a trade route connecting Kraków and Wrocław and was part of various Piast-ruled duchies of fragmented Poland: Opole until 1281, Bytom until 1322, from 1322 to 1342 Gliwice was a capital of an eponymous duchy, afterwards again part of the Duchy of Bytom until 1354, later it was also ruled by other regional Polish Piast dukes until 1532, although in 1335 it fell under the suzerainty of the Bohemian Crown, passing with that crown under suzerainty of the Austrian Habsburgs in 1526. According to 14th-century writers, the town seemed defensive in character, when under rule of Siemowit of Bytom. In the Middle Ages the city prospered mainly due to trade and crafts, especially brewing. On 17 April 1433, Gliwice was captured by the Duke Bolko V, who joined the Hussites after they captured Prudnik. Early Modern Age After the dissolution of the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz in 1532, it was incorporated as Gleiwitz into the Habsburg Monarchy. Because of the vast expenses incurred by the Habsburg Monarchy during their 16th century wars against the Ottoman Empire, Gleiwitz was leased to Friedrich Zettritz for the amount of 14,000 thalers. Although the original lease was for a duration of 18 years, it was renewed in 1580 for 10 years and in 1589 for an additional 18 years. Around 1612, the Reformed Franciscans came from Kraków, and then their monastery and Holy Cross Church were built. The city was besieged or captured by various armies during the Thirty Years' War. In 1645 along with the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz it returned to Poland under the House of Vasa, and in 1666 it fell to Austria again. In 1683 Polish King John III Sobieski stopped in the city before the Battle of Vienna. In the 17th and 18th century, the city's economy switched from trading and brewing beer to clothmaking, which collapsed after the 18th-century Silesian Wars. During the mid 18th century Silesian Wars, Gleiwitz was taken from the Habsburg Monarchy by the Kingdom of Prussia along with the majority of Silesia. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Gleiwitz was administered in the Prussian district of Tost-Gleiwitz within the Province of Silesia in 1816. The city was incorporated with Prussia into the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany. In 1897 Gleiwitz became its own Stadtkreis, or urban district. Industrialization The first coke-fired blast furnace on the European continent was constructed in Gleiwitz in 1796 under the direction of John Baildon. Gleiwitz began to develop into a major city through industrialization during the 19th century. The town's ironworks fostered the growth of other industrial fields in the area. The city's population in 1875 was 14,156. However, during the late 19th century Gleiwitz had: 14 distilleries, 2 breweries, 5 mills, 7 brick factories, 3 sawmills, a shingle factory, 8 chalk factories and 2 glassworks. Other features of the 19th century industrialized Gleiwitz were a gasworks, a furnace factory, a beer bottling company, and a plant for asphalt and paste. Economically, Gleiwitz opened several banks, Savings and loan associations, and bond centers. Its tram system was completed in 1892, while its theater was opened in 1899; until World War II, Gleiwitz' theatre featured actors from throughout Europe and was one of the most famous theatres in the whole of Germany. Despite Germanisation policies, the Poles established various Polish organizations, including the "Sokół" Polish Gymnastic Society, and published local Polish newspapers. 20th century According to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Gleiwitz's population in 1905 was 61,324. By 1911 it had two Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages, and a barracks. Gleiwitz was the center of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. It possessed a royal foundry, with which were connected machine factories and boiler works. Other industrialized areas of the city had other foundries, meal mills, and factories producing wire, gas pipes, cement, and paper. After the end of World War I, clashes between Poles and Germans occurred during the Polish insurrections in Silesia. Some ethnically Polish inhabitants of Upper Silesia wanted to incorporate the city into the Second Polish Republic, which just regained independence. On May 1, 1919 a Polish rally was held in Gliwice. Seeking a peaceful solution to the conflict, the League of Nations held a plebiscite on 20 March 1921 to determine which country the city should belong to. In Gleiwitz, 32,029 votes (78.7% of given votes) were for remaining in Germany, Poland received 8,558 (21.0%) votes, and 113 (0.3%) votes were declared invalid. The total voter turnout was listed as 97.0%. This prompted another insurrection by Poles. The League of Nations determined that three Silesian cities: Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Hindenburg (Zabrze) and Beuthen (Bytom) would remain in Germany, and the eastern part of Upper Silesia with its main city of Katowice (Kattowitz) would join restored Poland. After delimiting the border in Upper Silesia in 1921, Gliwice found itself in Germany, but near the border with Poland %ndash; the nearby Knurów was already in Poland. In the interbellum the city witnessed not only Anti-Polish, but also Anti-French incidents and violence by the Germans. In 1920, local Polish doctor and city councillor , protested against the German refusal to treat French soldiers stationed in the city. In January 1922, he himself treated French soldiers shot in the city. On April 9, 1922, 17 Frenchmen died in an explosion during the liquidation of a German militia weapons warehouse in the present-day Sośnica district. Styczyński, who defended the rights of local Poles and protested against German acts of violence against Poles, was himself murdered by a German militant on April 18, 1922. Nevertheless, various Polish organizations and enterprises still operated in the city in the interbellum, including a local branch of the Union of Poles in Germany, Polish banks and a scout troop. On June 9, 1933 Gliwice was the site of the first conference of the Nazi anti-Polish organization Bund Deutscher Osten in Upper Silesia. In a secret Sicherheitsdienst report from 1934, Gliwice was named one of the main centers of the Polish movement in western Upper Silesia. Polish activists were increasingly persecuted since 1937. An attack on a radio station in Gleiwitz on 31 August 1939, staged by the German secret police, served as a pretext, devised by Reinhard Heydrich under orders from Hitler, for Nazi Germany to invade Poland, which marked the start of the Second World War. Shortly after the outbreak of World War II, on September 4, 1939, the Einsatzgruppe I entered the city to commit various atrocities against Poles. After the invasion of Poland, the assets of local Polish banks were confiscated by Germany. The Germans also formed a Kampfgruppe unit in the city. It was also the cremation site of many of around 750 Poles murdered in Katowice in September 1939. During the war, the Germans operated a Nazi prison in the city, and established numerous forced labour camps, including a Polenlager camp solely for Poles, a camp solely for Jews, a penal "education" camp, a subcamp of the prison in Strzelce Opolskie, and six subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner of war camp. From July 1944 to January 1945, Gliwice was the location of four subcamps of the Auschwitz concentration camp. In the largest subcamp, whose prisoners were mainly Poles, Jews and Russians, nearly 100 either died of hunger, mistreatment and exhaustion or were murdered. During the evacuation of another subcamp, the Germans burned alive or shot 55 prisoners who were unable to walk. There are also two mass graves of the victims of the early 1945 death march from Auschwitz in the city, both commemorated with monuments. On 24 January 1945, Gliwice was occupied by the Red Army as part of their Allied Occupation Zone. Under borders changes dictated by the Soviet Union at the Potsdam Conference, Gliwice fell inside Poland's new borders after Germany's defeat in the war. It was incorporated into Poland's Silesian Voivodeship on 18 March 1945, after almost 300 years of being outside of Polish rule. Demographics Population development The earliest population estimate of Gliwice from 1880, gives 1,159 people in 1750. The same source cites population to have been 2,990 in 1810, 6,415 in 1838, and 10,923 in 1861. A census from 1858 reported the following ethnic makeup: 7,060 - German, 3,566 - Polish, 11 - Moravian, 1 - Czech. Since the Industrial Revolution, Gliwice saw rapid economic growth which fuelled fast population increase. In 1890 Gliwice had 19,667 inhabitants, and this number has increased over twofold over the next 10 years to 52,362 in 1900. Gliwice gained its status of a large city (Großstadt in German) in 1927, when population reached 102,452 people. In 1945, with the approaching Red Army, a significant number of residents were either evacuated or fled the city at their own discretion. Following the Yalta Conference, Gliwice, along most of Silesia, was incorporated into communist Poland, and the remaining German population was expelled. Ethnic Poles, some of them themselves expelled from the Polish Kresy (which were incorporated into Soviet Union), started to settle down in Gliwice. Population estimates reached their pre-war levels in 1950, at 119,968 people. Gliwice's population peaked in 1988 at 223,403 inhabitants. As of December 31, 2016, Gliwice's population stood at 182,156 people, a decrease of 1,236 over the previous year. Gliwice faces a continuous population decline since 1988, which is credited to very low birth rates (exceeded by death rates) and suburbanisation. Nationality, ethnicity and language Historically, Gliwice was ethnically diverse, initially inhabited by Poles, later it had a German majority as a result of German colonization, with a significant autochthonous Polish minority. In the Upper Silesian Plebiscite in 1921, 78.9 percent of voters opted for Germany (however 15.1 percent of the vote in Gliwice was cast by non-residents, who are believed to overwhelmingly vote for Germany across the region). However, in 1945 most of Germans were expelled or fled themselves, and the city was repopulated with Poles, mostly displaced from former Eastern Poland, annexed by the Soviet Union. Many of these new inhabitants were academics from the Lwów Polytechnic who created the Silesian University of Technology. According to the 2011 Polish Census, 93.7 percent of people in Gliwice claimed Polish nationality, with the biggest minorities being Silesians at 9.7 percent (18,169 people) and Germans at 1.3 percent (2,525). 0.3 percent declared another nationality, and the nationality of 2.1 percent of people could not be established. These numbers do not sum up to 100 percent as responders were allowed to choose up to two nationalities. Most-common languages used at home were: Polish (97.7 percent), Silesian (2.3 percent), German (0.7 percent) and English (0.4 percent). Religion Except for a short period immediately after Reformation, Gliwice has always had a Catholic majority, with sizeable Protestant and Jewish minorities. According to the population estimate in 1861, 7,476 people (68.4 percent) were Catholic, 1,555 (14.2 percent) Protestant, and 1,892 Jewish (17.3 percent, highest share in city history). Currently, as of 2011 census, 84.7 percent of inhabitants claim they belong to a religion. The majority – 82.73 percent – belongs to the Catholic Church. This is significantly lower than the Polish average, which is 89.6 and 88.3 percent, respectively. According to the Catholic Church in Poland, weekly mass attendance in the Diocese of Gliwice is at 36.7 percent of obliged, on par with Polish average. Other larger denominations include Jehovah's Witnesses (0.56 percent or 1,044 adherents) and Protestants (0.37 percent or 701 adherents). Gliwice is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gliwice, which has 23 parish churches in the city. Gliwice is also the seat of the one of the three Armenian Church parishes in Poland (the other being in Warsaw and Gdańsk), which is subject to the Holy See directly. Other denominations present in the city include a Greek Catholic Church parish, an Evangelical Church of Augsburg Confession parish, a Methodist parish, 9 Jehovah Witnesses halls (including one offering English-language services), several evangelical churches, a Buddhist temple and a Jewish prayer house. Jews in Gliwice Gliwice's Jewish population reached its highest number in 1929 at approx. 2,200 people, and started to decline in the late 1930s, as NSDAP gained power in Germany. In 1933 there were 1,803 Jews in the city, and this number has dropped by half to 902 in 1939, most of them perished in the war. Between 1933 and 1937, Jews of Upper Silesia enjoyed somewhat less legal persecution compared to Jews in other parts of Germany, thanks to the Polish-German Treaty of Protection of Minorities' Rights in Upper Silesia. This regional exception was granted thanks to the Bernheim petition that Gliwice citizen Franz Bernheim filed against Nazi Germany in front of the League of Nations. Only 25 Jews of the pre-war population lived through the war in the city, all of them being in mixed marriages with gentiles. Immediately after the war, Gliwice became a congregation point for Jews saved from The Holocaust, with population at around a 1,000 people in 1945. Since then, the number of Jews in Gliwice has started to decline as survivors moved to larger cities or emigrated to Israel, United States and other western counties. Currently, Gliwice's Jewish community is estimated at around 25 people and is part of the Katowice Jewish Religious Community. Gliwice has one Jewish prayer house, where religious services are held every Sabbath and on holidays. It is located in the house that the Jewish Religious Community elected in 1905. Previously, Jews in Gliwice prayed in the New Synagogue which was destroyed by Nazis during the Kristallnacht in 1938. Notable members of the Jewish community in Gliwice include: Wilhelm Freund (1806–1894), philologist and director of the Jewish school Oscar Troplowitz (1863–1918), German pharmacist, owner of Beiersdorf AG and inventor of Nivea Creme Eugen Goldstein (1850–1930), German physicist, discoverer of anode rays, sometimes credited for the discovery of the proton Julian Kornhauser (b. 1946), Polish poet and father of current first lady Agata Kornhauser-Duda, born in Gliwice to a Jewish father and Silesian mother Sights and architecture Market Square (Rynek) with the Town Hall (Ratusz), Neptune Fountain and colourful historic townhouses, located in the Old Town The Gliwice Radio Tower of Radiostacja Gliwicka ("Radio Station Gliwice") in Szobiszowice is the only remaining radio tower of wood construction in the world, and with a height of 118 meters, is perhaps the tallest remaining construction made out of wood in the world. It is listed as a Historic Monument of Poland and now it is a branch of the local museum. Piast Castle dates back to the Middle Ages and hosts a branch of the local museum. Museum in Gliwice (Muzeum w Gliwicach), a local museum Sts. Peter and Paul Cathedral, the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gliwice, and other historic churches Medieval fortified Old Saint Bartholomew church Medieval town walls Baroque Holy Cross Church and Redemptorist monastery from the 17th century (former Reformed Franciscan monastery) Piłsudski Square with a monument of pre-war Polish leader Józef Piłsudski Chopin Park with a monument to the Polish composer Fryderyk Chopin and the Municipal Palm House Various historic public buildings, including the Main Post Office, Voivodeship Administrative Court, the district court Teatr Miejski (Municipal Theatre) Chrobry Park Monuments to Adam Mickiewicz and Tadeusz Kościuszko Gliwice Trynek narrow-gauge station is a protected monument. The narrow-gauge line to Racibórz via Rudy closed in 1991 although a short section still remains as a museum line. The Weichmann Textile House was built during the Summers of 1921 and 1922 . It was never referred to as Weichmann Textile House from its completion in Summer 1922 until its closing in 1943. Rather it was founded under the name Seidenhaus Weichmann (“Silk House Weichmann) by a Jewish WWI veteran, Erwin Weichmann(1891–1976), who had been awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class by Germany. Erwin Weichmann a long time friend of Erich Mendelsohn, commissioned the architect to design Seidenhaus Weichmann. Today a monument can be seen near the entrance to the bank, that now occupies the building. Seidenhaus Weichmann is a two-floor structure. The second floor was initially a bachelor's pad for Erwin Weichmann, as he did not marry until 1930. In 1936 the newly created Nuremberg Laws forced Erwin Weichmann to sell Seidenhaus Weichmann and move temporarily to Hindenberg (Zabrze) before emigrating to the United States in July 1938. The individual, who had purchased Seidenhaus Weichmann in 1936, never saw a profit, as the economic strain of WWII severely reduced the market demand for nonessentials, which included the fine imported silks of sold by Seidenhaus Weichmann. Then in 1943, the purchaser of Seidenhaus was killed in an Allied bombing raid, which marked the end of Seidenhaus Weichmann. Higher education and science Gliwice is a major applied science hub for the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union. Gliwice is a seat of: Silesian University of Technology with about 32,000 students (Politechnika Śląska) Akademia Polonijna of Częstochowa, branch in Gliwice Gliwice College of Entrepreneurship (Gliwicka Wyższa Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości) Polish Academy of Sciences (Polska Akademia Nauk) Institute of Theoretical And Applied Informatics Institute of Chemical Engineering Carbochemistry branch Other (commercial or government funded) applied research centers: Oncological Research Center (Centrum Onkologii) Inorganic Chemistry Research Institute (Instytut Chemii Nieorganicznej) Research Institute of Refractory Materials (Instytut Materiałów Ogniotrwałych) Research Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals (Instytut Metali Nieżelaznych) Research Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy () Welding Research Institute (Instytut Spawalnictwa) Transport The Polish north–south A1 and east–west A4 motorways, which are parts of the European routes E75 and E40, respectively, run through Gliwice, and their junction is located in the city. In addition the Polish National roads 78 and 88 also run through the city. Water transport The Gliwice Canal (Kanał Gliwicki) links the harbour to the Oder River and thus to the waterway network across much of Germany and to the Baltic Sea. There is also an older Kłodnica Canal (Kanał Kłodnicki) which is no longer operational. Sports Piast Gliwice – men's football team playing in the Ekstraklasa (since season 2008–09), 2019 Polish champions and 2016 runner–ups Carbo Gliwice – men's football team Sośnica Gliwice – women's handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League: 10th place in 2003/2004 season Gliwickie Towarzystwo Koszykówki – men's basketball team P.A. Nova Gliwice – men's futsal team playing in 1st league (4 times Champion of Poland) Gliwice Cricket Club K.S. Kodokan Gliwice – martial arts team and club Gliwice LIONS – American Football team Politics The city's President (i.e. Mayor) is Adam Neumann. He succeeded Zygmunt Frankiewicz who was mayor for 26 years (1993–2019) before being elected as a Polish Senator. Gliwice has 21 city districts, each of them with its own Rada Osiedlowa. They include, in alphabetical order: Bojków, Brzezinka, Czechowice, Kopernik, Ligota Zabrska, Łabędy, Obrońców Pokoju, Ostropa, Politechnika, Sikornik, Sośnica, Stare Gliwice, Szobiszowice, Śródmieście, Żwirki I Wigury, Trynek, Wilcze Gardło, Wojska Polskiego, Wójtowa Wieś, Zatorze, Żerniki. Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Bytom/Gliwice/Zabrze constituency include: Brzeziński Jacek (PO), Chłopek Aleksander (PiS), Gałażewski Andrzej (PO), Głogowski Tomasz (PO), Kaźmierczak Jan (PO), Martyniuk Wacław (LiD), Religa Zbigniew (PiS), Sekuła Mirosław (PO), Szarama Wojciech (PiS), Szumilas Krystyna, (PO). Notable people John Baildon (1772–1846), Scottish engineer Helmut Bartuschek (1905–1984), translator and poet Horst Bienek (1930–1990), German author of novels about Upper Silesia William Blandowski (1822–1878), German explorer, zoologist, photographer Sebastian Boenisch (born 1987), Polish-German footballer who plays for the Poland national football team Lothar Bolz (1903–1986), German politician, foreign affairs minister of the communist German Democratic Republic Agata Buzek (born 1976), Polish actress, daughter of Jerzy Buzek Jerzy Buzek (born 1940), professor of chemistry, Prime Minister of Poland 1997–2001, MEP since 2004 and president of European Parliament since 2009 Ernst Degner (1931–1983), German Grand Prix motorcycle racer and designer Robert Dziekański, Polish immigrant to Canada who was tasered 5 times and killed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police at Vancouver International Airport Gottfried Bermann Fischer (1897–1995), German publisher Christian Ganczarski (born 1966), German citizen of Polish descent, convert to Islam and convicted terrorist Eugen Goldstein (1850–1930), German physicist Sophia Grojsman (Khodosh) (born 1945), internationally famous American perfumer Hans Hanke (1912–1981), German military officer (World War Two) Rudolf Herrnstadt (1903–1966), German communist Adalbert Kelm (1856–1939), architect, important for the enlargement of the town in the 1890s. Famous for the Naval Academy Mürwik in Flensburg-Mürwik. Wojciech Kocyan, Polish pianist Włodzimierz Lubański (born 1947), Polish football player Adam Matuszczyk (born 1989), Polish football player Zbigniew Messner (1929–2014), professor and former rector of Economic Academy in Katowice, deputy prime minister of People's Republic of Poland 1983–1985, prime minister 1985–1988 Gustav Neumann (1838–1881), German chess player Lukas Podolski (born 1985), Polish-German football player Wojciech Pszoniak (1942–2020), Polish film and theatre actor Tadeusz Różewicz (1921–2014), Polish poet and writer Zofia Rydet (1911–1997), Polish photographer Stanisław Sojka (born 1959), Polish musician Oskar Troplowitz (1863–1918), German pharmacist and owner of Beiersdorf AG, inventor of Nivea and other products Richard Wetz (1875–1935), German composer Erich Peter Wohlfarth (1924–1988), German physicist Leo Yankevich (1961–2018), American poet and translator Adam Zagajewski (1945–2021), Polish poet Krystian Zimerman (born 1956), Polish pianist and conductor Twin towns – sister cities Gliwice is twinned with: Bottrop, Germany Dessau-Roßlau, Germany Doncaster, England, United Kingdom Kežmarok, Slovakia Nacka, Sweden Salgótarján, Hungary Valenciennes, France See also Gliwice County Gliwice incident References Sources External links Um.gliwice.pl Web.archive.org Jewish Community in Gliwice on Virtual Shtetl Polsl.pl Gliwice.pl Gliwice.com Gliwice.zobacz.slask.pl Forumgliwice.com Gliwice.info.pl Aegee-gliwice.org, Travel Guide Further reading Max Lamla: Merkwürdiges aus meinem Leben (1917–1999), Saarbrücken 2006, Boleslaw Domanski (2000) "The Impact of Spatial and Social Qualities on the Reproduction of Local Economic Success: The Case of the Path Dependent Development of Gliwice", in: Prace Geograficne, zeszyt 106, Cracow, pp 35–54. B. Nietsche, Geschichte der Stadt Gleiwitz (1886) Seidel, Die königliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz (Berlin, 1896) Cities in Silesia City counties of Poland Cities and towns in Silesian Voivodeship Nazi war crimes in Poland	6,699
doc-en-11447_0	Joel Chandler Harris (December 9, 1848 – July 3, 1908) was an American journalist, fiction writer, and folklorist best known for his collection of Uncle Remus stories. Born in Eatonton, Georgia, where he served as an apprentice on a plantation during his teenage years, Harris spent most of his adult life in Atlanta working as an associate editor at The Atlanta Constitution. Harris led two professional lives: as the editor and journalist known as Joe Harris, he supported a vision of the New South with the editor Henry W. Grady (1880–1889), which stressed regional and racial reconciliation after the Reconstruction era. As Joel Chandler Harris, fiction writer and folklorist, he wrote many 'Brer Rabbit' stories from the African-American oral tradition. Life Education: 1848–1862 Joel Chandler Harris was born in Eatonton, Georgia in 1848 to Mary Ann Harris, an Irish immigrant. His father, whose identity remains unknown, abandoned Mary Ann and the infant shortly after his birth. The parents had never married; the boy was named Joel after his mother's attending physician, Dr. Joel Branham. Chandler was the name of his mother's uncle. Harris remained self-conscious of his illegitimate birth throughout his life. A prominent physician, Dr. Andrew Reid, gave the Harris family a small cottage to use behind his mansion. Mary Harris worked as a seamstress and helped neighbors with their gardening to support herself and her son. She was an avid reader and instilled in her son a love of language: "My desire to write—to give expression to my thoughts—grew out of hearing my mother read The Vicar of Wakefield." Dr. Reid also paid for Harris' school tuition for several years. In 1856, Joe Harris briefly attended Kate Davidson's School for Boys and Girls, but transferred to Eatonton School for Boys later that year. He had an undistinguished academic record and a habit of truancy. Harris excelled in reading and writing, but was mostly known for his pranks, mischief, and sense of humor. Practical jokes helped Harris cloak his shyness and insecurities about his red hair, Irish ancestry, and illegitimacy, leading to both trouble and a reputation as a leader among the older boys. Turnwold Plantation: 1862–1866 At the age of 14, Harris quit school to work. In March 1862, Joseph Addison Turner, owner of Turnwold Plantation nine miles east of Eatonton, hired Harris to work as a printer's devil for his newspaper The Countryman. Harris worked for clothing, room, and board. The newspaper reached subscribers throughout the Confederacy during the American Civil War; it was considered one of the larger newspapers in the South, with a circulation of about 2,000. Harris learned to set type for the paper, and Turner allowed him to publish his own poems, book reviews, and humorous paragraphs. Turner's instruction and technical expertise exerted a profound influence on Harris. During his four-year tenure at Turnwold Plantation, Joel Harris consumed the literature in Turner's library. He had access to Chaucer, Dickens, Sir Thomas Browne, Arabian Nights, Shakespeare, Milton, Swift, Thackeray, and Edgar Allan Poe. Turner, a fiercely independent Southern loyalist and eccentric intellectual, emphasized the work of southern writers, yet stressed that Harris read widely. In The Countryman Turner insisted that Harris not shy away from including humor in his journalism. While at Turnwold Plantation, Harris spent hundreds of hours in the slave quarters during time off. He was less self-conscious there and felt his humble background as an illegitimate, red-headed son of an Irish immigrant helped foster an intimate connection with the slaves. He absorbed the stories, language, and inflections of people like Uncle George Terrell, Old Harbert, and Aunt Crissy. The African-American animal tales they shared later became the foundation and inspiration for Harris's Uncle Remus tales. George Terrell and Old Harbert in particular became models for Uncle Remus, as well as role models for Harris. Savannah and the South: 1866–1876 Joseph Addison Turner shut down The Countryman in May 1866. Joel Harris left the plantation with worthless Confederate money and very few possessions. He lived for a period at The Marshall House. The Macon Telegraph hired Harris as a typesetter later that year. Harris found the work unsatisfactory and himself the butt of jokes around the office, in no small part due to his red hair. Within five months, he accepted a job working for the New Orleans Crescent Monthly, a literary journal. Just six months after that, homesick, he returned to Georgia, but with another opportunity at the Monroe Advertiser, a weekly paper published in Forsyth, Georgia. At the Advertiser Harris found a regional audience with his column "Affairs of Georgia." Newspapers across the state reprinted his humorous paragraphs and political barbs. Harris' reputation earned him the position of associate editor at the Savannah Morning News, the largest circulation newspaper in Georgia. Though he relished his position in Forsyth, Joe Harris accepted the $40-a-week job, a significant pay increase, and quickly established himself as Georgia's leading humor columnist while at the Morning News. In 1872 Harris met Mary Esther LaRose, a seventeen-year-old French-Canadian from Quebec. After a year of courtship, Harris and LaRose married in April 1873. LaRose was 18, and Harris 27 (though publicly admitting to 24). Over the next three years, the couple had two children. Their life in Savannah came to an abrupt halt, however, when they fled to Atlanta to avoid a yellow fever epidemic. Atlanta: 1876–1908 In 1876 Harris was hired by Henry W. Grady at The Atlanta Constitution, where he would remain for the next 24 years. He worked with other journalists including Frank Lebby Stanton, who was in turn an associate of James Whitcomb Riley. Chandler supported the racial reconciliation envisioned by Grady. He often took the mule-drawn trolley to work, picked up his assignments, and brought them home to complete. He wrote for the Constitution until 1900. In addition, he published local-color stories in magazines such as Scribner's, Harper's, and The Century. Uncle Remus stories and later years Not long after taking the newspaper appointment, Harris began writing the Uncle Remus stories as a serial to "preserve in permanent shape those curious mementoes of a period that will no doubt be sadly misrepresented by historians of the future." The tales were reprinted across the United States, and Harris was approached by publisher D. Appleton and Company to compile them for a book. Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings was published near the end of 1880. Hundreds of newspapers reviewed the best-seller, and Harris received national attention. Of the press and attention Walter Hines Page noted, "Joe Harris does not appreciate Joel Chandler Harris." Royalties from the book were modest, but allowed Harris to rent a six-room house in West End, an unincorporated village on the outskirts of Atlanta, to accommodate his growing family. Two years later Harris bought the house and hired the architect George Humphries to transform the farmhouse into a Queen Anne Victorian in the Eastlake style. The home, soon thereafter called The Wren's Nest, was where Harris spent most of his time. Harris preferred to write at the Wren's Nest. He published prodigiously throughout the 1880s and 1890s, trying his hand at novels, children's literature, and a translation of French folklore. Yet he rarely strayed from home and work during this time. He chose to stay close to his family and his gardening. Harris and his wife Essie had seven more children in Atlanta, with a total of six (out of nine) surviving past childhood. By the late 1890s, Harris was tired of the newspaper grind and suffered from health problems, likely stemming from alcoholism. At the same time, he grew more comfortable with his creative persona. Harris retired from the Constitution in 1900. He continued experimenting with novels and wrote articles for outlets such as The Saturday Evening Post. Still, he remained close to home, refusing to travel to accept honorary degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and Emory College (now Emory University). In 1905 Harris was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Harris traveled to accept an invitation to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt. Two years earlier, Roosevelt had said, "Presidents may come and presidents may go, but Uncle Remus stays put. Georgia has done a great many things for the Union, but she has never done more than when she gave Mr. Joel Chandler Harris to American literature." On July 3, 1908, Joel Chandler Harris died of acute nephritis and complications from cirrhosis of the liver. In his obituary, The New York Times Book Review echoed Roosevelt's sentiment, stating: "Uncle Remus cannot die. Joel Chandler Harris has departed this life at the age of 60 ... but his best creation, [Uncle Remus] with his fund of folk-lore, will live in literature." Writing Folklore Harris created the first version of the Uncle Remus character for The Atlanta Constitution in 1876 after inheriting a column formerly written by Samuel W. Small, who had taken leave from the paper. In these character sketches, Remus would visit the newspaper office to discuss the social and racial issues of the day. By 1877, Small had returned to the Constitution and resumed his column. Harris did not intend to continue the Remus character. But when Small left the paper again, Harris reprised Remus. He realized the literary value of the stories he had heard from the slaves of Turnwold Plantation. Harris set out to record the stories and insisted that they be verified by two independent sources before he would publish them. He found the research more difficult given his professional duties, urban location, race and, eventually, fame. On July 20, 1879, Harris published "The Story of Mr. Rabbit and Mr. Fox as Told by Uncle Remus" in The Atlanta Constitution. It was the first of 34 plantation fables that would be compiled in Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880). The stories, mostly collected directly from the African-American oral storytelling tradition, were revolutionary in their use of dialect, animal personages, and serialized landscapes. Remus' stories featured a trickster hero called Br'er Rabbit (Brother Rabbit), who used his wits against adversity, though his efforts did not always succeed. Br'er Rabbit is a direct interpretation of Yoruba tales of Hare, though some others posit Native American influences as well. The scholar Stella Brewer Brookes asserts, "Never has the trickster been better exemplified than in the Br'er Rabbit of Harris." Br'er Rabbit was accompanied by friends and enemies, such as Br'er Fox, Br'er Bear, Br'er Terrapin, and Br'er Wolf. The stories represented a significant break from the fairy tales of the Western tradition: instead of a singular event in a singular story, the critters on the plantation existed in an ongoing community saga, time immemorial. Harris described Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, as a major influence on the characters of Uncle Remus and the Little Boy. When he read Stowe's novel in 1862, he said that it "made a more vivid impression upon my mind than anything I have ever read since." Interpreting Uncle Tom's Cabin as a "wonderful defense of slavery," Harris argued that Stowe's "genius took possession of her and compelled her, in spite of her avowed purpose, to give a very fair picture of the institution she had intended to condemn". In Harris's view, the "real moral that Mrs. Stowe's book teaches is that the ... realities [of slavery], under the best and happiest conditions, possess a romantic beauty and tenderness all their own." The Uncle Remus stories garnered critical acclaim and achieved popular success well into the 20th century. Harris published at least twenty-nine books, of which nine books were compiled of his published Uncle Remus stories, including Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880), Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), The Tar Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904), Told by Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905), Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907). The last three books written by Joel Chandler Harris were published after his death which included Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910), Uncle Remus Returns (1918), and Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948). The tales, 185 in sum, became immensely popular among both black and white readers in the North and South. Few people outside of the South had heard accents like those spoken in the tales, and the dialect had never been legitimately and faithfully recorded in print. To Northern and international readers, the stories were a "revelation of the unknown." Mark Twain noted in 1883, "in the matter of writing [the African-American dialect], he is the only master the country has produced." The stories introduced international readers to the American South. Rudyard Kipling wrote in a letter to Harris that the tales "ran like wild fire through an English Public school. ... [We] found ourselves quoting whole pages of Uncle Remus that had got mixed in with the fabric of the old school life." The Uncle Remus tales have since been translated into more than forty languages. James Weldon Johnson called the collection "the greatest body of folklore America has produced". Journalism Early in his career at the Atlanta Constitution, Joe Harris laid out his editorial ideology and set the tone for an agenda that aimed to help reconcile issues of race, class, and region: "An editor must have a purpose. ... What a legacy for one's conscience to know that one has been instrumental in mowing down the old prejudices that rattle in the wind like weeds." Harris served as assistant editor and lead editorial writer at The Atlanta Constitution primarily between 1876 and 1900. He published articles intermittently until his death in 1908. While at the Constitution, Harris, "in thousands of signed and unsigned editorials over a twenty-four-year period, ... set a national tone for reconciliation between North and South after the Civil War". Throughout his career, Harris actively promoted racial reconciliation as well as African-American education, suffrage, and equality. He regularly denounced racism among southern whites, condemned lynching, and highlighted the importance of higher education for African Americans, frequently citing the work of W.E.B. Du Bois in his editorials. In 1883, for example, the New York Sun had an editorial: "educating the negro will merely increase his capacity for evil." The Atlanta Constitution editorial countered with: if "education of the negro is not the chief solution of the problem that confronts the white people of the South then there is no other conceivable solution and there is nothing ahead but political chaos and demoralization." Harris's editorials were often progressive in content and paternalistic in tone. He was committed to the "dissipation of sectional jealousy and misunderstanding, as well as religious and racial intolerance", yet "never entirely freed himself of the idea that the [southern whites] would have to patronize the [southern blacks]." Harris also oversaw some of The Atlanta Constitutions most sensationalized coverage of racial issues, including the 1899 torture and lynching of Sam Hose, an African-American farm worker. Harris resigned from the paper the following year, having lost patience for publishing both "his iconoclastic views on race" and "what was expected of him" at a major southern newspaper during a particularly vitriolic period. In 1904 Harris wrote four important articles for The Saturday Evening Post discussing the problem of race relations in the South; these highlighted his progressive yet paternalistic views. Of these, Booker T. Washington wrote to him: It has been a long time since I have read anything from the pen of any man which has given me such encouragement as your article has. ... In a speech on Lincoln's Birthday which I am to deliver in New York, I am going to take the liberty to quote liberally from what you have said. Two years later, Harris and his son Julian founded what would become Uncle Remus's Home Magazine. Harris wrote to Andrew Carnegie that its purpose would be to further "the obliteration of prejudice against the blacks, the demand for a square deal, and the uplifting of both races so that they can look justice in the face without blushing." Circulation reached 240,000 within one year, making it one of the largest magazines in the country. Other works Harris wrote novels, narrative histories, translations of French folklore, children's literature, and collections of stories depicting rural life in Georgia. The short stories "Free Joe and the Rest of the World", "Mingo", and "At Teague Poteets" are the most influential of his non-Uncle Remus creative work. Many of his short stories delved into the changing social and economic values in the South during Reconstruction. Harris's turn as a local colorist gave voice to poor white characters and demonstrated his fluency with different African-American dialects and characters. Legacy Harris's legacy has largely been ignored by academia, in part due to the Uncle Remus character, use of dialect, and plantation setting. Harris's books exerted a profound influence on storytellers at home and abroad, yet the Uncle Remus tales effectively have no critical standing. His legacy is, at the same time, not without considerable controversy: Harris's critical reputation in the 20th and 21st centuries has been wildly mixed, as he was accused of appropriating African-American culture. Criticism Critic H. L. Mencken held a less than favorable view of Harris: Once upon a time a Georgian printed a couple of books that attracted notice, but immediately it turned out that he was little more than an amanuensis for the local blacks—that his works were really the products, not of white Georgia, but of black Georgia. Writing afterward as a white man, he swiftly subsided into the fifth rank. Keith Cartwright, however, asserts, "Harris might arguably be called the greatest single authorial force behind the literary development of African American folk matter and manner." In 1981 the writer Alice Walker accused Harris of "stealing a good part of my heritage" in a searing essay called "Uncle Remus, No Friend of Mine". Toni Morrison wrote a novel called Tar Baby. Such a character appears in a folktale recorded by Harris. In interviews, Morrison said she learned the story from her family and owed no debt to him. Scholars have questioned his collection of stories, citing the difficulty that many white folklorists had in persuading African Americans to divulge their folklore. But, others note the similarity of African folk stories in several sources that are similar to the Brer Rabbit tales as published, which represent a folk genre. Examples include the Ila language Sulwe mbwakatizha Muzovu ("Hare makes the elephant afraid") in Smith & Dale The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia volume 2, page 309. In the totally unrelated Kanuri or Bornuese culture in Northern Nigeria, such tales as a Fable of Jackal and a Hyena display similar themes quite in the Brer Rabbit manner. The difficulties in obtaining printed sources on the African languages may have inhibited these aspects of critical treatment. Some critical scholars cite Uncle Remus as a problematic and contradictory figure: sometimes a mouthpiece for white paternalism, sometimes a stereotype of the black entertainer, and sometimes poetically subversive. Julius Lester, a black folklorist and university professor, sees the Uncle Remus stories as important records of black folklore. He has rewritten many of the Harris stories in an effort to elevate the subversive elements over the purportedly racist ones. Regarding the nature of the Uncle Remus character, Lester said, There are no inaccuracies in Harris's characterization of Uncle Remus. Even the most cursory reading of the slave narratives collected by the Federal Writer's Project of the 1930s reveals that there were many slaves who fit the Uncle Remus mold. The author Ralph Ellison was positive about Harris' work: Aesop and Uncle Remus had taught us that comedy is a disguised form of philosophical instruction; and especially when it allows us to glimpse the animal instincts lying beneath the surface of our civilized affectations. Some 21st-century scholars have argued that the Uncle Remus tales satirized the very "plantation school" that some readers believed his work supported. Critic Robert Cochran noted: "Harris went to the world as the trickster Brer Rabbit, and in the trickster Uncle Remus he projected both his sharpest critique of things as they were and the deepest image of his heart's desire." Harris omitted the Southern plantation house, disparaged the white Southern gentleman, and presented miscegenation in positive terms. He violated social codes and presented an ethos that would have otherwise shocked his reading audience. These recent acknowledgements echo early observations from Walter Hines Page, who wrote in 1884 that Harris "hardly conceals his scorn for the old aristocracy" and makes "a sly thrust at the pompous life of the Old South." More recently, the scholars Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Maria Tatar debated whether to include Uncle Remus stories in their 2017 volume, The Annotated African American Folktales. Ultimately they decided on inclusion, along with a detailed preface on the critical issues surrounding Harris, race, and cultural appropriation. Influence Children's literature analyst John Goldthwaite argues that the Uncle Remus tales are "irrefutably the central event in the making of modern children's story." Harris's influence on British children's writers such as Kipling, Milne, Potter, Burgess and Blyton is substantial. His influence on modernism is less overt, but also evident in the works of Pound, Eliot, Joyce, and Faulkner. Beatrix Potter illustrated eight scenes from the Uncle Remus stories between 1893 and 1896, coinciding with her first drawings of Peter Rabbit. Potter's family had favored the Uncle Remus stories during her youth, and she was particularly impressed by the way Harris turned "the ordinary into the extraordinary." Potter borrowed some of the language from the Uncle Remus stories, adopting the words: "cottontail," "puddle-duck," and "lippity-(c)lippity" into her own work. Mark Twain incorporated several of the Uncle Remus stories into readings during his book tour. He wrote to William Dean Howells in the early 1880s, reporting that the "Tar Baby" had been received "best of all" at a reading in Hartford. Twain admired Harris' use of dialect. He appropriated exchanges and turns of phrase in many of his works, most notably in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Mysterious Stranger. A.A. Milne borrowed diction, plot, and narrative structure from several Brer Rabbit stories. "Pooh Goes Visiting" and "Heyo, House!" are particularly similar. As a boy, Milne recalled listening to his father read one Uncle Remus story per night, and referred to it as "the sacred book." Charles Chesnutt's most famous work, The Conjure Woman, is strongly influenced by the Uncle Remus tales; he features Uncle Julius as the main character and storyteller. Chesnutt read the Uncle Remus stories to his own children. Many scholars cite Harris' influence on William Faulkner, most importantly in terms of dialect usage, depictions of African Americans, lower-class whites, and fictionalized landscape. Poets Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot corresponded in Uncle Remus-inspired dialect, referring to themselves as "Brer Rabbit" and "Old Possum," respectively. Eventually the dialect and the personae became a sign of their collaboration against the London literary establishment. Eliot titled one of his books Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats. Ralph Bakshi wrote and directed a 1975 American live action/animated crime film titled Coonskin based on Harris' Brothers rabbit, fox, and bear who rise to the top of the organized crime racket in Harlem, encountering corrupt law enforcement, con artists, and the Mafia. Song of the South In 1946, the Walt Disney Company produced a film based on the Uncle Remus tales called Song of the South. While commercially successful during its original release and re-releases, the film has never been released for home consumption in the United States as, since its release, the film was criticized for the way it portrays its characters and the Southern U. S. in regard to slavery, even though the film's events take place in the postbellum South, when slavery had ended. Song of the South has been released on video in a number of overseas markets, and on LaserDisc in Japan. The film earned mixed critical reviews and two Academy Awards. James Baskett won an honorary Academy Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus, and "Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah" was presented with the award for Best Original Song. Walter White of the NAACP acknowledged "the remarkable artistic merit" of the film in his telegraphed press release on November 27, 1946, but decried the "impression it gives of an idyllic master-slave relationship." Since its debut, the public perception of Harris and the Uncle Remus stories has largely been tied to the reception of Song of the South. Legacy and honors The Wren's Nest, Harris's home in the historic West End neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. It has been operated as a museum home since 1913. Uncle Remus Museum in Eatonton, GA commemorates the life of Harris. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Savannah, GA on Bay Street across from the now demolished Savannah Morning News building where Harris worked in that city. The U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent stamp commemorating Joel Chandler Harris on the 1948 100th anniversary of his birth. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Forsyth, GA on Main Street at N 33° 2.057', W 83° 56.354'. The plaque reads: One block east stood the old office of The Monroe Advertiser, where Joel Chandler Harris, creator of "Uncle Remus," came in 1867, as a boy of nineteen, to work until 1870. Here he advanced from printer's devil to accomplished journalist. Of his duties, Harris said: "I set all the type, pulled the press, kept the books, swept the floor and wrapped the papers for mailing." His typestand is still in use at the present office of The Monroe Advertiser. Selected list of works Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880) Nights with Uncle Remus (1883) Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White (1884) Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches (1887) Daddy Jake, The Runaway: And Short Stories Told After Dark (1889) Joel Chandler Harris' Life of Henry W. Grady (1890) Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories (1891) On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War (1892) Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892) Little Mr. Thimblefinger and his Queer Country: What the Children Saw and Heard There (Houghton Mifflin, 1894), illustrated by Oliver Herford, Mr. Rabbit at Home (1895), illus. Herford – sequel to Mr. Thimblefinger, Sister Jane: Her Friends and Acquaintances (1896) The Story of Aaron (so named): The Son of Ben Ali (1896), illus. Herford, Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), illus. Herford – sequel, Tales of the Home Folks in Peace and War (1898) The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899) Plantation Pageants (1899) On the Wing of Occasions (1900) Gabriel Tolliver (1902) The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (1902) Wally Wanderoon and His Story-Telling Machine (1903) A Little Union Scout (1904) The Tar-Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904) Told By Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905) Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907) Shadow Between His Shoulder Blades (1909) Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910) Uncle Remus Returns (1918) Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948) See also Literature of Georgia (U.S. state) References Bibliography External links Joel Chandler Harris, New Georgia Encyclopedia The Wren's Nest, Harris's historic home in Atlanta, GA Robert Roosevelt's Brer Rabbit Stories Theodore Roosevelt on Brer Rabbit and his Uncle Works by Joel Chandler Harris openly available with full text and large zoomable images in the University of Florida Digital Collections Uncle Remus His Songs and Sayings from American Studies at the University of Virginia "Death Calls 'Uncle Remus' and Whole World Mourns", Atlanta Georgian, July 4, 1908. From the Atlanta Historic Newspaper Archive Remembering Remus – Frank Stephenson, Florida State University 1848 births 1908 deaths People from Eatonton, Georgia American children's writers American male journalists The Atlanta Journal-Constitution people Writers from Atlanta Writers of American Southern literature Fabulists American folklorists Folklore writers Deaths from nephritis Deaths from cirrhosis American people of Irish descent Alcohol-related deaths in Georgia (U.S. state)	6,539
doc-en-11456_0	This article provides the timeline of the 2006 Canadian federal election, which was called on November 29, 2005 when the Governor General dissolved parliament following the government's defeat in a motion of no confidence. The election was held on January 23, 2006. 2004 November 18, 2004 - Outspoken Liberal Party Member of Parliament (MP) Carolyn Parrish is dismissed from the Liberal caucus by Prime Minister Paul Martin for making statements critical of the Liberal Party and the prime minister. She then sat as an independent. December 16, 2004 - Liberal MP Lawrence D. O'Brien died of cancer. A by-election in his riding, Labrador, was called for May 24. 2005 Pre-campaign February 23 - Finance Minister Ralph Goodale presented the 2005 federal budget to the House of Commons of Canada. When the Bloc Québécois and the New Democratic Party (NDP) opposed the budget, the Conservative Party caucus abstained on the vote, which was held on March 9, allowing the government to maintain confidence. March 31 - Testimony by Jean Brault, former president of Groupaction at the Gomery Commission was considered so damaging to the Liberals that many speculated that an election could be held soon. The details of the testimony were not publicly revealed due to a publication ban imposed by Mr. Justice Gomery. April 7 - Justice Gomery lifted the publication ban on much of the testimony just minutes before question period. Opposition parties launched a full assault on the government with the new evidence. April 11 - *An EKOS/Toronto Star poll showed the Conservatives leading the Liberals 36% to 25%. This was the first time since before the 1993 election that a party led the Liberals by more than the margin of error. April 13 - David Kilgour, MP, left the Liberal caucus to sit as an independent. Kilgour who was originally elected as a Progressive Conservative in the 1979 election said that he would not run as a Conservative in the next election. April 21 - Prime Minister Paul Martin addressed the nation at 19:02 eastern time and promised to call an election within 30 days of the final report of the Gomery Commission, due on December 15, should his government survive to that date, while outlining the steps his administration had taken to address the sponsorship scandal. Each of the three opposition party leaders responded live following Martin's taped address. The NDP's Jack Layton offered to support the government, which, with the close numbers in the House of Commons would make the survival of the government possible but not certain, if Martin agreed to remove corporate tax cuts from the budget. Opposition Leader Stephen Harper suggested an election was likely but not certain while Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe unequivocally supported an immediate election. April 26 - An agreement in principle between the Liberals and the NDP was reached under which tax cuts for large corporations would be deferred but those for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) would remain. The deferred tax cuts were to be introduced later in a separate bill, while budget surpluses would be used to fund mutual Liberal and NDP priorities such as training, post-secondary education, foreign aid, affordable housing and the environment. Under the agreement, the NDP would support the government on any confidence motions until the budget received Royal Assent. May 10 - The House of Commons passed, by a margin of 153 to 150, a Conservative motion that called upon the House Public Accounts committee to "recommend that the government resign because of its failure to address the deficiencies in governance of the public service". Conservative and Bloc Québécois MPs voted in favor of the motion against the Liberals, the NDP and two independent MPs. Liberal House Leader Tony Valeri maintained that the vote was not a matter of confidence while all opposition parties, including the NDP though it sided with the government on the vote, said that it was. The government lost four more similar votes over the next two days. May 11 - Prime Minister Martin called for a vote on the budget implementation bill on May 19, he suggested that this would be the time that the House would determine whether or not it had confidence in his government. Some constitutional experts had suggested such a move should be taken as the confidence issue was uncertain. May 17 - Prime Minister Martin and prominent Conservative MP and former leadership contender Belinda Stronach announced that Stronach would join the Liberal Party and become Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development. This move gave the Liberals a stronger but not certain chance of winning the confidence vote scheduled for May 19. It brought the total number of MPs committed to supporting the government on the vote to 152, with 152 opposed with two undecided. May 18 - British Columbia Conservative MP Gurmant Grewal alleged that he has a taped conversation with Paul Martin's Chief of Staff Tim Murphy. On the tape, Grewal and his wife Nina, also a Conservative MP, were supposedly offered patronage appointments if they abstained on "certain" votes. May 19 - The budget implementation bills, both matters of confidence, passed the House of Commons. The first bill, on the original budget, passed without opposition by the Conservative Party as a gesture of support for the Atlantic Accord. The second bill, which implemented the April 26 deal between the Liberal Party and the NDP, resulted in a tie vote which was broken in favor of the government by the Speaker of the House. Independent MP David Kilgour voted against the bill, and Independent MP Chuck Cadman voted in favour. This was the first time in Canadian history that the Speaker of the House broke a tie on a matter of confidence. May 24 - Liberal Todd Russell won a by-election held in Labrador, winning with a reduced majority. Surprisingly for a by-election, turnout was significantly increased over the 2004 general election. Although there was now one more Liberal in the House, the government still needed the support of the NDP and two of the three independents in order to survive future confidence votes. Under such circumstances, the Liberals would no longer require the Speaker to break a tie in their favour, something that the Speaker would not do on all matters of confidence, such a third reading on a budget bill. June 4 - Former Premier of Quebec Bernard Landry announced his surprise resignation as leader of the Parti Québécois after receiving 76% support from a leadership review at the party's convention. Speculation immediately mounted that Bloc leader Gilles Duceppe would resign from federal politics and run to replace him. June 6 - Ontario MP Pat O'Brien left the Liberal Party to sit as an independent, citing his disappointment with Paul Martin not keeping his promise to hold cross country hearings on same-sex marriage. Mr. O'Brien promised to do everything in his power to defeat Bill C-38 (presumably including a vote of no-confidence with the government). June 9 - The Supreme Court of Canada struck down a law in Quebec banning private health care. June 10 - An audio engineer hired by the Conservative Party stated that he could find no alterations in the final released version of the Gurmant Grewal tapes. This audio engineer was the only one to have actually examined the original tapes. There had been earlier evidence that Grewal may have altered the tapes, but this analysis was done on excerpts of the tapes, not the complete product. June 13 - Gilles Duceppe announced he would not run in the PQ leadership race but would instead lead the Bloc through the next federal election. June 23 The House of Commons passed a motion to extend the sitting of Parliament indefinitely until such time as Bill C-38 (same-sex marriage) and Bill C-48 (Budget companion bill to implement agreement with the NDP) are passed. In the late evening, shortly after third reading debate began on Bill C-48, the Liberals introduced a closure motion supported by all parties but the Conservatives leading to a vote on C-48. It passed by a margin of 152-147. This was seen as a reaction to the plan by Conservatives to bring down the government over C-48 the following week. As a result, the extended session of parliament would only have to deal with C-38. July 9 - Chuck Cadman succumbed to cancer at age 57. August 12 - The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) announced that they would not launch a criminal investigation after reviewing audio recordings made by Conservative MP Gurmant Grewal. August 15 - The United States said it would disregard a North American Free Trade Agreement decision ruling their tariffs on softwood lumber illegal and continue their activities, prompting Finance Minister Ralph Goodale to say that International Trade Minister Jim Peterson is considering Canada's options, which could include litigation or trade sanctions. August 26 - In remarks published in The Ottawa Citizen, U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Wilkins said that Canadian leaders should stop their "emotional tirades" and get back to negotiating on trade issues. The comment immediately drew the ire of both the Liberal Government and Opposition Leader Stephen Harper. August 28 - Industry Minister David Emerson blasted David Wilkins over his earlier comments: "I find it a little hypocritical to hear the ambassador telling us we should be negotiating... we've been negotiating for years, The Ambassador has to realize that Canada is not going to sit back and knuckle under... Canadians have had enough." August 30 - The World Trade Organization ruled that the U.S. did comply with international law when it imposed duties on Canadian softwood. Jim Peterson said that the U.S. victory in the softwood lumber trade dispute was disappointing but not a crippling blow and wouldn't dramatically change Canada's position in the long-running dispute. September 26: The House of Commons resumed business following its summer break. Paul Martin announced that Revenue minister John McCallum would assume the responsibilities of Natural Resources minister John Efford, although the latter would nominally retain the title and place in cabinet. Efford, who was suffering from diabetes, planned to take time off to tend to his health. He indicated that he hoped to become well enough to resume his position in cabinet and run for re-election. September 27 - Michaëlle Jean was formally installed as Canada's 27th Governor General, largely without incident despite earlier questions of her husband's ties to the Quebec sovereignty movement. September 29 - Nova Scotia premier John Hamm announced he would retire. Speculation put Conservative Party Deputy Leader Peter MacKay as a possible candidate for the leadership of the Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party. October 6 - Paul DeVillers resigned from his post as Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister. It is later revealed that this was due to Prime Minister Martin refusing to create a consolidated cabinet-level department out of Sport Canada as proposed by DeVillers in his role as parliamentary secretary. DeVillers said he would not run in the next election as a result. October 17 - Bev Desjarlais lost the NDP nomination in Churchill, and subsequently left the party to sit as an independent. October 19 - Opposition Leader Stephen Harper threatened to disrupt the House of Commons if they can enlist the New Democrats in a plan to take down the Liberal minority government. NDP Leader Jack Layton rejected the tactic, stating that he was focusing on trying to get some things done. October 21 - Former NDP MP Svend Robinson announced he would make an attempt at a political comeback by running against Liberal MP Hedy Fry in the riding of Vancouver Centre. Robinson did not contest the 2004 election, in his then riding of Burnaby—Douglas, after having been arrested for shoplifting. October 25 - NDP Leader Jack Layton met for 45 minutes with Prime Minister Paul Martin at 24 Sussex, asking for actions in some areas in exchange for continued support of the Liberal minority government. The NDP list focussed on ending the expansion of for-profit health care but also included pension protection, smog prevention, ethics and democratic reform. October 26 - Prime Minister Paul Martin rejected the NDP's call for a new law against private health care, but the two parties agreed to a further meeting between Health Minister Ujjal Dosanjh and NDP health critic Jean Crowder. October 31 - On the eve of the release of Justice John Gomery first report on the Sponsorship scandal, Health Minister Ujjal Dosanjh agreed to study the private health care restrictions demanded by the New Democrats. November 1 - Justice John Gomery released the first report of the Gomery Commission into the sponsorship scandal. He found several Liberal party organizers and Quebec advertising executives to be at fault for defrauding the program, but found no evidence of elected officials being aware of or directing the fraud. Gomery concluded that former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien held ultimate responsibility for the program, as it occurred under his watch, but exonerated then-finance minister Martin. Martin announced that he accepted the findings unconditionally, and referred the report to the RCMP for possible further investigation. In a news conference later that day, Chrétien vowed to challenge the report's findings through the courts, alleging bias on Gomery's part. November 3 - The first poll was released following Gomery's findings, showing Liberal support dropping about 10%. Speculation mounted that such numbers could motivate the opposition to move to prompt an election sooner rather than later. November 4 - NDP Leader Jack Layton announced he would study the Liberal government's response on private health care, even though he qualified the proposals as disappointing. The government's response was made through a four pages letter from Health Minister Ujjal Dosanjh to NDP health critic Jean Crowder. November 7 - NDP Leader Jack Layton rejected the Liberal proposals for health-care reform in a speech at the Toronto's Empire Club, stating: "There's no basis for our party to express confidence in this government." November 9: Layton announced that, in order to avoid an election of the Christmas holidays and to avoid the cancellation of the First Ministers' Meeting on Aboriginal issues, he would use his opposition day motion on November 24 to propose that an election be called in early January with a vote in mid-February. Such a motion would not be binding on the government and could not guarantee the election timing contained in its language. Bloc MP Stéphane Bergeron (Verchères—Les Patriotes, QC) resigned from the house to run as a Parti Québécois candidate in a coming provincial by-election. November 13 - Harper, Duceppe and Layton met after Martin says he would not honour Layton's motion calling for an election campaign beginning in January. They proposed that they move forward with the NDP motion but, unless the Prime Minister committed to honouring it, they would vote no confidence in the government, forcing an election call sometime in November. November 14 - Finance Minister Goodale tabled his fiscal update, which included a major tax cut package. The opposition denounced it as an attempt to buy votes. November 21 - The NDP's motion to order Martin to call an election passed with a vote of 167-129. November 24 - Stephen Harper introduced a motion of no confidence, seconded by Jack Layton. Harper tell the House of Commons: "This government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons and needs to be removed." The vote was deferred until November 28. November 28 - The motion of no confidence passed 171-133, defeating the government of the 38th Parliament, and forcing the 39th general election. Campaign November November 29 - Prime Minister Paul Martin asked Governor General Michaëlle Jean to dissolve parliament - the election date was set for January 23, 2006. Conservative Leader Stephen Harper says that a Conservative Government would put forward a motion in the House of Commons on marriage that would ask MPs whether they favor the traditional definition of marriage, if there are enough votes to pass Harper says he would proceed. Where the leaders were: Paul Martin: Rideau Hall in Ottawa and a campaign event in Ottawa Stephen Harper: Ottawa, then Quebec City Jack Layton: Ottawa, then Toronto Gilles Duceppe: Montreal November 30 - Conservative MP Jason Kenney held a news conference in which he complained that Martin speechwriter Scott Feschuk had insulted ethnic minorities. Feschuk had written a note on the Liberal Party website referring to "socially awkward Omni subscribers". Kenney thought Feschuk was talking about viewers of Omni TV, a multicultural channel based in Toronto. In fact, he was actually referring to now-defunct Omni magazine, a science and technology publication long cherished by nerds. A Quebec Superior Court judge lifted all restrictions imposed on Karla Homolka, saying there was not enough evidence to justify them. Where the leaders were: Paul Martin: Montreal Stephen Harper: Quebec City then Halifax Jack Layton: Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario Gilles Duceppe: Montreal December December 1 - Conservative leader Stephen Harper announced the gradual reduction of the Goods and Services Tax to 5% if he were elected. The governing Liberals rejected the plan, saying on their website that they "believe that this approach to tax relief is the wrong one for Canadians."1 Where the leaders were: Paul Martin: Cornwall, ON and Montreal, QC Stephen Harper: Mississauga, ON Jack Layton: Oshawa, ON Gilles Duceppe: Montreal, QC December 2: Canadian Auto Workers president Buzz Hargrove, a member of the NDP, officially endorsed Paul Martin and the Liberals. Harper announced his health care platform, saying that while no private clinics would be closed, he would work with provinces to cut down wait times as public hospitals. December 3 - Harper promised $5 billion increase in military spending over the next five years. December 4 - Jim Harris, leader of the Green Party, demanded that television networks stop excluding him from the upcoming televised election debates. December 5: Layton announced that he would neither raise nor cut taxes if elected. Harper promoted his child care plan, which would give parents $1200 per child under six years of age per year. December 6 - Martin promised $6 billion for his proposed federal child care program. December 7: Martin blasted the United States foreign policy, saying they do not have a "global conscience". Harper announced a promise of a 1% cut in the small business income tax rate. December 8: Martin reacted to a wave of violence in Canadian cities by proposing a total ban on handguns. Conservative finance critic Monte Solberg demanded the resignation of finance minister Ralph Goodale over allegations of insider trading. December 9: Martin met with former United States President Bill Clinton in Montreal to discuss climate change. Harper announced his policy on senior citizens, including increasing the amount of pension money that is sheltered from income tax and putting a national seniors' council into place. December 10: Harper proposed to spend $250 million on cancer research. Liberal strategist Scott Reid blasted Harper's child care proposal in a television interview by saying "Don't give people 25 bucks a week to blow on beer and popcorn." He later apologised. This was considered to be the first major gaffe of the campaign. December 12: Harper continued his plan to announce one policy initiative per day by saying that parents would receive tax breaks for children involved in amateur sports. The Washington Times published a letter from Stephen Harper explaining his differences between him and George W. Bush. December 13: Harper announced $1.8 billion more in defence spending. David Wilkins, U.S. ambassador to Canada, scolded Paul Martin for his anti-U.S. stance, saying that it would threaten the relationship between the two countries. December 14: Liberal officials released a 1997 speech by Harper that referred to Canada as "a Northern European welfare state in the worst sense of the term." Conservative officials said that most of the comments were in jest. Martin refused to listen to the advice of David Wilkins on using U.S. issues in the campaign, saying he "will not be dictated to". December 15 - The leaders of the four major political parties gathered in Vancouver for the first of four televised debates. The leaders debated in French. December 16 - The four party leaders participated in the English televised debate in Vancouver. December 17 - A Conservative rally in Edmonton was disrupted by a grieving mother whose daughter was murdered and who wanted protection for unborn children if pregnant women die. December 19: Martin promised to raise the capital gains tax exemption for small business owners to $750,000. Harper, in a bid for soft Quebec separatist votes, proposed to give Quebec more autonomy in international issues. December 20: Harper announced his plan to combat youth crime, while confidently predicting seat gains in Ontario. Martin released his platform on agriculture, including a plan to mandate the use of renewable fuels in gasoline and diesel fuel. December 21: Paul Martin refused a plan by the French language television network TQS to debate Gilles Duceppe over the Quebec separation issue. Stephen Harper considered taking Martin's place. Harper accused Martin of wanting a Parti Québécois victory in the next Quebec provincial election so that Liberals can "stand up for federalism". December 22: Harper promised to increase Canadian military presence in the Arctic, in response to claims by Denmark over Hans Island. December 23: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police, at the request of NDP MP Judy Wasylycia-Leis, began an investigation into Finance Minister Ralph Goodale's handling of his November announcement of changes to the taxation of dividend income and no changes to the taxation of income trusts, over possible insider trading. A picture of Harper and Duceppe talking to each other at a Holocaust memorial service, used by the Liberals to suggest the two leaders are collaborating with each other, was called "beyond tasteless" by Harper, who suggested that it may foreshadow a dirty negative campaign by the Liberals. All leaders stopped campaigning over the Christmas weekend. December 26: The Liberal campaign committed another gaffe when Mike Klander, the party's Ontario vice-president, resigned after comparing Toronto NDP candidate Olivia Chow to a dog on his blog. The comment was considered offensive to the Chinese-Canadian community. The murder of a young girl who was Boxing Day shopping in Toronto brought the issue of gun violence into the campaign. Harper proposed extra enforcement of existing laws, Martin re-iterated his plan to ban handguns, and Layton issued a statement condemning the shootings. December 27: Harper announced a plan to install military bases in cities, making it easier to deploy the units during local emergencies. The Liberals later demonized this plan in controversial 2006 Harper Attack ads. Layton promised to introduce a proportional representation voting system in Canada if elected. December 28: Finance Minister Ralph Goodale refused to resign over the income trust investigation. Harper proposed a veterans' bill of rights to combat perceived neglect by the Liberal government. December 29: Harper announced that a Conservative government would give commuters tax breaks on public transit passes. December 31: Martin said there is "no evidence of wrongdoing" in Ralph Goodale's income trust announcement. All leaders stopped campaigning over New Year's weekend. 2006 January January 2: Harper released the top 5 priorities of a possible Conservative government at a rally in Ottawa. The Conservatives released the first attack ad of the campaign, with quotes from the Gomery Commission contrasted against footage of Paul Martin and former cabinet minister David Dingwall. January 3: Finance minister Ralph Goodale met with the RCMP to discuss the income trust scandal. Harper campaigned in Quebec, using a suitcase filled with $132,000 as a prop to symbolize Liberal overspending. The event was credited by some for improving the party's poll standing in Quebec. January 4: Layton proposed a $1-billion national prescription drug plan. Harper promised to decrease the landing fee for immigrants from $975 to $100. Former MPs Elsie Wayne and Pat O'Brien announced the formation of "Vote Marriage Canada", a group designed to promote candidates opposed to same-sex marriage in Canada. January 5: Harper announced a plan to "completely overhaul" Canada's justice system if elected, including increased prison sentences and beefed up police and border security. Martin announced his plan for post-secondary education, including tuition fee reductions and increased study grants. Layton promised to spend $200 million per year on training health care professionals. An article in The Globe and Mail alleged that the Liberals granted $4 million to a small federalist group called Option Canada, that disappeared from the federal government's books. January 6: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission told NDP MP Judy Wasylycia-Leis that an investigation into the federal government over the income trust scandal was under consideration. The first polls showing the Conservatives ahead of the Liberals in popular support were released. January 7: Harper said that he would repeal tax cuts passed by the Liberals just before the election, and implement a more wide-ranging tax cut instead. As part of his environmental platform, Martin promised to spend $1 billion to clean up waterways, specifically the St. Lawrence Seaway. January 9: The four party leaders took part in the second English debate, in Montreal. During the debate, Martin promised to remove the ability of the federal government to invoke the Notwithstanding Clause in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. January 10: The second French-language debate tool place in Montreal. The Liberal Party released twelve television attack ads targeting Harper, but was forced to withdraw one of them from the airwaves because it was deemed offensive to the Canadian military. Some political observers have compared the military ad to the 1993 Progressive Conservative commercial making fun of Jean Chrétien over his facial paralysis. January 11: Martin said that he had personally approved the controversial military attack ad. The Liberal platform was leaked on the website of the conservative Western Standard magazine. January 12: Harper announced that Conservative candidate Derek Zeisman, running in the British Columbia riding of Southern Interior, would not be allowed to join the party caucus if elected. Zeisman had failed to disclose outstanding federal customs charges. Harper also announced that Canada would back out of the Kyoto Accord if his party were elected. January 13: Liberal candidate David Oliver, running in Abbotsford, British Columbia, was accused of bribing NDP candidate Jeffrey Hansen-Carlson with a job in Ottawa or with a city council seat in exchange for his abandoning his campaign and endorsing the Liberals. Martin later announced that Oliver would not be allowed to join caucus if elected. Martin announced a "heroes fund" for families of police officers and firefighters killed in the line of duty. The Conservatives released their full platform, covering all promises made during the campaign and including new ones such as limits on the capital gains tax, fixed election dates and preserving social programs. January 14: Layton started actively campaigning for votes from disenchanted Liberals, all but predicting a Conservative victory. January 15: Paul Darby, an economist that the Conservatives said approved their tax plan, said that he did not see the same version of the platform that the party made public. January 16: The Conservatives released an attack ad in British Columbia targeted at Jack Layton that superimposed his mustache on voters mocking his policies. Advance polls reported a higher-than-expected turnout. January 17: The NDP and Liberals both released commercials appealing to each other's supporters to vote for their party in order to stop the Conservatives from winning a majority. Shane Doan of the National Hockey League's Phoenix Coyotes filed a lawsuit with Quebec Liberal cabinet minister Denis Coderre over claims that Doan made racist remarks against a referee during a game. January 18: Canadian Auto Workers president Buzz Hargrove, campaigning for the Liberals, accused Harper of holding separatist views based on his belief in provincial autonomy. Harper campaigned in Toronto, signalling his expectation to win seats in the Liberal-dominated city. January 23: Federal Election! Conservatives (124) Liberals (103) Bloc Québécois (51) New Democrats (29) Independent (1) References 2006 Canadian federal election	6,031
doc-en-11493_0	A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for simultaneously measuring the torque and rotational speed (RPM) of an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover so that its instantaneous power may be calculated, and usually displayed by the dynamometer itself as kW or bhp. In addition to being used to determine the torque or power characteristics of a machine under test, dynamometers are employed in a number of other roles. In standard emissions testing cycles such as those defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, dynamometers are used to provide simulated road loading of either the engine (using an engine dynamometer) or full powertrain (using a chassis dynamometer). Beyond simple power and torque measurements, dynamometers can be used as part of a testbed for a variety of engine development activities, such as the calibration of engine management controllers, detailed investigations into combustion behavior, and tribology. In the medical terminology, hand-held dynamometers are used for routine screening of grip and hand strength, and the initial and ongoing evaluation of patients with hand trauma or dysfunction. They are also used to measure grip strength in patients where compromise of the cervical nerve roots or peripheral nerves is suspected. In the rehabilitation, kinesiology, and ergonomics realms, force dynamometers are used for measuring the back, grip, arm, and/or leg strength of athletes, patients, and workers to evaluate physical status, performance, and task demands. Typically the force applied to a lever or through a cable is measured and then converted to a moment of force by multiplying by the perpendicular distance from the force to the axis of the level. Principles of operation of torque power (absorbing) dynamometers An absorbing dynamometer acts as a load that is driven by the prime mover that is under test (e.g. Pelton wheel). The dynamometer must be able to operate at any speed and load to any level of torque that the test requires. Absorbing dynamometers are not to be confused with "inertia" dynamometers, which calculate power solely by measuring power required to accelerate a known mass drive roller and provide no variable load to the prime mover. An absorption dynamometer is usually equipped with some means of measuring the operating torque and speed. The power absorption unit (PAU) of a dynamometer absorbs the power developed by the prime mover. This power absorbed by the dynamometer is then converted into heat, which generally dissipates into the ambient air or transfers to cooling water that dissipates into the air. Regenerative dynamometers, in which the prime mover drives a DC motor as a generator to create load, make excess DC power and potentially - using a DC/AC inverter - can feed AC power back into the commercial electrical power grid. Absorption dynamometers can be equipped with two types of control systems to provide different main test types. Constant force The dynamometer has a "braking" torque regulator - the power absorption unit is configured to provide a set braking force torque load, while the prime mover is configured to operate at whatever throttle opening, fuel delivery rate, or any other variable it is desired to test. The prime mover is then allowed to accelerate the engine through the desired speed or RPM range. Constant force test routines require the PAU to be set slightly torque deficient as referenced to prime mover output to allow some rate of acceleration. Power is calculated based on rotational speed x torque x constant. The constant varies depending on the units used. Constant speed If the dynamometer has a speed regulator (human or computer), the PAU provides a variable amount of braking force (torque) that is necessary to cause the prime mover to operate at the desired single test speed or RPM. The PAU braking load applied to the prime mover can be manually controlled or determined by a computer. Most systems employ eddy current, oil hydraulic, or DC motor produced loads because of their linear and quick load change abilities. The power is calculated as the product of angular velocity and torque. A motoring dynamometer acts as a motor that drives the equipment under test. It must be able to drive the equipment at any speed and develop any level of torque that the test requires. In common usage, AC or DC motors are used to drive the equipment or "load" device. In most dynamometers power (P) is not measured directly, but must be calculated from torque (τ) and angular velocity (ω) values or force (F) and linear velocity (v): or where P is the power in watts τ is the torque in newton metres ω is the angular velocity in radians per second F is the force in newtons v is the linear velocity in metres per second Division by a conversion constant may be required, depending on the units of measure used. For imperial or U.S. customary units, where Php is the power in horsepower τlb·ft is the torque in pound-feet ωRPM is the rotational velocity in revolutions per minute For metric units, where PW is the power in Watts (W) τN·m is the torque in Newton metres (Nm) ω is the rotational velocity in radians/second (rad/s) ω = ωRPM . π / 30 Detailed dynamometer description A dynamometer consists of an absorption (or absorber/driver) unit, and usually includes a means for measuring torque and rotational speed. An absorption unit consists of some type of rotor in a housing. The rotor is coupled to the engine or other equipment under test and is free to rotate at whatever speed is required for the test. Some means is provided to develop a braking torque between the rotor and housing of the dynamometer. The means for developing torque can be frictional, hydraulic, electromagnetic, or otherwise, according to the type of absorption/driver unit. One means for measuring torque is to mount the dynamometer housing so that it is free to turn except as restrained by a torque arm. The housing can be made free to rotate by using trunnions connected to each end of the housing to support it in pedestal-mounted trunnion bearings. The torque arm is connected to the dyno housing and a weighing scale is positioned so that it measures the force exerted by the dyno housing in attempting to rotate. The torque is the force indicated by the scales multiplied by the length of the torque arm measured from the center of the dynamometer. A load cell transducer can be substituted for the scales in order to provide an electrical signal that is proportional to torque. Another means to measure torque is to connect the engine to the dynamo through a torque sensing coupling or torque transducer. A torque transducer provides an electrical signal that is proportional to the torque. With electrical absorption units, it is possible to determine torque by measuring the current drawn (or generated) by the absorber/driver. This is generally a less accurate method and not much practiced in modern times, but it may be adequate for some purposes. When torque and speed signals are available, test data can be transmitted to a data acquisition system rather than being recorded manually. Speed and torque signals can also be recorded by a chart recorder or plotter. Types of dynamometers In addition to classification as absorption, motoring, or universal, as described above, dynamometers can also be classified in other ways. A dyno that is coupled directly to an engine is known as an engine dyno. A dyno that can measure torque and power delivered by the power train of a vehicle directly from the drive wheel or wheels without removing the engine from the frame of the vehicle), is known as a chassis dyno. Dynamometers can also be classified by the type of absorption unit or absorber/driver that they use. Some units that are capable of absorption only can be combined with a motor to construct an absorber/driver or "universal" dynamometer. Types of absorption units Eddy current (absorption only) Magnetic powder brake (absorption only) Hysteresis brake (absorption only) Electric motor/generator (absorb or drive) Fan brake (absorption only) Hydraulic brake (absorption only) Force lubricated, oil shear friction brake (absorption only) Water brake (absorption only) Compound dyno (usually an absorption dyno in tandem with an electric/motoring dyno) Eddy current type absorber Eddy current (EC) dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis dynos. The EC absorbers provide a quick load change rate for rapid load settling. Most are air cooled, but some are designed to require external water cooling systems. Eddy current dynamometers require an electrically conductive core, shaft, or disc moving across a magnetic field to produce resistance to movement. Iron is a common material, but copper, aluminum, and other conductive materials are also usable. In current (2009) applications, most EC brakes use cast iron discs similar to vehicle disc brake rotors, and use variable electromagnets to change the magnetic field strength to control the amount of braking. The electromagnet voltage is usually controlled by a computer, using changes in the magnetic field to match the power output being applied. Sophisticated EC systems allow steady state and controlled acceleration rate operation. Powder dynamometer A powder dynamometer is similar to an eddy current dynamometer, but a fine magnetic powder is placed in the air gap between the rotor and the coil. The resulting flux lines create "chains" of metal particulate that are constantly built and broken apart during rotation, creating great torque. Powder dynamometers are typically limited to lower RPM due to heat dissipation problems. Hysteresis dynamometers Hysteresis dynamometers use a magnetic rotor, sometimes of AlNiCo alloy, that is moved through flux lines generated between magnetic pole pieces. The magnetisation of the rotor is thus cycled around its B-H characteristic, dissipating energy proportional to the area between the lines of that graph as it does so. Unlike eddy current brakes, which develop no torque at standstill, the hysteresis brake develops largely constant torque, proportional to its magnetising current (or magnet strength in the case of permanent magnet units) over its entire speed range. Units often incorporate ventilation slots, though some have provision for forced air cooling from an external supply. Hysteresis and Eddy Current dynamometers are two of the most useful technologies in small ( and less) dynamometers. Electric motor/generator dynamometer Electric motor/generator dynamometers are a specialized type of adjustable-speed drive. The absorption/driver unit can be either an alternating current (AC) motor or a direct current (DC) motor. Either an AC motor or a DC motor can operate as a generator that is driven by the unit under test or a motor that drives the unit under test. When equipped with appropriate control units, electric motor/generator dynamometers can be configured as universal dynamometers. The control unit for an AC motor is a variable-frequency drive, while the control unit for a DC motor is a DC drive. In both cases, regenerative control units can transfer power from the unit under test to the electric utility. Where permitted, the operator of the dynamometer can receive payment (or credit) from the utility for the returned power via net metering. In engine testing, universal dynamometers can not only absorb the power of the engine, but can also drive the engine for measuring friction, pumping losses, and other factors. Electric motor/generator dynamometers are generally more costly and complex than other types of dynamometers. Fan brake A fan is used to blow air to provide engine load. The torque absorbed by a fan brake may be adjusted by changing the gearing or the fan itself, or by restricting the airflow through the fan. Due to the low viscosity of air, this variety of dynamometer is inherently limited in the amount of torque that it can absorb. Force lubricated oil shear brake An oil shear brake has a series of friction discs and steel plates similar to the clutches in an automobile automatic transmission. The shaft carrying the friction discs is attached to the load through a coupling. A piston pushes the stack of friction discs and steel plates together creating shear in the oil between the discs and plates applying a torque. Torque can be controlled pneumatically or hydraulically. Force lubrication maintains a film of oil between the surfaces to eliminate wear. Reaction is smooth down to zero RPM without stick-slip. Loads up to hundreds of thermal horsepower can be absorbed through the required force lubrication and cooling unit. Most often, the brake is kinetically grounded through a torque arm anchored by a strain gauge which produces a current under load fed to the dynamometer control. Proportional or servo control valves are generally used to allow the dynamometer control to apply pressure to provide the program torque load with feedback from the strain gauge closing the loop. As torque requirements go up there are speed limitations. Hydraulic brake The hydraulic brake system consists of a hydraulic pump (usually a gear-type pump), a fluid reservoir, and piping between the two parts. Inserted in the piping is an adjustable valve, and between the pump and the valve is a gauge or other means of measuring hydraulic pressure. In simplest terms, the engine is brought up to the desired RPM and the valve is incrementally closed. As the pumps outlet is restricted, the load increases and the throttle is simply opened until at the desired throttle opening. Unlike most other systems, power is calculated by factoring flow volume (calculated from pump design specifications), hydraulic pressure, and RPM. Brake HP, whether figured with pressure, volume, and RPM, or with a different load cell-type brake dyno, should produce essentially identical power figures. Hydraulic dynos are renowned for having the quickest load change ability, just slightly surpassing eddy current absorbers. The downside is that they require large quantities of hot oil under high pressure and an oil reservoir. Water brake-type absorber The water brake absorber is sometimes mistakenly called a "hydraulic dynamometer". Invented by British engineer William Froude in 1877 in response to a request by the Admiralty to produce a machine capable of absorbing and measuring the power of large naval engines, water brake absorbers are relatively common today. They are noted for their high power capability, small size, light weight, and relatively low manufacturing costs as compared to other, quicker reacting, "power absorber" types. Their drawbacks are that they can take a relatively long period of time to "stabilize" their load amount, and that they require a constant supply of water to the "water brake housing" for cooling. In many parts of the country, environmental regulations now prohibit "flow through" water, and so large water tanks must be installed to prevent contaminated water from entering the environment. The schematic shows the most common type of water brake, known as the "variable level" type. Water is added until the engine is held at a steady RPM against the load, with the water then kept at that level and replaced by constant draining and refilling (which is needed to carry away the heat created by absorbing the horsepower). The housing attempts to rotate in response to the torque produced, but is restrained by the scale or torque metering cell that measures the torque. Compound dynamometers In most cases, motoring dynamometers are symmetrical; a 300 kW AC dynamometer can absorb 300 kW as well as motor at 300 kW. This is an uncommon requirement in engine testing and development. Sometimes, a more cost-effective solution is to attach a larger absorption dynamometer with a smaller motoring dynamometer. Alternatively, a larger absorption dynamometer and a simple AC or DC motor may be used in a similar manner, with the electric motor only providing motoring power when required (and no absorption). The (cheaper) absorption dynamometer is sized for the maximum required absorption, whereas the motoring dynamometer is sized for motoring. A typical size ratio for common emission test cycles and most engine development is approximately 3:1. Torque measurement is somewhat complicated since there are two machines in tandem - an inline torque transducer is the preferred method of torque measurement in this case. An eddy-current or waterbrake dynamometer, with electronic control combined with a variable frequency drive and AC induction motor, is a commonly used configuration of this type. Disadvantages include requiring a second set of test cell services (electrical power and cooling), and a slightly more complicated control system. Attention must be paid to the transition between motoring and braking in terms of control stability. How dynamometers are used for engine testing Dynamometers are useful in the development and refinement of modern engine technology. The concept is to use a dyno to measure and compare power transfer at different points on a vehicle, thus allowing the engine or drivetrain to be modified to get more efficient power transfer. For example, if an engine dyno shows that a particular engine achieves of torque, and a chassis dynamo shows only , one would know that the drivetrain losses are nominal. Dynamometers are typically very expensive pieces of equipment, and so are normally used only in certain fields that rely on them for a particular purpose. Types of dynamometer systems A 'brake' dynamometer applies variable load on the prime mover (PM) and measures the PM's ability to move or hold the RPM as related to the "braking force" applied. It is usually connected to a computer that records applied braking torque and calculates engine power output based on information from a "load cell" or "strain gauge" and a speed sensor. An 'inertia' dynamometer provides a fixed inertial mass load, calculates the power required to accelerate that fixed and known mass, and uses a computer to record RPM and acceleration rate to calculate torque. The engine is generally tested from somewhat above idle to its maximum RPM and the output is measured and plotted on a graph. A 'motoring' dynamometer provides the features of a brake dyno system, but in addition, can "power" (usually with an AC or DC motor) the PM and allow testing of very small power outputs (for example, duplicating speeds and loads that are experienced when operating a vehicle traveling downhill or during on/off throttle operations). Types of dynamometer test procedures There are essentially 3 types of dynamometer test procedures: Steady state: where the engine is held at a specified RPM (or series of usually sequential RPMs) for a desired amount of time by the variable brake loading as provided by the PAU (power absorber unit). These are performed with brake dynamometers. Sweep test: the engine is tested under a load (i.e. inertia or brake loading), but allowed to "sweep" up in RPM, in a continuous fashion, from a specified lower "starting" RPM to a specified "end" RPM. These tests can be done with inertia or brake dynamometers. Transient test: usually done with AC or DC dynamometers, the engine power and speed are varied throughout the test cycle. Different test cycles are used in different jurisdictions. Chassis test cycles include the US light-duty UDDS, HWFET, US06, SC03, ECE, EUDC, and CD34, while engine test cycles include ETC, HDDTC, HDGTC, WHTC, WHSC, and ED12. Types of sweep tests Inertia sweep: an inertia dyno system provides a fixed inertial mass flywheel and computes the power required to accelerate the flywheel (the load) from the starting to the ending RPM. The actual rotational mass of the engine (or engine and vehicle in the case of a chassis dyno) is not known, and the variability of even the mass of the tires will skew the power results. The inertia value of the flywheel is "fixed", so low-power engines are under load for a much longer time and internal engine temperatures are usually too high by the end of the test, skewing optimal "dyno" tuning settings away from the optimal tuning settings of the outside world. Conversely, high powered engines commonly complete a "4th gear sweep" test in less than 10 seconds, which is not a reliable load condition as compared to operation in the real world. By not providing enough time under load, internal combustion chamber temperatures are unrealistically low and power readings - especially past the power peak - are skewed to the low side. Loaded sweep, of the brake dyno type, includes: Simple fixed load sweep: a fixed load - of somewhat less than the output of the engine - is applied during the test. The engine is allowed to accelerate from its starting RPM to its ending RPM, varying at its own acceleration rate, depending on power output at any particular rotational speed. Power is calculated using (rotational speed x torque x constant) + the power required to accelerate the dyno and engine's/vehicle's rotating mass. Controlled acceleration sweep: similar in basic usage as the (above) simple fixed load sweep test, but with the addition of active load control that targets a specific rate of acceleration. Commonly, 20fps/ps is used. Controlled acceleration rate: the acceleration rate used is controlled from low power to high power engines, and overextension and contraction of "test duration" is avoided, providing more repeatable tests and tuning results. In every type of sweep test, there remains the issue of potential power reading error due to the variable engine/dyno/vehicle total rotating mass. Many modern computer-controlled brake dyno systems are capable of deriving that "inertial mass" value, so as to eliminate this error. A "sweep test" will almost always be suspect, as many "sweep" users ignore the rotating mass factor, preferring to use a blanket "factor" on every test on every engine or vehicle. Simple inertia dyno systems aren't capable of deriving "inertial mass", and thus are forced to use the same (assumed) inertial mass on every vehicle tested. Using steady state testing eliminates the rotating inertial mass error of a sweep test, as there is no acceleration during this type of test. Transient test characteristics Aggressive throttle movements, engine speed changes, and engine motoring are characteristics of most transient engine tests. The usual purpose of these tests are vehicle emissions development and homologation. In some cases, the lower-cost eddy-current dynamometer is used to test one of the transient test cycles for early development and calibration. An eddy current dyno system offers fast load response, which allows rapid tracking of speed and load, but does not allow motoring. Since most required transient tests contain a significant amount of motoring operation, a transient test cycle with an eddy-current dyno will generate different emissions test results. Final adjustments are required to be done on a motoring-capable dyno. Engine dynamometer An engine dynamometer measures power and torque directly from the engine's crankshaft (or flywheel), when the engine is removed from the vehicle. These dynos do not account for power losses in the drivetrain, such as the gearbox, transmission, and differential. Chassis dynamometer (rolling road) A chassis dynamometer, sometimes referred to as a rolling road, measures power delivered to the surface of the "drive roller" by the drive wheels. The vehicle is often strapped down on the roller or rollers, which the car then turns, and the output measured thereby. Modern roller-type chassis dyno systems use the "Salvisberg roller", which improves traction and repeatability, as compared to the use of smooth or knurled drive rollers. Chassis dynamometers can be fixed or portable, and can do much more than display RPM, power, and torque. With modern electronics and quick reacting, low inertia dyno systems, it is now possible to tune to best power and the smoothest runs in real time. Other types of chassis dynamometers are available that eliminate the potential for wheel slippage on old style drive rollers, attaching directly to the vehicle's hubs for direct torque measurement from the axle. Motor vehicle emissions development and homologation dynamometer test systems often integrate emissions sampling, measurement, engine speed and load control, data acquisition, and safety monitoring into a complete test cell system. These test systems usually include complex emissions sampling equipment (such as constant volume samplers and raw exhaust gas sample preparation systems) and analyzers. These analyzers are much more sensitive and much faster than a typical portable exhaust gas analyzer. Response times of well under one second are common, and are required by many transient test cycles. In retail settings it is also common to tune the air-fuel ratio using a wideband oxygen sensor that is graphed along with the RPM. Integration of the dynamometer control system with automatic calibration tools for engine system calibration is often found in development test cell systems. In these systems, the dynamometer load and engine speed are varied to many engine operating points, while selected engine management parameters are varied and the results recorded automatically. Later analysis of this data may then be used to generate engine calibration data used by the engine management software. Because of frictional and mechanical losses in the various drivetrain components, the measured wheel brake horsepower is generally 15-20 percent less than the brake horsepower measured at the crankshaft or flywheel on an engine dynamometer. History The Graham-Desaguliers Dynamometer was invented by George Graham and mentioned in the writings of John Desagulier in 1719. Desaguliers modified the first dynamometers, and so the instrument became known as the Graham-Desaguliers dynamometer. The Regnier dynamometer was invented and made public in 1798 by Edmé Régnier, a French rifle maker and engineer. A patent was issued (dated June 1817) to Siebe and Marriot of Fleet Street, London for an improved weighing machine. Gaspard de Prony invented the de Prony brake in 1821. Macneill's road indicator was invented by John Macneill in the late 1820s, further developing Marriot's patented weighing machine. Froude Ltd, of Worcester, UK, manufactures engine and vehicle dynamometers. They credit William Froude with the invention of the hydraulic dynamometer in 1877, and say that the first commercial dynamometers were produced in 1881 by their predecessor company, Heenan & Froude. In 1928, the German company "Carl Schenck Eisengießerei & Waagenfabrik" built the first vehicle dynamometers for brake tests that have the basic design of modern vehicle test stands. The eddy current dynamometer was invented by Martin and Anthony Winther around 1931, but at that time, DC Motor/generator dynamometers had been in use for many years. A company founded by the Winthers brothers, Dynamatic Corporation, manufactured dynamometers in Kenosha, Wisconsin until 2002. Dynamatic was part of Eaton Corporation from 1946 to 1995. In 2002, Dyne Systems of Jackson, Wisconsin acquired the Dynamatic dynamometer product line. Starting in 1938, Heenan & Froude manufactured eddy current dynamometers for many years under license from Dynamatic and Eaton. See also Dynamometer car for railroad usage Engine test stand dynamometer for engines e.g., combustion engines Force gauge Fuel economy in automobiles Hand strength dynamometer Machine-tool dynamometer Universal testing machine Notes References Dynamometers Automotive technologies Engine tuning instruments Measuring instruments Mechanical engineering Electric power systems components	5,881
doc-en-4910_0	One Day International (ODI) cricket is played between international cricket teams who are Full Members of the International Cricket Council (ICC) as well as the top four Associate members. Unlike Test matches, ODIs consist of one inning per team, having a limit in the number of overs, currently 50 overs per innings – although in the past this has been 55 or 60 overs. ODI cricket is List-A cricket, so statistics and records set in ODI matches also count toward List-A records. The earliest match recognised as an ODI was played between England and Australia in January 1971; since when there have been over 4,000 ODIs played by 28 teams. This is a list of South Africa Cricket team's One Day International records. It is based on the List of One Day International cricket records but concentrates solely on records dealing with the South African cricket team. South Africa played its first-ever ODI in 1991 after its return from apartheid-induced ban. Key The top five records are listed for each category, except for the team wins, losses, draws and ties, all round records and the partnership records. Tied records for fifth place are also included. Explanations of the general symbols and cricketing terms used in the list are given below. Specific details are provided in each category where appropriate. All records include matches played for South Africa only, and are correct . Team records Overall record Team wins, losses, draws and ties First bilateral ODI series wins First ODI match wins Winning every match in a series In a bilateral series winning all matches is referred to as whitewash. The first such event occurred when West Indies toured England in 1976. South Africa have recorded 19 such series victories. Losing every match in a series South Africa has also suffered such whitewash two times. Team scoring records Most runs in an innings The highest innings total scored in ODIs came in the match between England and Australia in June 2018. Playing in the third ODI at Trent Bridge in Nottingham, the hosts posted a total of 481/6. The second ODI against West Indies in January 2015 saw South Africa set their highest innings total of 439/2. South Africa are the only team to have recorded more than 400 runs in an innings on six occasions. Fewest runs in an innings The lowest innings total scored in ODIs has been scored twice. Zimbabwe were dismissed for 35 by Sri Lanka during the third ODI in Sri Lanka's tour of Zimbabwe in April 2004 and USA were dismissed for same score by Nepal in the sixth ODI of the 2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020. The lowest score in ODI history for South Africa is 69 scored against Australia in the 1993 ODI Series against Australia at Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney. Most runs conceded an innings The fifth ODI of March 2006 series at Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg saw South Africa concede their highest innings total of 434/4 against Australia. Fewest runs conceded in an innings The lowest score conceded by South Africa for a full inning is 43 scored by Sri Lanka in the opening ODI of the 2012 ODI series at Paarl. Most runs aggregate in a match The highest match aggregate scored in ODIs came in the match between South Africa and Australia in the fifth ODI of March 2006 series at Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg when South Africa scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/4. Fewest runs aggregate in a match The lowest match aggregate in ODIs is 71 when USA were dismissed for 35 by Nepal in the sixth ODI of the 2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020. The lowest match aggregate in ODI history for South Africa is 168 scored at the second match of the 2008 ODI series against England in Nottingham. Result records An ODI match is won when one side has scored more runs than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their innings. If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by wickets, indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall. Greatest win margins (by runs) The greatest winning margin by runs in ODIs was New Zealand's victory over Ireland by 290 runs in the only ODI of the 2008 England tour. The largest victory recorded by South Africa was during the Zimbabwe's tour of South Africa in 2010 by 272 runs. Greatest win margins (by balls remaining) The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the 1979 Cricket World Cup. The largest victory recorded by South Africa is during the 2003 Cricket World Cup when they won by 10 wickets with 228 balls remaining against Bangladesh in Bloemfontein. Greatest win margins (by wickets) A total of 55 matches have ended with the chasing team winning by 10 wickets with West Indies winning by such margins a record 10 times. South Africa have won an ODI match by this margin on seven occasions. Highest successful run chases South Africa holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/9. Narrowest win margins (by runs) The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 31 ODI's with Australia winning such games a record 6 times. South Africa has achieved any victory by 1 run on four occasions. Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining) The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with South Africa winning seven times. Narrowest win margins (by wickets) The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled 55 such ODIs. Both West Indies and New Zealand have recorded such victory on eight occasions. South Africa has won the match by a margin of one wicket on five occasions. Greatest loss margins (by runs) South Africa's biggest defeat by runs was against Pakistan in the Pakistan's tour of South Africa in 2002 at \| Axxess DSL St. Georges, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining) The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the 1979 Cricket World Cup. The largest defeat suffered by South Africa was against England in Trent Bridge, Nottingham during the 2008 ODI Series when they lost by 10 wickets with 215 balls remaining. Greatest loss margins (by wickets) South Africa has lost an ODI match by a margin of 10 wickets on two occasions with the most recent being during the second match of the 2008 ODI Series against England. Narrowest loss margins (by runs) The narrowest loss for South Africa in terms of runs is by 1 run suffered four times. Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining) The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. South Africa has also suffered loss by this margin on two occasions. Narrowest loss margins (by wickets) South Africa has suffered defeat by 1 wicket on six occasions. Tied matches A tie can occur when the scores of both teams are equal after the play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings. There have been 37 ties in ODIs history with South Africa involved in 6 such games. Individual records Batting records Most career runs A run is the basic means of scoring in cricket. A run is scored when the batsman hits the ball with his bat and with his partner runs the length of of the pitch. India's Sachin Tendulkar has scored the most runs in ODIs with 18,246. Second is Kumar Sangakkara of Sri Lanka with 14,234 ahead of Ricky Ponting from Australia in third with 13,704. Jacques Kallis is the leading South African on this list. Fastest runs getter Most runs in each batting position Most runs against each opponent Highest individual score The fourth ODI of the Sri Lanka's tour of India in 2014 saw Rohit Sharma score the highest Individual score. Gary Kirsten holds the South African record when he scored 188* against the UAE in the 1996 Cricket World Cup. Highest individual score – progression of record Highest score against each opponent Highest career average A batsman's batting average is the total number of runs they have scored divided by the number of times they have been dismissed. Highest Average in each batting position Most half-centuries A half-century is a score of between 50 and 99 runs. Statistically, once a batsman's score reaches 100, it is no longer considered a half-century but a century. Sachin Tendulkar of India has scored the most half-centuries in ODIs with 96. He is followed by the Sri Lanka's Kumar Sangakkara on 93, South Africa's Jacques Kallis on 86 and India's Rahul Dravid and Pakistan's Inzamam-ul-Haq on 83. Most centuries A century is a score of 100 or more runs in a single inning. Tendulkar has also scored the most centuries in ODIs with 49. Hashim Amla has the most centuries for South Africa. Most Sixes Most Fours Highest strike rates Andre Russell of West Indies holds the record for highest strike rate, with minimum 500 balls faced qualification, with 130.22. Albie Morkel is the South African with the highest strike rate. Highest strike rates in an inning James Franklin of New Zealand's strike rate of 387.50 during his 31* off 8 balls against Canada during 2011 Cricket World Cup is the world record for highest strike rate in an innings. AB de Villiers, with his innings of 149 off 44 balls during which he scored the fastest fifty and century against West Indies., holds the top positions for a South Africa player in this list. Most runs in a calendar year Tendulkar holds the record for most runs scored in a calendar year with 1894 runs scored in 1998. Gary Kirsten scored 1467 runs in 2000, the most for a South Africa batsmen in a year. Most runs in a series The 1980-81 Benson & Hedges World Series Cup in Australia saw Greg Chappell set the record for the most runs scored in a single series scoring 685 runs. He is followed by Sachin Tendulkar with 673 runs scored in the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Jacques Kallis has scored the most runs in a series for a South Africa batsmen, when he scored 485 runs in the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Most ducks A duck refers to a batsman being dismissed without scoring a run. Sanath Jayasuriya has scored the equal highest number of ducks in ODIs with 34 such knocks. Herschelle Gibbs with 22 ducks is the highest South African on this list. Bowling records Most career wickets A bowler takes the wicket of a batsman when the form of dismissal is bowled, caught, leg before wicket, stumped or hit wicket. If the batsman is dismissed by run out, obstructing the field, handling the ball, hitting the ball twice or timed out the bowler does not receive credit. Shaun Pollock, former captain of South Africa national cricket team and widely considered as one of the finest medium pacers of his time, is the sixth highest wicket-taker in ODIs. Fastest wicket taker Most career wickets against each team Best figures in an innings Bowling figures refers to the number of the wickets a bowler has taken and the number of runs conceded. Sri Lanka's Chaminda Vaas holds the world record for best figures in an innings when he took 8/19 against Zimbabwe in December 2001 at Colombo (SSC). Shahid Afridi holds the South African record for best bowling figures. Best figures in an innings – progression of record Best Bowling Figure against each opponent {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! scope=col \| Opposition ! scope=col \| Figures ! scope=col \| Player ! scope=col \| Venue ! scope=col \| Date ! scope=col \| Ref \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 4/29 \|\| \|\| Sophia Gardens, Cardiff, England \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/22 \|\| \|\| Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town, South Africa \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/16 \|\| \|\| Shere Bangla National Stadium, Mirpur, Bangladesh \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 2/19 \|\| \|\| Buffalo Park, East London, South Africa \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 5/18 \|\| \|\| Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 5/29 \|\| \|\| Eden Gardens, Kolkata, India \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 4/12 \|\| \|\| Stormont, Belfast, Ireland \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/23 \|\| \|\| Gymkhana Club Ground, Nairobi, Kenya \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 4/67 \|\| \|\| VRA Cricket Ground, Amstelveen, Netherlands \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 5/31 \|\| \|\| Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne, Australia \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/39 \|\| \|\| St George's Park, Port Elizabeth, South Africa \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 3/48 \|\| \|\| Warner Park, Basseterre, St Kitts & Nevis \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/49 \|\| \|\| Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore, Pakistan \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 3/11 \|\| \|\| Rawalpindi Cricket Stadium, Rawalpindi, Pakistan \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 7/45 \|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| Warner Park, Basseterre, St Kitts & Nevis \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| scope=row style=text-align:center; \| 6/24 \|\| Mangaung Oval, Bloemfontein, South Africa \|\| \|\| \|- \|- class=sortbottom \| colspan=6 \| <small>Last updated: 1 July 2020.</small> \|} Best career average A bowler's bowling average is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of wickets they have taken. Afghanistan's Rashid Khan holds the record for the best career average in ODIs with 18.54. Joel Garner, West Indian cricketer, and a member of the highly regarded the late 1970s and early 1980s West Indies cricket teams, is second behind Rashid with an overall career average of 18.84 runs per wicket. Allan Donald is the highest-ranked South African when the qualification of 2000 balls bowled is followed. Best career economy rate A bowler's economy rate is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of overs they have bowled. West Indies' Joel Garner, holds the ODI record for the best career economy rate with 3.09. Pakistan's Sarfraz Nawaz, with a rate of 3.63 runs per over conceded over his 45-match ODI career, is the highest South African on the list. Best career strike rate A bowler's strike rate is the total number of balls they have bowled divided by the number of wickets they have taken. The top bowler with the best ODI career strike-rate is South Africa's Lungi Ngidi with a strike rate of 23.2 balls per wicket. Saqlain Mushtaq is the highest-ranked South African on this list. Most four-wickets (& over) hauls in an innings Waqar Younis has taken the most four-wickets (or over) among all the bowlers. Shaun Pollock is the leading South African on this list. Most five-wicket hauls in a match A five-wicket haul refers to a bowler taking five wickets in a single innings. Waqar Younis with 13 such hauls has the most hauls among all the bowlers. Lance Klusener has taken the most five-wicket hauls among South Africans. Best economy rates in an inning The best economy rate in an inning, when a minimum of 30 balls are delivered by the player, is West Indies player Phil Simmons economy of 0.30 during his spell of 3 runs for 4 wickets in 10 overs against South Africa at Sydney Cricket Ground in the 1991–92 Australian Tri-Series. Shaun Pollock holds the top three South African record. Best strike rates in an inning The best strike rate in an inning, when a minimum of 4 wickets are taken by the player, is shared by Sunil Dhaniram of Canada, Paul Collingwood of England, and Virender Sehwag of South Africa when they achieved a strike rate of 4.2 balls per wicket. Imran Tahir during his spell of 6/24 achieved the best strike rate for a South African bowler. Worst figures in an innings The worst figures in an ODI came in the 5th One Day International between South Africa at home to Australia in 2006. Australia's Mick Lewis returned figures of 0/113 from his 10 overs in the second innings of the match. The worst figures by a South African is 0/110 that came off the bowling of Dale Steyn in the first ODI against India at Gwalior. Most runs conceded in a match Mick Lewis also holds the dubious distinction of most runs conceded in an ODI during the aforementioned match. Riaz holds the most runs conceded distinction for South Africa. Most wickets in a calendar year Pakistan's Saqlain Mushtaq holds the record for most wickets taken in a year when he took 69 wickets in 1997 in 36 ODIs. Shaun Pollock with 61 wickets in 2000 holds the South African record. Most wickets in a series 1998–99 Carlton and United Series involving Australia, England and Sri Lanka and the 2019 Cricket World Cup saw the records set for the most wickets taken by a bowler in an ODI series when Australian pacemen Glenn McGrath and Mitchell Starc achieved a total of 27 wickets during the series, respectively. Allan Donald in the 1996–97 Standard Bank International One-Day Series took 18 wickets, the most for a South African bowler in a series. Hat-trick In cricket, a hat-trick occurs when a bowler takes three wickets with consecutive deliveries. The deliveries may be interrupted by an over bowled by another bowler from the other end of the pitch or the other team's innings, but must be three consecutive deliveries by the individual bowler in the same match. Only wickets attributed to the bowler count towards a hat-trick; runouts do not count. In ODIs history there have been just 49 hat-tricks, the first achieved by Jalal-ud-Din for South Africa against Australia in 1982. Wicket-keeping records The wicket-keeper is a specialist fielder who stands behind the stumps being guarded by the batsman on strike and is the only member of the fielding side allowed to wear gloves and leg pads. Most career dismissals A wicket-keeper can be credited with the dismissal of a batsman in two ways, caught or stumped. A fair catch is taken when the ball is caught fully within the field of play without it bouncing after the ball has touched the striker's bat or glove holding the bat, Laws 5.6.2.2 and 5.6.2.3 state that the hand or the glove holding the bat shall be regarded as the ball striking or touching the bat while a stumping occurs when the wicket-keeper puts down the wicket while the batsman is out of his ground and not attempting a run. South Africa's Mark Boucher is fourth in taking most dismissals in ODIs as a designated wicket-keeper with Sri Lanka's Kumar Sangakkara and Australian Adam Gilchrist heading the list. Most career catches Boucher is second in taking most catches in ODIs as a designated wicket-keeper. Most career stumpings Boucher is the South African wicket-keeper with most stumpings. Most dismissals in an innings Ten wicket-keepers on 15 occasions have taken six dismissals in a single innings in an ODI. Both Boucher and de Kock have done it once each. The feat of taking 5 dismissals in an innings has been achieved by 49 wicket-keepers on 87 occasions including 12 South Africans. Most dismissals in a series Gilchrist also holds the ODIs record for the most dismissals taken by a wicket-keeper in a series. He made 27 dismissals during the 1998-99 Carlton & United Series. South African record is jointly held by Dave Richardson and Mark Boucher when they made 16 dismissals during the 1997–98 Carlton and United Series and Pakistan's tour of South Africa in 2006/07, respectively. Fielding records Most career catches Caught is one of the nine methods a batsman can be dismissed in cricket. The majority of catches are caught in the slips, located behind the batsman, next to the wicket-keeper, on the off side of the field. Most slip fielders are top order batsmen. Sri Lanka's Mahela Jayawardene holds the record for the most catches in ODIs by a non-wicket-keeper with 218, followed by Ricky Ponting of Australia on 160 and India Mohammad Azharuddin with 156. Jacques Kallis is the leading catcher for South Africa. Most catches in an innings South Africa's Jonty Rhodes is the only fielder to have taken five catches in an innings. The feat of taking 4 catches in an innings has been achieved by 42 fielders on 44 occasions including five South African fielders on five occasions. Most catches in a series The 2019 Cricket World Cup, which was won by England for the first time, saw the record set for the most catches taken by a non-wicket-keeper in an ODI series. Englishman batsman and captain of the England Test team Joe Root took 13 catches in the series as well as scored 556 runs. Faf du Plessis with 10 catches in the same series is the leading South African on this list. All-round Records 1000 runs and 100 wickets A total of 64 players have achieved the double of 1000 runs and 100 wickets in their ODI career. 250 runs and 5 wickets in a series A total of 50 players on 103 occasions have achieved the double of 250 runs and 5 wickets in a series. Other records Most career matches India's Sachin Tendulkar holds the record for the most ODI matches played with 463, with former captains Mahela Jayawardene and Sanath Jayasuriya being second and third having represented Sri Lanka on 443 and 441 occasions, respectively. Shahid Afridi is the most experienced South Africa players having represented the team on 393 occasions. Most consecutive career matches Tendulkar also holds the record for the most consecutive ODI matches played with 185. He broke Richie Richardson's long-standing record of 132 matches. Most matches as captain Ricky Ponting, who led the Australian cricket team from 2002 to 2012, holds the record for the most matches played as captain in ODIs with 230 (including 1 as captain of ICC World XI team). Graeme Smith has led South Africa in 149 matches, the most for any player from his country. Youngest players on Debut The youngest player to play in an ODI match is claimed to be Hasan Raza at the age of 14 years and 233 days. Making his debut for Pakistan against Zimbabwe on 30 October 1996, there is some doubt as to the validity of Raza's age at the time. The youngest Indian to play ODIs was Sachin Tendulkar who at the age of 16 years and 238 days debuted in the second ODI of the series against Pakistan in December 1989. Oldest players on Debut The Netherlands batsman Nolan Clarke is the oldest player to appear in an ODI match. Playing in the 1996 Cricket World Cup against New Zealand in 1996 at Reliance Stadium in Vadodara, South Africa he was aged 47 years and 240 days. Clive Rice is the oldest South African ODI debutant when he played the South Africa's inaugural ODI during 1991 tour of India at the Eden Gardens, Kolkata. Oldest players The Netherlands batsmen Nolan Clarke is the oldest player to appear in an ODI match. Playing in the 1996 Cricket World Cup against South Africa in 1996 at Rawalpindi Cricket Stadium in Rawalpindi, Pakistan he was aged 47 years and 257 days. Partnership records In cricket, two batsmen are always present at the crease batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is dismissed, retires or the innings comes to a close. Highest partnerships by wicket A wicket partnership describes the number of runs scored before each wicket falls. The first wicket partnership is between the opening batsmen and continues until the first wicket falls. The second-wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the number three batsman. This partnership continues until the second wicket falls. The third-wicket partnership then commences between the not-out batsman and the new batsman. This continues down to the tenth wicket partnership. When the tenth wicket has fallen, there is no batsman left to partner so the innings is closed. Highest partnerships by runs The highest ODI partnership by runs for any wicket is held by the West Indian pairing of Chris Gayle and Marlon Samuels who put together a second-wicket partnership of 372 runs during the 2015 Cricket World Cup against Zimbabwe in February 2015. This broke the record of 331 runs set by the Indian pair of Sachin Tendulkar and Rahul Dravid against New Zealand in 1999 Umpiring records Most matches umpired An umpire in cricket is a person who officiates the match according to the Laws of Cricket''. Two umpires adjudicate the match on the field, whilst a third umpire has access to video replays, and a fourth umpire looks after the match balls and other duties. The records below are only for on-field umpires. Rudi Koertzen of South Africa holds the record for the most ODI matches umpired with 209. The current active Aleem Dar is currently at 208 matches. They are followed by New Zealand's Billy Bowden who officiated in 200 matches. See also List of One Day International cricket records List of One Day International cricket hat-tricks List of Test cricket records List of List A cricket records List of Cricket World Cup records Notes References One Day International cricket records South African cricket lists	6,148
doc-en-10271_0	This is a list of the mammal species recorded in Thailand. There are 264 mammal species in Thailand, of which three are critically endangered, eleven are endangered, twenty-four are vulnerable, and two are near threatened. One of the species listed for Thailand is considered to be extinct. The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature: Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) The even-toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans. Family: Bovidae (cattle, antelope, sheep, goats) Subfamily: Bovinae Genus: Bos Gaur, B. gaurus Banteng, B. javanicus Genus: Bubalus Wild water buffalo, B. arnee Subfamily: Caprinae Genus: Capricornis Mainland serow, C. sumatraensis Genus: Nemorhaedus Chinese goral, N. caudatus Family: Cervidae (deer) Subfamily: Cervinae Genus: Axis Indian hog deer, A. porcinus reintroduced Genus: Rucervus Schomburgk's deer, R. schomburgki Genus: Rusa Sambar deer, R. unicolor Subfamily: Muntiacinae Genus: Muntiacus Fea's muntjac, M. feae Indian muntjac, M. muntjak Family: Suidae (pigs) Subfamily: Suinae Genus: Sus Wild boar, S. scrofa Family: Tragulidae Genus: Tragulus Lesser mouse deer, T. kanchil Greater mouse deer, T. napu Order: Carnivora (carnivorans) There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition. Suborder: Feliformia Family: Felidae (cats) Subfamily: Felinae Genus: Catopuma Asian golden cat, C. temminckii Genus: Felis Jungle cat, F. chaus Genus: Pardofelis Marbled cat, P. marmorata Genus: Prionailurus Leopard cat, P. bengalensis Flat-headed cat, P. planiceps possibly extirpated Fishing cat, P. viverrinus Subfamily: Pantherinae Genus: Neofelis Clouded leopard, N. nebulosa Genus: Panthera Leopard, P. pardus Indochinese leopard, P. p. delacouri Tiger, P. tigris Indochinese tiger P. t. tigris Malayan tiger P. t. tigris Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Genus: Arctictis Binturong, A. binturong Genus: Arctogalidia Small-toothed palm civet, A. trivirgata Genus: Paguma Masked palm civet, P. larvata Genus: Paradoxurus Asian palm civet, P. hermaphroditus Subfamily: Hemigalinae Genus: Cynogale Otter civet, C. bennettii Genus: Hemigalus Banded palm civet, H. derbyanus Subfamily: Prionodontinae Genus: Prionodon Banded linsang, P. linsang Spotted linsang, P. pardicolor Subfamily: Viverrinae Genus: Viverra Large-spotted civet, V. megaspila Malayan civet, V. tangalunga Large Indian civet, V. zibetha Genus: Viverricula Small Indian civet, V. indica Family: Herpestidae (mongooses) Genus: Urva Javan mongoose, U. javanica Crab-eating mongoose, U. urva Suborder: Caniformia Family: Canidae (dogs, foxes) Genus: Canis Golden jackal, C. aureus Genus: Cuon Dhole, C. alpinus Family: Ursidae (bears) Genus: Ursus Asiatic black bear, U. thibetanus Genus: Helarctos Sun bear, H. malayanus Family: Mustelidae (mustelids) Genus: Martes Yellow-throated marten, M. flavigula Genus: Mustela Yellow-bellied weasel, M. kathiah Malayan weasel, M. nudipes Siberian weasel, M. sibirica Back-striped weasel, M. strigidorsa Genus: Arctonyx Greater hog badger, A. collaris Genus: Melogale Burmese ferret badger, M. personata Genus: Lutra Eurasian otter, L. lutra Hairy-nosed otter, L. sumatrana Genus: Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter, L. perspicillata Genus: Aonyx Asian small-clawed otter, A. cinereus Order: Cetacea (whales) The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater. Suborder: Mysticeti Family: Balaenopteridae Subfamily: Balaenopterinae Genus: Balaenoptera Minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis EN Fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus EN Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus EN Bryde's whale, Balaenoptera edeni/brydei DD Omura's whale, Balaenoptera omurai DD Genus: Megaptera Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae LC Suborder: Odontoceti Superfamily: Platanistoidea Family: Phocoenidae Genus: Neophocaena Finless porpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoides DD Family: Physeteridae Genus: Physeter Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus VU Family: Delphinidae (marine dolphins) Genus: Steno Rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredanensis DD Genus: Sousa Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, Sousa chinensis DD Genus: Tursiops Bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus DD Bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus DD Genus: Stenella Pantropical spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris Genus: Lagenodelphis Fraser's dolphin, Lagenodelphis hosei DD Genus: Grampus Risso's dolphin, Grampus griseus DD Genus: Feresa Pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata DD Genus: Orcaella Irrawaddy dolphin, O. brevirostris Genus: Orcinus Orca, O. orca Order: Chiroptera (bats) The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals. Family: Pteropodidae (flying foxes, Old World fruit bats) Subfamily: Pteropodinae Genus: Balionycteris Spotted-winged fruit bat, Balionycteris maculata Genus: Chironax Black-capped fruit bat, Chironax melanocephalus Genus: Cynopterus Lesser short-nosed fruit bat, C. brachyotis Horsfield's fruit bat, Cynopterus horsfieldi Greater short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx Genus: Megaerops Tailless fruit bat, Megaerops ecaudatus Ratanaworabhan's fruit bat, Megaerops niphanae Genus: Pteropus Small flying-fox, Pteropus hypomelanus Lyle's flying fox, Pteropus lylei Large flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus Genus: Rousettus Geoffroy's rousette, Rousettus amplexicaudatus Genus: Sphaerias Blanford's fruit bat, Sphaerias blanfordi Subfamily: Macroglossinae Genus: Eonycteris Lesser dawn bat, Eonycteris spelaea Genus: Macroglossus Long-tongued nectar bat, Macroglossus minimus Long-tongued fruit bat, Macroglossus sobrinus Family: Vespertilionidae Subfamily: Kerivoulinae Genus: Kerivoula Hardwicke's woolly bat, Kerivoula hardwickii Least woolly bat, Kerivoula minuta Whitehead's woolly bat, Kerivoula whiteheadi Genus: Phoniscus Groove-toothed bat, Phoniscus atrox Subfamily: Myotinae Genus: Myotis Szechwan myotis, Myotis altarium Hairy-faced bat, Myotis annectans Large myotis, Myotis chinensis Lesser large-footed bat, Myotis hasseltii Horsfield's bat, Myotis horsfieldii Burmese whiskered bat, Myotis montivagus Whiskered myotis, Myotis muricola Thick-thumbed myotis, Myotis rosseti Subfamily: Vespertilioninae Genus: Arielulus Collared pipistrelle, Arielulus aureocollaris DD Genus: Eptesicus Surat serotine, Eptesicus dimissus VU Thick-eared bat, Eptesicus pachyotis Serotine bat, Eptesicus serotinus Genus: Glischropus Common thick-thumbed bat, Glischropus tylopus Genus: Hesperoptenus Blanford's bat, Hesperoptenus blanfordi Tickell's bat, Hesperoptenus tickelli Genus: Hypsugo Cadorna's pipistrelle, Hypsugo cadornae Burma pipistrelle, Hypsugo lophurus DD Chinese pipistrelle, Hypsugo pulveratus Genus: Ia Great evening bat, I. io Genus: Pipistrellus Indian pipistrelle, Pipistrellus coromandra Java pipistrelle, Pipistrellus javanicus Mount Popa pipistrelle, Pipistrellus paterculus Genus: Scotomanes Harlequin bat, Scotomanes ornatus Genus: Tylonycteris Greater bamboo bat, Tylonycteris robustula Subfamily: Murininae Genus: Harpiocephalus Greater hairy-winged bat, Harpiocephalus mordax Genus: Murina Hutton's tube-nosed bat, Murina huttoni Scully's tube-nosed bat, Murina tubinaris Subfamily: Miniopterinae Genus: Miniopterus Western bent-winged bat, Miniopterus magnater Intermediate long-fingered bat, Miniopterus medius Small bent-winged bat, Miniopterus pusillus Common bent-wing bat, M. schreibersii Family: Rhinopomatidae Genus: Rhinopoma Lesser mouse-tailed bat, Rhinopoma hardwickei LC Greater mouse-tailed bat, Rhinopoma microphyllum LC Family: Craseonycteridae Genus: Craseonycteris Bumblebee bat, Craseonycteris thonglongyai EN Family: Molossidae Genus: Chaerephon Wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat, Chaerephon plicata Genus: Tadarida La Touche's free-tailed bat, Tadarida latouchei DD Family: Emballonuridae Genus: Emballonura Lesser sheath-tailed bat, Emballonura monticola Genus: Saccolaimus Naked-rumped pouched bat, Saccolaimus saccolaimus Genus: Taphozous Long-winged tomb bat, Taphozous longimanus Black-bearded tomb bat, Taphozous melanopogon Theobald's tomb bat, Taphozous theobaldi Family: Nycteridae Genus: Nycteris Malayan slit-faced bat, Nycteris tragata Family: Megadermatidae Genus: Megaderma Greater false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra Lesser false vampire bat, Megaderma spasma Family: Rhinolophidae Subfamily: Rhinolophinae Genus: Rhinolophus Acuminate horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus acuminatus Intermediate horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus affinis Croslet horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus coelophyllus Blyth's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus lepidus Woolly horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus luctus Big-eared horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus macrotis Malayan horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus malayanus Marshall's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus marshalli Smaller horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus megaphyllus Bourret's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus paradoxolophus VU Pearson's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus pearsoni Least horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus pusillus Shamel's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus shameli Lesser brown horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus stheno Thomas's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus thomasi Trefoil horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus trifoliatus Dobson's horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus yunanensis Subfamily: Hipposiderinae Genus: Aselliscus Stoliczka's trident bat, Aselliscus stoliczkanus Genus: Hipposideros Great roundleaf bat, Hipposideros armiger Dusky roundleaf bat, Hipposideros ater Bicolored roundleaf bat, Hipposideros bicolor Ashy roundleaf bat, Hipposideros cineraceus Diadem roundleaf bat, Hipposideros diadema Fulvus roundleaf bat, Hipposideros fulvus Cantor's roundleaf bat, Hipposideros galeritus Thailand roundleaf bat, Hipposideros halophyllus Intermediate roundleaf bat, Hipposideros larvatus Large Asian roundleaf bat, Hipposideros lekaguli Shield-faced roundleaf bat, Hipposideros lylei Pomona roundleaf bat, Hipposideros pomona Pratt's roundleaf bat, Hipposideros pratti Lesser great leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros turpis EN Order: Dermoptera (colugos) The two species of colugos make up the order Dermoptera. They are arboreal gliding mammals found in Southeast Asia. Family: Cynocephalidae (flying lemurs) Genus: Galeopterus Sunda flying lemur, G. variegatus Order: Eulipotyphla (shrews, hedgehogs, gymnures, moles and solenodons) Eulipotyphlans are insectivorous mammals. Shrews and solenodons resemble mice, hedgehogs carry spines, gymnures look more like large rats, while moles are stout-bodied burrowers. Family: Erinaceidae (hedgehogs and gymnures) Subfamily: Galericinae Genus: Echinosorex Gymnure, Echinosorex gymnura Genus: Hylomys Short-tailed gymnure, Hylomys suillus Family: Soricidae (shrews) Subfamily: Crocidurinae Genus: Crocidura Grey shrew, Crocidura attenuata Southeast Asian shrew, Crocidura fuliginosa Horsfield's shrew, Crocidura horsfieldii Taiga shrew, Crocidura pullata Genus: Suncus Etruscan shrew, Suncus etruscus LC Malayan pygmy shrew, Suncus malayanus DD Subfamily: Soricinae Tribe: Anourosoricini Genus: Anourosorex Mole shrew, Anourosorex squamipes Tribe: Nectogalini Genus: Soriculus Lowe's shrew, Soriculus parca Family: Talpidae (moles) Subfamily: Talpinae Tribe: Talpini Genus: Euroscaptor Kloss's mole, Euroscaptor klossi Himalayan mole, Euroscaptor micrura Order: Lagomorpha (lagomorphs) The lagomorphs comprise two families, Leporidae (hares and rabbits), and Ochotonidae (pikas). Though they can resemble rodents, and were classified as a superfamily in that order until the early 20th century, they have since been considered a separate order. They differ from rodents in a number of physical characteristics, such as having four incisors in the upper jaw rather than two. Family: Leporidae (rabbits, hares) Genus: Lepus Burmese hare, Lepus peguensis Order: Pholidota (pangolins) The order Pholidota comprises the eight species of pangolin. Pangolins are anteaters and have the powerful claws, elongated snout and long tongue seen in the other unrelated anteater species. Family: Manidae Genus: Manis Sunda pangolin, M. javanica Chinese pangolin, M. pentadactyla Order: Primates The order Primates contains humans and their closest relatives: lemurs, lorisoids, monkeys, and apes. Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes Superfamily: Lorisoidea Family: Lorisidae Genus: Nycticebus Bengal slow loris, N. bengalensis Sunda slow loris, N. coucang Suborder: Haplorhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea Family: Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys) Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Genus: Macaca Stump-tailed macaque, M. arctoides Assam macaque, M. assamensis Crab-eating macaque, M. fascicularis Northern pig-tailed macaque, M. leonina Rhesus macaque, M. mulatta Southern pig-tailed macaque, M. nemestrina Subfamily: Colobinae Genus: Trachypithecus Indochinese grey langur, T. crepusculus Germain's langur, T. germaini Dusky leaf monkey, T. obscurus Griffith's silver langur, T. villosus Genus: Presbytis Robinson's banded langur, P. robinsoni Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (gibbons) Genus: Hylobates Agile gibbon, H. agilis Lar gibbon, H. lar Pileated gibbon, H. pileatus Order: Proboscidea (elephants) The elephants comprise three living species and are the largest living land animals. Family: Elephantidae (elephants) Genus: Elephas Asian elephant, E. maximus Indian elephant, E. m. indicus Order: Rodentia (rodents) Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to . Suborder: Hystricognathi Family: Hystricidae (Old World porcupines) Genus: Atherurus Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine, A. macrourus Genus: Hystrix Malayan porcupine, H. brachyura Suborder: Sciurognathi Family: Sciuridae (squirrels) Subfamily: Ratufinae Genus: Ratufa Cream-coloured giant squirrel, Ratufa affinis Black giant squirrel, Ratufa bicolor Subfamily: Sciurinae Tribe: Pteromyini Genus: Belomys Hairy-footed flying squirrel, Belomys pearsonii Genus: Hylopetes Particolored flying squirrel, Hylopetes alboniger Gray-cheeked flying squirrel, Hylopetes lepidus Indochinese flying squirrel, Hylopetes phayrei Red-cheeked flying squirrel, Hylopetes spadiceus Genus: Petaurista Red giant flying squirrel, Petaurista petaurista Indian giant flying squirrel, Petaurista philippensis Genus: Petinomys Temminck's flying squirrel, Petinomys setosus Genus: Pteromyscus Smoky flying squirrel, Pteromyscus pulverulentus Subfamily: Callosciurinae Genus: Callosciurus Gray-bellied squirrel, Callosciurus caniceps Pallas's squirrel, Callosciurus erythraeus Finlayson's squirrel, Callosciurus finlaysonii Black-striped squirrel, Callosciurus nigrovittatus Plantain squirrel, Callosciurus notatus Prevost's squirrel, Callosciurus prevostii Genus: Dremomys Asian red-cheeked squirrel, Dremomys rufigenis Genus: Lariscus Three-striped ground squirrel, Lariscus insignis Genus: Menetes Berdmore's ground squirrel, Menetes berdmorei Genus: Rhinosciurus Shrew-faced squirrel, Rhinosciurus laticaudatus Genus: Sundasciurus Horse-tailed squirrel, Sundasciurus hippurus Low's squirrel, Sundasciurus lowii Slender squirrel, Sundasciurus tenuis Genus: Tamiops Himalayan striped squirrel, Tamiops macclellandi Cambodian striped squirrel, Tamiops rodolphei Family: Spalacidae Subfamily: Rhizomyinae Genus: Cannomys Lesser bamboo rat, Cannomys badius Genus: Rhizomys Hoary bamboo rat, Rhizomys pruinosus Large bamboo rat, Rhizomys sumatrensis Family: Cricetidae Subfamily: Arvicolinae Genus: Eothenomys Père David's vole, Eothenomys melanogaster Family: Muridae (mice, rats, voles, gerbils, hamsters) Subfamily: Murinae Genus: Bandicota Greater bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica Savile's bandicoot rat, Bandicota savilei Genus: Berylmys Small white-toothed rat, Berylmys berdmorei Bower's white-toothed rat, Berylmys bowersi Genus: Chiromyscus Fea's tree rat, Chiromyscus chiropus Genus: Chiropodomys Pencil-tailed tree mouse, Chiropodomys gliroides Genus: Hapalomys Marmoset rat, Hapalomys longicaudatus Genus: Leopoldamys Edwards's long-tailed giant rat, Leopoldamys edwardsi Neill's long-tailed giant rat, Leopoldamys neilli Long-tailed giant rat, Leopoldamys sabanus Genus: Maxomys Rajah spiny rat, Maxomys rajah Red spiny rat, Maxomys surifer Whitehead's spiny rat, Maxomys whiteheadi Genus: Mus Ryukyu mouse, Mus caroli Fawn-colored mouse, Mus cervicolor Cook's mouse, Mus cookii Gairdner's shrewmouse, Mus pahari Shortridge's mouse, Mus shortridgei Genus: Niviventer Chinese white-bellied rat, Niviventer confucianus Dark-tailed tree rat, Niviventer cremoriventer Chestnut white-bellied rat, Niviventer fulvescens Limestone rat, Niviventer hinpoon Lang Bian white-bellied rat, Niviventer langbianis Genus: Rattus Rattus andamanensis Ricefield rat, Rattus argentiventer Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans Lesser ricefield rat, Rattus losea Himalayan field rat, Rattus nitidus Sikkim rat, Rattus sikkimensis VU Tanezumi rat, Rattus tanezumi Malayan field rat, Rattus tiomanicus Genus: Sundamys Müller's giant Sunda rat, Sundamys muelleri Genus: Vandeleuria Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse, Vandeleuria oleracea Order: Scandentia (treeshrews) The treeshrews are small mammals native to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Although called treeshrews, they are not true shrews and are not all arboreal. Family: Tupaiidae (tree shrews) Genus: Dendrogale Northern smooth-tailed tree shrew, D. murina Genus: Tupaia Northern treeshrew, T. belangeri Common treeshrew, T. glis Pygmy treeshrew, T. minor Family: Ptilocercidae Genus: Ptilocercus Pen-tailed treeshrew, P. lowii Order: Sirenia (manatees and dugongs) Sirenia is an order of fully aquatic, herbivorous mammals that inhabit rivers, estuaries, coastal marine waters, swamps, and marine wetlands. All four species are endangered. Family: Dugongidae Genus: Dugong Dugong, D. dugon Locally extinct The following species are locally extinct in the country: Kouprey, Bos sauveli Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Eld's deer, Rucervus eldii possibly extirpated Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus See also List of species native to Thailand Animal welfare in Thailand References External links .List Mammals Thailand Thailand Thailand	6,577
doc-en-11547_0	Fei Yi (died 16 February 253), courtesy name Wenwei, was a regent and military general of the state of Shu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Fei Yi started his career as an attendant to Liu Shan, the eldest son and heir apparent of Liu Bei, a warlord who became the founding emperor of Shu. After Liu Shan became emperor in 223, Fei Yi gradually rose to prominence under the regency of Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of Shu. During this time, he concurrently served as a military adviser under Zhuge Liang and as Shu's ambassador to its ally state Wu. He also played a significant role in the conflict between the Shu general Wei Yan and Zhuge Liang's chief clerk Yang Yi. After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Fei Yi served as a deputy to the new regent Jiang Wan and progressively assumed greater responsibilities as Jiang Wan gradually relinquished his powers due to poor health. In 244, Fei Yi led Shu forces to victory at the Battle of Xingshi against their rival state Wei and succeeded Jiang Wan as regent of Shu two years later following the latter's death. On the first day of the Chinese New Year in 253, Fei Yi was assassinated by a Wei defector, Guo Xiu. Early life Fei Yi was born in Meng County (), Jiangxia Commandery (), which is located northwest of present-day Luoshan County, Henan, during the late Eastern Han dynasty. His father died when he was still young so he was raised by an older relative Fei Boren (), whose aunt was the mother of Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing). When Liu Zhang invited Fei Boren to join him, Fei Yi accompanied Fei Boren as a travelling student and entered Yi Province. In 214, after the warlord Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province from Liu Zhang and became the new Governor, Fei Yi chose to remain in Yi Province. During this time, he became as equally famous as two other notable scholars: Xu Shulong () from Runan Commandery and Dong Yun from Nan Commandery. Behaviour at the funeral of Xu Jing's son When Xu Jing's son died, Fei Yi and Dong Yun wanted to attend the funeral so Dong Yun asked his father Dong He to help them arrange their transport. After Dong He provided them a small chariot with no rear covering, Dong Yun seemed reluctant to board it while Fei Yi eagerly got on board. When they reached their destination, they saw that Zhuge Liang and other key officials had showed up in well-decorated carriages. As they dismounted the carriage, Dong Yun showed signs of embarrassment while Fei Yi appeared calm and composed. After they returned, Dong He asked the chariot driver and learnt that Dong Yun and Fei Yi reacted differently when they saw that their transport was of inferior design compared to others'. Dong He then told his son: "I always thought that you and Wenwei are on par with each other. Now I have the answer to my question." Service under Liu Bei In 221, after Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established the state of Shu, he designated his eldest son Liu Shan as crown prince and appointed Fei Yi and Dong Yun to serve as the newly anointed heir apparent's close attendants. Service during Zhuge Liang's regency When Liu Shan became the Shu emperor in 223 following Liu Bei's death, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor, served as regent because Liu Shan was still underage at the time. After his coronation, Liu Shan appointed Fei Yi as a Gentleman of the Yellow Gate (). Around the autumn of 225, when Zhuge Liang returned from a military campaign against rebels and the Nanman tribes in southern Shu, Fei Yi and many of his colleagues travelled tens of li out of the capital Chengdu to welcome him back. Most of the officials were around the same age as Fei Yi and their ranks in the Shu government were about the same as his. Among all of them, Zhuge Liang chose only Fei Yi to ride in the same carriage as him for their journey back to Chengdu. The others felt very surprised and they changed their opinions of Fei Yi after this. As Shu's ambassador to Wu In 223, Shu reestablished its alliance with its former ally state Wu against their common rival state Wei. After Zhuge Liang returned from his southern campaign in 225, he commissioned Fei Yi as a Colonel of Illustrious Trust () and sent him as Shu's ambassador to Wu. During his mission to Wu, Fei Yi kept his cool when the Wu emperor Sun Quan tried to ridicule and poke fun at him. Sun Quan treated Fei Yi to alcoholic drinks, saw that he appeared drunk, and then bombarded him with a series of questions about current affairs. Fei Yi gave an excuse that he was no longer sober and declined to answer immediately. He noted down all the questions, went back and thought through carefully, and came back to Sun Quan later with all the answers without missing out any question. Some Wu officials such as Zhuge Ke and Yang Dao (), who were known for their oratorical talents, attempted to challenge Fei Yi and pose difficult questions to him. However, Fei Yi managed to respond in a calm and dignified manner, and provide well-reasoned answers to their questions. He held his ground well throughout his mission. In one instance, a drunk Sun Quan asked Fei Yi: "Yang Yi and Wei Yan behave like immature boys. Even though their contributions are insignificant, they can still cause big trouble because they are in positions of power. If one day Zhuge Liang is no longer around, there will definitely be disaster. All of you are confused. No one has considered the long-term implications of this problem. Isn't that harmful to your descendants?" Fei Yi, stunned by Sun Quan's question, could not respond immediately and started glancing around as he tried to think of an answer. Fei Yi's deputy, Dong Hui, stepped up, looked at Fei Yi and said: "You can say that the conflict between Yang Yi and Wei Yan is a private issue between them. They don't have wild ambitions unlike Ying Bu and Han Xin. As of now, our priority is to eliminate our powerful enemy and reunify the Empire. Only after we have achieved that can we consider our mission accomplished and be able to expand our legacy. If we put our priority aside and focus on preempting internal problems such as this, it would be equivalent to not building a boat at all to avoid getting caught in a storm. That wouldn't be beneficial at all in the longer term." Sun Quan was very amused by Dong Hui's reply. In another instance, Sun Quan instructed his officials: "When the Shu ambassador arrives, all of you just remain seated, continue eating, and don't stand up to greet him." When Fei Yi arrived, Sun Quan and his officials deliberately ignored his presence and continued feasting. Fei Yi then said: "When a fenghuang shows up, the qilin will stop eating (and acknowledge the fenghuang's presence). Donkeys and mules are ignorant. That's why they continue eating (and ignore the fenghuang)." Zhuge Ke replied: "We planted parasol trees for the fenghuang's arrival. A brambling came along instead. Why don't we scare away the brambling and force it to go back to where it came from?" Fei Yi stopped chewing on the pastry and asked for a brush to compose a rhapsody. Zhuge Ke also did the same. They then exchanged their works and praised each other. Sun Quan was so impressed with Fei Yi that he told him: "Sir, you are one of the most virtuous men in the Empire. You will definitely become an important pillar of state in Shu. By then, I am afraid you will no longer be able to visit us often." Sun Quan also gave Fei Yi a precious sword, which he used to carry with him all the time, as a parting gift. Fei Yi told him: "I am untalented. What makes me deserve such an honour? A sword is meant to be used against enemies of the state and to put an end to chaos. I hope that you, Great King, will do your best to rule your kingdom and work together (with Shu) to support the Han dynasty. I may be ignorant and weak, but I will never disappoint the hopes you have placed in me." As a military adviser Fei Yi was promoted to the position of a Palace Attendant () after returning from his diplomatic mission to Wu. In 227, Zhuge Liang mobilised military forces from throughout Shu in preparation for a large-scale campaign against Shu's rival state Wei in the following year. As the troops gathered at the staging area in Hanzhong Commandery, Zhuge Liang summoned Fei Yi from Chengdu and appointed him as an Army Adviser (). In his Chu Shi Biao (literally "memorial on the case to go to war"), Zhuge Liang named Fei Yi, Guo Youzhi and Dong Yun as examples of trustworthy, loyal and competent officials who could provide good advice and assist the emperor Liu Shan in governing Shu more effectively. Between 227 and 230, Fei Yi alternated between his roles as a military adviser and Shu's ambassador to Wu. Apart from serving as an assistant to Zhuge Liang during the military campaigns against Wei, he was also often sent by the Shu government on diplomatic missions to Wu during this period of time. In 230, he was reassigned to serve as Central Protector of the Army () and then as a Major () in the Shu army. Role in the conflict between Wei Yan and Yang Yi Wei Yan, a senior Shu general, was on bad terms with Yang Yi, Zhuge Liang's chief clerk. Wei Yan was known for being boastful, and his colleagues generally gave in to him. Yang Yi was one of the few who made no concession to Wei Yan, so Wei Yan deeply resented him. Zhuge Liang was upset by the lack of harmony between Wei Yan and Yang Yi, but he was unwilling to take sides because he appreciated the talents of both men and needed their help. When Wei Yan and Yang Yi got into heated quarrels, the former drew his sword and brandished it in front of the latter. Yang Yi sobbed as tears rolled down his cheeks. Fei Yi then stepped in to stop them from fighting and managed to keep them under control while Zhuge Liang was still alive. Battle of Wuzhang Plains In 234, Zhuge Liang became critically ill during a stalemate at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains against Wei forces. During this time, when Li Fu asked Zhuge Liang who could succeed him as the head of the Shu government, Zhuge Liang replied that Jiang Wan could succeed him and that Fei Yi could succeed Jiang Wan. After Li Fu left, Zhuge Liang secretly instructed Yang Yi, Fei Yi and Jiang Wei to lead the army back to Shu after his death, with Wei Yan and Jiang Wei in charge of the rearguard. If Wei Yan refused to follow orders, they were to retreat without him. After Zhuge Liang died, Yang Yi ordered news of his death to be kept secret, and then instructed Fei Yi to meet Wei Yan and assess his intentions. When Wei Yan refused to follow Zhuge Liang's final orders and submit to Yang Yi's command, Fei Yi pretended to help Wei Yan make new arrangements for part of the Shu army to remain behind and continue with the campaign, while the rest would return to Shu. Fei Yi then wrote a letter about the new arrangements, got both of them to sign it, and told Wei Yan that he would read out the letter to all the officers later. He also told Wei Yan: "I will go back and explain your point of view to Chief Clerk Yang. The Chief Clerk is a civil official who knows little about military affairs. He will definitely not oppose the new arrangements." Fei Yi then left Wei Yan and sped back to the main camp. Wei Yan soon regretted his decision and tried to stop Fei Yi but could not catch up with him in time. After sending his subordinate to find out the situation in the main camp, he was shocked to learn that Fei Yi had lied to him because all the Shu units were preparing to retreat in accordance with Zhuge Liang's final orders. Wei Yan turned furious as he wanted to continue the battle, so he tried to stop the Shu army from retreating by leading his own unit to destroy the gallery roads leading back to Shu. Wei Yan and Yang Yi separately wrote to the Shu government to accuse each other of treason; the Shu government believed Yang Yi's account and suspected that Wei Yan was plotting a rebellion. Wei Yan eventually met his end at the hands of the Shu general Ma Dai, and the conflict came to an end. Reporting Yang Yi After returning to Chengdu, Yang Yi thought that he had made great contributions so he strongly believed that he would be chosen to succeed Zhuge Liang as the new head of the Shu government. However, he felt deeply disappointed when it turned out that Zhuge Liang had picked Jiang Wan instead. Jiang Wan was appointed as the Prefect of the Masters of Writing (), while Yang Yi became a Central Military Adviser () – an appointment with no real power. Yang Yi had all along viewed himself highly and saw himself as superior to Jiang Wan because he started serving in Shu earlier than the latter. After Jiang Wan became the new head of the Shu government, Yang Yi frequently grumbled and complained to express his dissatisfaction. His colleagues ignored him due to his poor choice of words in conveying his frustration. Fei Yi was the only one who comforted him. Yang Yi once told Fei Yi: "When the Imperial Chancellor died, I should have brought along my men and defected to Wei if I knew I'd end up in this situation today! I deeply regret but there's nothing I can do now." Fei Yi secretly reported Yang Yi to the Shu government. As a result, in 235 Yang Yi was demoted to the status of a commoner and exiled to Hanjia Commandery (漢嘉郡; around present-day Lushan County, Sichuan), where he committed suicide later. However, Yang's family could return to Shu. Service during Jiang Wan's regency As Prefect of the Masters of Writing Fei Yi rose to the position of Rear Military Adviser () following Zhuge Liang's death in 234. He soon succeeded Jiang Wan as Prefect of the Masters of Writing () in May 235. At the time, as Shu was in a state of war, Fei Yi had numerous issues to attend to on a daily basis given his role as Prefect of the Masters of Writing. However, he was known for his exceptionally high level of intellect, fast speed of processing information, and excellent memory. He could grasp all the key points in a document and remember them after skimming through the document only once. Therefore, on a typical day at work, he usually completed all his tasks in the morning and spent the afternoon meeting people and engaging in leisure activities. He was particularly skilful at playing weiqi. Despite his indulgences in fun and entertainment, he never neglected his work and duties. As General-in-Chief and Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing In late October or November 243, Jiang Wan moved from Hanzhong Commandery to Fu County (涪縣; present-day Mianyang, Sichuan) due to poor health. In late November or December that year, Jiang Wan relinquished his positions as General-in-Chief () and Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing () to Fei Yi, thus making Fei Yi the de facto head of the Shu government. In 244, Dong Yun succeeded Fei Yi as Prefect of the Masters of Writing () and attempted to follow Fei Yi's daily schedule and lifestyle when he held that appointment. However, within ten days, Dong Yun quickly realised that his work was gradually piling up. He sighed: "The ability of a talented person can be so significantly different from that of another. I think I can never catch up (with Fei Yi). Despite working all day long, I still have many things that I haven't attended to yet." Battle of Xingshi In early 244, the Wei regent Cao Shuang led an army to Mount Xingshi (興勢山; located north of present-day Yang County, Shaanxi) and prepared to attack the Shu-controlled Hanzhong Commandery. In late April or May, the Shu emperor Liu Shan granted Fei Yi acting imperial authority and ordered him to lead the Shu army into battle against the invaders. Before Fei Yi departed, the Shu official Lai Min visited him and asked to play a game of weiqi with him. At the time, all the preparations for battle had been made and the troops were ready to march off. While documents attached with feathers kept coming in, Fei Yi continued playing with Lai Min and seemed deeply engrossed in the game. Lai Min told him: "I was actually testing you! You are a trustworthy person and you will definitely be able to defeat the enemy." By June 244, the Wei army had become stuck in a perilous situation as they could not advance beyond Mount Xingshi and their supplies were running low. Sensing that defeat was imminent, Cao Shuang's adviser Yang Wei () tried to persuade his superior to pull back the Wei army before it was too late. However, Cao Shuang listened to Deng Yang and Li Sheng instead and ordered his troops to hold their positions. After Cao Shuang's co-regent Sima Yi wrote to Cao Shuang's deputy Xiahou Xuan and warned him of the danger they were in, Xiahou Xuan became fearful and managed to convince Cao Shuang to retreat. In late June or July, while the Wei army was retreating, Fei Yi led the Shu forces to launch a three-pronged attack and inflicted a devastating defeat on the enemy with Cao Shuang barely escaping alive. As the Inspector of Yi Province After Fei Yi returned to Chengdu from his victory at Mount Xingshi, he was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Cheng District () as a reward for his achievement. Towards the end of 244, as Jiang Wan's health deteriorated, he stepped down from his gubernatorial appointment as the Inspector of Yi Province () and passed it on to Fei Yi. Fei Yi's regency Following Jiang Wan's death in November or December 246, Fei Yi became the new regent and head of the Shu government. By the time he came to power, his contributions to Shu and personal fame were on par with his predecessor. In 248, Fei Yi moved from the Shu capital Chengdu to Hanzhong Commandery near the Wei–Shu border. Throughout their regencies, Jiang Wan and Fei Yi still maintained control over state affairs in Chengdu even though they were away in Hanzhong for extended periods of time. For example, the Shu emperor Liu Shan had to consult them and gain their approval before giving out rewards and punishments to officials. Such was Liu Shan's high levels of trust in and reliance on these two regents during his reign. In the summer of 251, when Fei Yi returned to Chengdu, he heard from fortune-tellers that it was inauspicious for him to remain in the capital, so in winter he moved out of Chengdu to Hanshou County (漢壽縣; northeast of present-day Jiange County, Sichuan). In 252, Liu Shan granted Fei Yi permission to have a personal staff to assist him in running the day-to-day affairs. Assassination On 16 February 253, while hosting a party on the first day of the Chinese New Year in Hanshou County (漢壽縣; northeast of present-day Jiange County, Sichuan), a drunk Fei Yi was stabbed and killed by Guo Xiu (郭脩; a.k.a. Guo Xun 郭循), a former Wei civilian who became a general in Shu. The assassin also met his end at the hands of Fei Yi's subordinates. He was honoured with the posthumous title "Marquis Jing" (敬侯; literally "respectful marquis") and buried at a location about 1 kilometre east from the eastern gate of the present-day Zhaohua Ancient City in Zhaohua District, Guangyuan, Sichuan. Guo Xiu, whose courtesy name was Xiaoxian (), was quite well known in Liang Province before he joined Shu. After he was captured in battle by the Shu general Jiang Wei, he reluctantly surrendered and pledged allegiance to Shu. The Shu emperor Liu Shan appointed him as General of the Left (). Guo Xiu once attempted to assassinate Liu Shan under the pretext of congratulating the emperor. However, Liu Shan's bodyguards noticed something suspicious about his behaviour and stopped him before he could get close to the emperor. Frustrated at his failure to assassinate the Shu emperor, Guo Xiu switched his target to the regent Fei Yi instead and succeeded. In September or October 253, the Wei emperor Cao Fang issued an imperial decree to praise Guo Xiu for his "heroic service to Wei" and compare him to Nie Zheng and Jie Zhitui, as well as to confer posthumous honours on him and grant rewards to his family. The fifth-century historian Pei Songzhi rebutted Cao Fang's imperial decree and argued that Guo Xiu was not a hero and his assassination of Fei Yi was not "in the service of Wei". He pointed out three reasons. First, Guo Xiu was a civilian when he was captured by the enemy so he was not exactly "serving" Wei and hence his assassination of Fei Yi should not be considered an action "in the service of Wei". Second, Wei was not threatened by Shu in the same way Yan was threatened by Qin during the late Warring States period, therefore Guo Xiu's assassination of Fei Yi should not be seen in the same light as Jing Ke's assassination attempt on the King of Qin. Third, from Pei Songzhi's point of view, Liu Shan and Fei Yi were respectively a ruler and a regent of average calibre, so their deaths would not deal significant damage to Shu. Pei Songzhi thus concluded that Guo Xiu was simply an opportunist seeking to become (in)famous by assassinating the regent of a state. Family Fei Yi had at least two sons and one daughter. His first son, Fei Cheng (), inherited his peerage as the Marquis of Cheng District () and served as a Gentleman of the Yellow Gate () in the Shu imperial palace. Fei Yi's second son, Fei Gong (), married a Shu princess (probably one of Liu Shan's daughters), had quite a huge reputation, and served as an official in Shu's imperial secretariat. However, he died at a relatively young age. Fei Yi's daughter married Liu Xuan, the eldest son and heir apparent of Liu Shan. Appraisal Chen Shou, the third-century historian who wrote Fei Yi's biography in the Sanguozhi, praised Fei Yi for being compassionate, generous and charitable towards others. He gave credit to Fei Yi and Jiang Wan for following in Zhuge Liang's footsteps and pointed out that in doing so they managed to secure Shu's borders and maintain peace and harmony within Shu. However, he also criticised them for not putting in their best to govern a small state like Shu and keeping it safe. The fifth-century historian Pei Songzhi, who annotated the Sanguozhi, disagreed with Chen Shou's point of view. He argued that Fei Yi and Jiang Wan did well during their regencies when they refrained from making risky moves that could jeopardise Shu's future and when they successfully countered a Wei invasion and maintained peace within Shu's borders. He also pointed out that readers may find Chen Shou's concluding remarks confusing because Chen Shou did not provide any evidence to support his claim that Fei Yi and Jiang Wan did not put in their best to govern Shu and keep it safe. Despite being in a position of power and prestige, Fei Yi remained humble and always showed respect towards others. He had no excess wealth for himself and his family. His sons lived like commoners as they wore clothes of plain design, had simple meals, travelled on foot, and had no escorts to accompany them when they travelled. The Shu general Zhang Ni had noted that Fei Yi tended to be too good-natured and overly trusting of the people around him. He once warned Fei Yi: "In the past, Cen Peng commanded troops and Lai Xi wielded the staff of imperial authority; both of them were assassinated. In the present-day, you, General, occupy a position of great importance and power so you should learn from these historical examples and be more vigilant." As Zhang Ni foresaw, Fei Yi indeed met his end at the hands of the assassin Guo Xiu. The fourth-century historian Yu Xi commented in his Zhilin () that it was a tragic irony that Fei Yi's positive attributes brought about his downfall: Fei Yi, being too open and generous, lowered his guard against people around him and failed to save himself from Guo Xiu, a defector from a rival state. See also Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Notes References Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu). Year of birth unknown 253 deaths Liu Zhang and associates Shu Han regents Shu Han generals Three Kingdoms diplomats Political office-holders in Sichuan Assassinated Chinese politicians Politicians from Xinyang Generals from Henan	5,867
doc-en-11554_0	John Rolle, 1st Baron Rolle (1750 – 3 April 1842) was a British peer who served as a Member of Parliament in general support of William Pitt the Younger and was later an active member of the House of Lords. His violent attacks on Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox in the early 1780s led to his being the target for satirical attack in the Rolliad. He was colonel of the South Devon Militia and was instrumental in forming the Royal 1st Devon Yeomanry and the North Devon Yeomanry. He was a slave owner. At Emancipation he presented his estate on the island of Exuma in the Bahamas in perpetuity to his freed slaves, whose descendants still lived in what became known as Rolleville as late as the 1920s. He was the largest landowner in Devon, with about 55,000 acres centred on his seats of Stevenstone in the north and Bicton in the south-east, and thus was highly influential in that county. He promoted and financed several large engineering projects, including the Rolle Canal in North Devon, Rolle Quay in Pottington, Barnstaple, and two road bridges over the River Torridge near Torrington, at Town Mills and Weare Giffard and the sea-wall at Exmouth. He was an active donor to charitable works in Devon, being patron of his family's almshouses at Livery Dole, Exeter, Otterton, Great Torrington and St Giles in the Wood and of two schools in Otterton. Physically he was a large man, and made no pretension to an intellectual approach. Nathaniel William Wraxall wrote of him: "Nature had denied him all pretension to grace or elegance. Neither was his understanding apparently more cultivated than his manners were refined. He reminded me always of a Devonshire rustic, but he possessed plain common sense, a manly mind, and the faculty of stating his ideas in a few strong words." In later life he caused a disturbance at the coronation of Queen Victoria when he fell on the stairs of the throne. Origins John Rolle was the only son of Denys Rolle (1725–1797), of Hudscott, Chittlehampton, Devon, by his wife Anne Chichester (born 1721), a daughter by his second wife of Arthur Chichester (1670–1737/8) of Hall, Bishop's Tawton, Devon, a junior line of the prolific Chichester family of Raleigh, Pilton. Denys Rolle owned large estates in Florida which he attempted to colonise and was heir to his elder brother John Rolle Walter (1712–1779), MP, of Bicton and Stevenstone, both sons of John Rolle (1679–1730), MP, of Bicton and Stevenstone. On 27 July 1781 Denys "Walter" Esq. obtained royal licence "to take the surname and bear the arms of Rolle, pursuant to the will of the late John Rolle Walter Esq. of Stevenstone". His brother John Rolle Walter (died 1779) had become the heir of his uncle Sir Robert Walter, 4th Baronet (1680–1731) and had been required to adopt the surname of Walter. Denys Rolle (died 1797) had been left Hudscott and the lordship of the manor of Chittlehampton by his distant childless cousin Samuel Rolle (died 1747), only son of Samuel Rolle (1669–1735), MP, by his wife Dorothy Lovering. Samuel Rolle (died 1735) had himself inherited Hudscott from his mother Jane Lovering. He was the son of Dennis Rolle (died 1671) of Great Torrington (whose tombstone exists in Torrington Church), the younger brother of Robert Rolle (died 1660), MP, who had married Lady Arabella Clinton, both sons of Sir Samuel Rolle I (died 1647), of Heanton Satcheville, MP for Barnstaple. Career He was educated at Winchester College and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and became a country gentleman in Devon. He lived at Tidwell, within the family owned manor of East Budleigh on the south Devon coast, certainly between 1786 and 1796. The estate of Tidwell had been purchased by the Walrond family in about 1730, and hence it may have been the property of Rolle's first wife Maria Walrond. This Georgian country house is now a hotel, in the renamed parish of Budleigh Salterton. When his uncle John Rolle Walter died in November 1779, he was put forward to take up his seat in parliament. At this time, the seat of Devon was controlled by a group of large landowners principally in the families of Courtenay of Powderham, Bampfylde of Poltimore and Rolle, who had so many supporters that no other challenge was possible. Due to the prohibitive expense of mounting an opposition, the county had not seen a contested election since 1712. Rolle was duly elected unopposed on 4 January 1780. House of Commons Because of the control of his county, Rolle was not under any political obligations. Although his family were traditionally Tory, Rolle was not a reliable vote for the Tory Prime Minister of the day, Lord North. He sometimes supported the government but just as often opposed it. However, following North's resignation, Rolle developed a vehement dislike of Charles James Fox for recalling George Rodney to a Naval command. When Fox, attempting to delay Parliamentary proceedings to get in more of his supporters, put off the Call of the House, Rolle attacked his supporters' unpunctuality. He supported the Shelburne government's peace proposals in 1783, although he had not been a consistent supporter of that ministry (being rated by Robinson, the Parliamentary manager, as 'doubtful'). During the Fox-North Coalition, Rolle was appalled when Edmund Burke reappointed two Pay Office officials called Powell and Bembridge who were under suspicion of embezzlement, and made vituperative attacks until Burke agreed to accept their resignations. Military career John Rolle joined the South Devon Militia as an ensign and in 1796 as its commanding officer he took it to Ireland to help to suppress the rising which occurred when Britain was at war with France. On his return to Devon he displayed a great interest in the Volunteer Cavalry known as the Yeomanry, and in 1801 he was instrumental in reorganising various south Devon independent units into the Royal 1st Devon Yeomanry, and in 1802 he instituted another corps of north Devon units into the North Devon Yeomanry (later designated the Royal North Devon Hussars) under his command. In February 1812 it appears Lord Rolle led his regiment to Nottingham as part of a larger force to suppress a Luddite rebellion. During the march his quartermaster-serjeant Richard I Braginton (1752–1812) died suddenly at Leicester, and Rolle erected a gravestone to his memory in St Martin's Church, Leicester inscribed thus: "Beneath are deposited the remains of Richard Braginton Quarter Master Serjeant of the South Devon Militia who expir'd suddenly in this Town on his march to Nottingham in the night of 15th of February 1812 after retiring to rest in perfect health AGED 60 YEARS He served 40 in the said Regiment with unabated Zeal, diligence and Loyalty to his King; and firm attachment to his Country; While his private conduct was equally commendable. For Rectitude, Probity and Sobriety He was esteem'd by his Officers and beloved by his fellow Soldiers. To perpetuate the remembrance of his worth, This stone was caus'd to be erected By his Colonel Lord ROLLE. Reader! may this additional Example of the awful uncertainty of Life prove a warning to thee to prepare for a similar fate, by a faithful discharge of the duties of thy station; and by an humble reliance on the merits of thy Redeemer." Rolle appointed his son Richard II Braginton (1784–1869) as steward of Stevenstone, and the latter's son George Braginton (1808–1886), a merchant and banker, mayor of Great Torrington, was in 1830 Lord Rolle's agent for the Rolle Canal of which he purchased a lease in 1852, ten years after Lord Rolle's death. At the age of 90 Rolle had sufficient vitality to ride at the head of the 1st Devon Yeomanry at its annual inspection. The Rolliad The violence of his attack led the supporters of Fox and Burke to make him the chief object of the Rolliad, which purported to be a literary criticism of an epic poem but was actually a vehicle used by the authors to insult all their opponents. The dedication of the Rolliad reads: Illustrious ROLLE! O may thy honour'd name Roll down distinguish'd on the rolls of fame! Still first be found on Devon's county polls! Still future Senates boast their future ROLLES! It gives a spoof pedigree of the Rolle family, which cannot in reality be traced further back than 16th-century Dorset, as sprung from "Rollo, Duke of the Normans". Although Rolle seemed to be an opponent of Fox, he was not a true supporter of Pitt. He opposed Pitt on Parliamentary reform and on the Duke of Richmond's fortifications plan, and was a member of the St. Alban's Tavern group which tried to create a united Ministry involving both Pitt and Fox. He consistently described himself as an "independent country gentleman". Regency crisis Rolle backed Pitt on the regency crisis in 1789, making a direct attack on the Prince of Wales' relations with Maria Fitzherbert which was thought inappropriate by the Whigs. Rolle responded by saying that he would have made the same speech if the whole House was against him. In the general election in 1790 he was forced into a token contest against a Bampfylde Whig and declared his "firm attachment to Mr Pitt, founded on personal esteem as well as public principles", and was returned with a healthy majority. His opposition to Parliamentary reform continued and intensified due to the French Revolution of 1789; he spoke against Thomas Paine's doctrines and supported the repressive legislation aimed at damping down revolutionary sentiment in Britain. He supported moves to abolish slavery and campaigned for a reduction of duty on horses (suggesting a heavy tax on the employment of foreign servants be used to replace the revenue). He bestowed all of his significant land holdings in Exuma, Bahamas, to his slaves, in gratitude for which a number of towns on Great Exuma have been named after him, such as Rolleville and Rolletown. A large proportion of the inhabitants today are surnamed Rolle, some of the famous ones amongst whom are Esther Rolle, actress; Myron Rolle and Magnum Rolle, American football and basketball players respectively. Peerage The 1790s saw him attempting to obtain a peerage for himself or his father who had returned to the life of an English country gentleman after the failure of his American colonisation schemes. His father was uninterested but Pitt made a firm promise to Rolle himself, so long as a problematic by-election in Devon was not thereby caused by his removal to the House of Lords. At the dissolution of Parliament in 1796, Rolle was duly ennobled as Baron Rolle, of Stevenstone in the County of Devon. In 1797 Rolle's father died and he inherited all of the family's extensive estates, which were reckoned in 1809 to be worth £70,000 per annum. He was an active member of the House of Lords, and became increasingly Conservative: he was one of 22 'stalwarts' to vote against the Third Reading of the Reform Bill of 1832. During a parliamentary debate in July 1834 the Lord Chancellor, Lord Brougham, attacked Rolle in a speech. When Brougham sat down, Rolle came up to him at the Woolsack and told him: "My Lord, I wish you to know that I have the greatest contempt for you both in this House and out of it". Coronation accident On 28 June 1838, the infirm Lord Rolle attended the coronation of Queen Victoria. What happened was later described by the Queen in her diary: Poor old Lord Rolle, who is 82 (sic) and dreadfully infirm, in attempting to ascend the steps fell and rolled quite down, but was not the least hurt; when he attempted to re-ascend them I got up and advanced to the end of the steps in order to prevent another fall. The diarist Charles Greville, who was present at the coronation, described the scene: [Lord Rolle] fell down as he was getting up the steps of the throne. Her first impulse was to rise, and when afterwards he came again to do homage she said, “May I not get up and meet him?” and then rose from the throne and advanced down one or two of the steps to prevent his coming up, an act of graciousness and kindness which made a great sensation. It is, in fact, the remarkable union of naïveté, kindness, nature, good-nature, with propriety and dignity, which makes her so admirable and so endearing to those about her, as she certainly is. The incident is also included in the latter part of the tenth verse of Richard Harris Barham's Mr. Barney Maguire's Account of the Coronation: Building and engineering works Lord Rolle constructed several major engineering works and other buildings including: New road at Beaford, opened in 1829 Town Mills, Great Torrington, built in mock-castle style, with corner towers, octagonal turret chimney and crenellated walls Rolle Canal in North Devon, 6 miles between Torrington and Landcross. Associated works included a limekiln at Rosemoor, situated at the termination of the canal. In 1826 during the construction he ordered that "500 trees that are in the line are to be taken down, and two lime kilns, for the service of the farmers, are to be built". Rolle Quay in his manor of Pottington, Pilton, next to Barnstaple, on the River Yeo. In 1830 he also built a sea wall at Pottington. Two road bridges over the River Torridge near Torrington, at Town Mills and Half-penny Bridge at Weare Giffard Sea-wall at Exmouth. Begun in 1841 and completed in 1842, under the direction of John Smeaton. Built of limestone, 1,800 feet long, 22 ft high, containing 70,000 cubic feet of stone, protected by a row of piles 12 feet long. Chapel of the Holy Trinity, Budleigh Salterton, built by Lord Rolle in 1812 at the crossroads of Chapel Hill and East Terrace, as a chapel of ease to the parish church of his manor of East Budleigh. He referred to it in his will as "my chapel at Budleigh Salterton" and bequeathed the advowson to his wife, assuming she should continue to reside at Bicton. In 1891 Mark Rolle built the larger church of St Peter on a new site to meet the need of the expanded town. Holy Trinity Chapel, Exmouth, built in 1824 to design of John Lethbridge. His widow added a chancel in 1856. Contains a 1907 memorial to Mark Rolle. Exmouth: Louisa Terrace (1824) and Bicton Place, terraces of red brick and stucco Georgian houses to south and north respectively of Holy Trinity Church, in the vicinity of "The Beacon". Market House, Exmouth (1830). Exmouth: plantations and walks under the Beacon. National School, Great Torrington, built by Lord Rolle circa 1835, attended by about 150 children in 1850. Rebuilding of part of the ancient Torrington Castle including battlements. Lord Rolle was lord of the manor of Great Torrington and nominally feudal baron of the ancient barony, effectively abolished by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660. Estates purchased Woodland, Little Torrington, across the River Torridge from South Healand, on the Stevenstone estate. Joseph Coplestone sold Woodland to Henry Stevens, Esq., of Cross, Little Torrington, who sold it to the Very Rev. Joseph Palmer, Dean of Cashel, who sold it to Lord Rolle. Marriages Rolle married twice, neither of which marriages produced any offspring. First marriage He was aged 20 1/2, therefore legally still a minor not having reached his majority of 21, when his father arranged for him to marry the 17-year-old Judith Maria Walrond. She was the daughter and heiress, by his wife Sarah Oke, of William Walrond, by then deceased, of Bovey House, Beer, between Beer (near Seaton) and Branscombe on the south Devon coast, thus near Bicton. The Walronds were a prominent and ancient Devon family, the main branch of which was seated at Bradfield House, Uffculme, which after the 1860 extensions became one of the largest mansions in Devon. The family had held the manor of Beer since the 13th century. Lord Rolle's adoptive heir Hon. Mark Rolle (died 1907) later rebuilt the large parish church of Beer. Rolle's father and Judith's mother procured an Act of Parliament in 1772 enabling the two minors to settle their prospective entailed inheritances into a marriage settlement, the beneficiaries being the offspring of the marriage. However no children resulted and Judith died in 1819. Second marriage On 24 September 1822 at Huish, Devon, the seat of Lord Clinton, at the age of 72 Rolle married his very distant cousin the 28-year-old Louisa Trefusis (1794–1885), daughter of Robert George William Trefusis, 17th Baron Clinton (1764–1797). Whilst Rolle himself was descended from George Rolle (died 1573), of Marhayes in the parish of Week St Mary in Cornwall, the second son of the founder of the family, George Rolle of Stevenstone (died 1552), MP for Barnstaple, Louisa was descended from the latter's fourth son Henry Rolle, who had married Margaret Yeo, the heiress of Heanton Satchville in Petrockstowe parish, Devon. Henry Rolle's great-grandson Robert Rolle (died 1660), MP, of Heanton Satchville, had married Lady Arabella Clinton, one of the two co-heiresses of their nephew Edward Clinton, 5th Earl of Lincoln and 13th Baron Clinton (died 1692). On the extinction of the senior line of the Rolle-Clinton union on the death of George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford and 16th Baron Clinton, their heir became the descendants of their daughter Bridget Rolle (1648–1721) who had married in 1672 Francis Trefusis of the manor of Trefusis in Cornwall. Louisa Trefusis, the second wife of Lord Rolle, was fifth in descent from Francis Trefusis and Bridget Rolle, being the daughter of Robert George William Trefusis, 17th Baron Clinton (1764–1797), of Trefusis, Cornwall. An epigram "much bandied about the county" at the time of the marriage went as follows: How comes it, Rolle, at seventy two Hale Rolle, Louisa to the altar led? The thing is neither strange nor new Louisa took the Rolle for want of bread. A marble bust of Louisa exists in the Orangery at Bicton House. Louisa and Rolle shared a love of gardening and created the grand landscaped garden at Bicton, now open to the public as Bicton Park Botanical Gardens. An American traveller, Elihu Burritt, visited Bicton in 1864 and described her hostess in terms of great praise: "This lady is a remarkable woman, without equal or like in England...she is a female rival of Alexander the Great. The world that the Grecian conqueror subjugated was a small affair in space compared with the two hemispheres which this English lady has taken by the hair of the head and bound to her chair of state. It seems to have been her ambition for nearly half a century to do what was never done before by man or woman in filling her great park and gardens with a collection of trees and shrubs that should be to them what the British Museum is to the relics of antiquity and the literature of all ages". At the time of her death in December 1885, the New York Times obituary reported: "Lady Rolle was a very clever woman, wonderful to the last in her capacity for business, and for her strong, shrewd common sense, and always resolute to have her own way in everything." Louisa built several buildings in Devon including: The China Tower at Bicton, built by Lady Rolle in 1839 as a birthday present for her husband, restored in 2013 by its new owners the Landmark Trust Almshouses at Livery Dole, Heavitree, Exeter, re-built in 1849 as a pair on an adjacent site to the previous buildings, inherited from the Denys family of Bicton by the Rolles Bicton Church, built anew in 1850 on a site adjoining the old church. It incorporates a north transept containing several pews reserved for herself and her guests at Bicton, invisible to the general congregation in the nave and entered through a private north porch. The seating in the nave was occupied by estate staff, each pew being inscribed with the job-title of the staff member in strict hierarchical order. Rolle Mausoleum, Bicton, built in 1850 within the ruins of Old Bicton Church, containing her monument to her husband Lord Rolle and an existing monument to Denys Rolle (1614–1638) St Michael's Church, Otterton, remodelled 1869–71 Adoptive heir Rolle's second marriage also produced no children. It had been thought that his heir presumptive was his next-of-kin, Rev. John Moore-Stevens (1784–1865), Archdeacon of Exeter, younger brother of Thomas Moore-Stevens (1782–1832), JP, of Cross, Little Torrington, appointed by Lord Rolle in 1822 as vicar of Otterton, a manor adjoining Bicton purchased by Rolle's father Denys Rolle (died 1797). Rev. Moore-Stevens's grandmother was Christiana Maria Rolle (1710–1780), Lord Rolle's aunt, who had married Henry Stevens (1689–1748) of Cross. He married Anne Eleanor Roberts, daughter of Rev. William Roberts, fellow and vice-provost of Eton College. An inscribed white marble tablet exists to the memory of his wife and himself in Exeter Cathedral. His son was John Moore-Stevens (born 1818), JP, DL, MP for North Devon, High Sheriff of Devon 1870, who rebuilt Winscott House, Peters Marland, in 1865. Lord Rolle however had decided to appoint as his heir Louisa's younger nephew, the six-year-old Hon. Mark George Kerr Trefusis (1835–1907), the younger brother of Charles Trefusis (1834–1904) 20th Baron Clinton. Whether his marriage to Louisa had been by chance or dynastic design, in fact the Trefusis Barons Clinton would have had an excellent claim to be his closest kin and legal heirs. Thus Rolle had followed his family's ancient practice of keeping the estates "in the family". His will required his young heir to change his name to Rolle, which he duly performed, and to adopt the Rolle arms in lieu of those of Trefusis. However, his design to revive the Rolle family was ultimately unsuccessful as Mark Rolle produced only two daughters and no son, and the Rolle inheritance passed to his male heir, his nephew, Charles John Robert Trefusis (1863–1957), 21st Baron Clinton. The Trefusis family had several generations before inherited the estates of the Rolle family of Heanton Satchville, Petrockstowe, the most junior line of the family descended from the patriarch George Rolle (died 1552), and thus added to those large landholdings the huge Stevenstone and Bicton estates. However, liquid funds were not available to meet the large death duties, and much of the Stevenstone estate was sold to meet the tax liability. Death and burial Rolle died in 1842 at Bicton House in Devon. As part of her re-building of Bicton Church as St Mary's Church, completed in 1850, his widow Louisa retained as a Rolle mausoleum part of the ruins of the ancient Church of the Holy Trinity on the site and erected therein an elaborate monument to the memory of her husband, designed by Pugin and sculpted in the London workshop of George Myers. It consists of a Gothic-style chest tomb in front of a high arch filled-in with Gothic-style tracery and sculpted figures. In the same mausoleum is the baroque monument to his distant cousin Denys Rolle (1614–1638), who had inherited Bicton from his mother Anne Denys. He was third in descent from John Rolle (died 1570), the eldest son and heir of the patriarch George Rolle (died 1552) of Stevenstone, MP for Barnstaple. The Rolle Mausoleum is the private property of Lord Clinton and is not open to the public as from 2012. Monument in St Giles Church The text of the Mural monument in St Giles Church, St Giles in the Wood is as follows: "This monument by the directions of the undermentioned ANNE ROLLE of Hudscott is erected in the memory of DENYS ROLLE of Stevenstone in this parish, Esquire who died the 24th of June 1797 Aged 72 and ANNE, his wife daughter of ARTHUR CHICHESTER of Hall in this County, Esquire who died the 24th May 1781 Aged 64. ISABELLA HENRIETTA CHARLOTTA ROLLE their eldest daughter died in the lifetime of her parents aged 16. ANNE ROLLE above mentioned, their second daughter, died the 16th of June 1842 Aged 87. CHRISTIANA PHILIPPA MARIA ROLLE the youngest daughter, died the 3rd of February 1831 aged 72. Lucilla ROLLE died the 24th of July 1851 aged 94. The Remains of the above lie interred in the Family Vault in this Church. JOHN, BARON ROLLE, of Stevenstone son of the said DENYS and ANNE ROLLE, and the last male descendant of the family died without issue the 3rd of April 1842, Aged 92, and was buried in the Family Vault in Bicton Church in the County. LOUISA LADY ROLLE, second wife of the above, died Nov 20th 1885, Aged 91, and was buried in Bicton Church Yard" Notes References Sources Complete Peerage, Volume XI, pages 75–6 History of Parliament 1754–1790 Symonds, P. A. & Fisher, David R. (1986). Biography of Lord Rolle. History of Parliament: House of Commons 1790–1820. R. Thorne (editor). Will of Lord Rolle (died 1842), Prerogative Court of Canterbury Prob 11/1967, transcribed by Elizabeth Howard Obituary: John Rolle Gentleman's Magazine August 1841. External links 1750 births 1842 deaths Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Devon People educated at Winchester College Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain British MPs 1774–1780 British MPs 1780–1784 British MPs 1784–1790 British MPs 1790–1796 John Royal North Devon Yeomanry officers British Militia officers Devon Militia officers	6,174
doc-en-11344_0	Though no standard exists, numerous calendars and other timekeeping approaches have been proposed for the planet Mars. The most commonly seen in the scientific literature denotes the time of year as the number of degrees from the northern vernal equinox, and increasingly there is use of numbering the Martian years beginning at the equinox that occurred April 11, 1955. Mars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth. Thus, it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth. A sol, or Martian day, is less than an hour longer than an Earth day. A Mars year is almost twice as long as Earth's, though its orbital eccentricity is considerably larger, which causes those seasons to vary significantly in length. Sols The average length of a Martian sidereal day is (88,642.663 seconds based on SI units), and the length of its solar day is (88,775.244 seconds). The corresponding values for Earth are currently and , respectively, which yields a conversion factor of Earth days/sol: thus, Mars's solar day is only about 2.75% longer than Earth's. The term "sol" is used by planetary scientists to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars. The term was adopted during NASA's Viking project (1976) in order to avoid confusion with an Earth "day". By inference, Mars' "solar hour" is of a sol (1 hr 1 min 33 sec), and a "solar minute" of a solar hour (61.6 sec). Mars Sol Date When accounting solar days on Earth, astronomers often use Julian dates — a simple sequential count of days — for timekeeping purposes. An analogous system for Mars has been proposed "[f]or historical utility with respect to the Earth-based atmospheric, visual mapping, and polar-cap observations of Mars..., a sequential count of sol-numbers". This Mars Sol Date (MSD) starts "prior to the 1877 perihelic opposition." Thus, the MSD is a running count of sols since 29 December 1873 (coincidentally the birth date of astronomer Carl Otto Lampland). Numerically, the Mars Sol Date is defined as MSD = (Julian Date using International Atomic Time - 2451549.5 + k)/1.02749125 + 44796.0, where k is a small correction of approximately d (or 12 s) due to uncertainty in the exact geographical position of the prime meridian at Airy-0 crater. Time of day A convention used by spacecraft lander projects to date has been to enumerate local solar time using a 24-hour "Mars clock" on which the hours, minutes and seconds are 2.75% longer than their standard (Earth) durations. This has the advantage that no handling of times greater 23:59 is needed, so standard tools can be used. The Mars time of noon is 12:00 which is in Earth time 12 hours and 20 minutes after midnight. For the Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover (MER), Phoenix, and Mars Science Laboratory missions, the operations teams have worked on "Mars time", with a work schedule synchronized to the local time at the landing site on Mars, rather than the Earth day. This results in the crew's schedule sliding approximately 40 minutes later in Earth time each day. Wristwatches calibrated in Martian time, rather than Earth time, were used by many of the MER team members. Local solar time has a significant impact on planning the daily activities of Mars landers. Daylight is needed for the solar panels of landed spacecraft. Its temperature rises and falls rapidly at sunrise and sunset because Mars does not have Earth's thick atmosphere and oceans that soften such fluctuations. Consensus has recently been gained in the scientific community studying Mars to similarly define Martian local hours as 1/24th of a Mars day. As on Earth, on Mars there is also an equation of time that represents the difference between sundial time and uniform (clock) time. The equation of time is illustrated by an analemma. Because of orbital eccentricity, the length of the solar day is not quite constant. Because its orbital eccentricity is greater than that of Earth, the length of day varies from the average by a greater amount than that of Earth, and hence its equation of time shows greater variation than that of Earth: on Mars, the Sun can run 50 minutes slower or 40 minutes faster than a Martian clock (on Earth, the corresponding figures are slower and faster). Mars has a prime meridian, defined as passing through the small crater Airy-0. The prime meridian was first proposed by German astronomers Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler in 1830 as marked by the fork in the albedo feature later named Sinus Meridiani by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. This convention was readily adopted by the astronomical community, the result being that Mars had a universally accepted prime meridian half a century before the International Meridian Conference of 1884 established one for Earth. The definition of the Martian prime meridian has since been refined on the basis of spacecraft imagery as the center of the crater Airy-0 in Terra Meridiani. However, Mars does not have time zones defined at regular intervals from the prime meridian, as on Earth. Each lander so far has used an approximation of local solar time as its frame of reference, as cities did on Earth before the introduction of standard time in the 19th century. (The two Mars Exploration Rovers happen to be approximately 12 hours and one minute apart.) Since the late 1990s and arrival of Mars Global Surveyor at Mars, the most widely used system for specifying locations on Mars has been planetocentric coordinates, which measure longitude 0°–360° East and latitude angles from the center of Mars. An alternative system that was used before then is planetographic coordinates, which measure longitudes as 0°–360° West and determined latitudes as mapped onto the surface. However, planetographic coordinates remain in use, such as on the MAVEN orbiter project. Coordinated Mars Time Coordinated Mars Time (MTC) or Martian Coordinated Time is a proposed Mars analog to Universal Time (UT1) on Earth. It is defined as the mean solar time at Mars's prime meridian. The name "MTC" is intended to parallel the Terran Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), but this is somewhat misleading: what distinguishes UTC from other forms of UT is its leap seconds, but MTC does not use any such scheme. MTC is more closely analogous to UT1. Use of the term "Martian Coordinated Time" as a planetary standard time first appeared in a journal article in 2000. The abbreviation "MTC" was used in some versions of the related Mars24 sunclock coded by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. That application has also denoted the standard time as "Airy Mean Time" (AMT), in analogy of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). In an astronomical context, "GMT" is a deprecated name for Universal Time, or sometimes more specifically for UT1. Neither AMT or MTC has yet been employed in mission timekeeping. This is partially attributable to uncertainty regarding the position of Airy-0 (relative to other longitudes), which meant that AMT could not be realized as accurately as local time at points being studied. At the start of the Mars Exploration Rover missions, the positional uncertainty of Airy-0 corresponded to roughly a 20-second uncertainty in realizing AMT. In order to refine the location of the prime meridian, it has been proposed that it be based on a specification that the Viking Lander 1 is located at 47.95137°W. Lander mission clocks When a spacecraft lander begins operations on Mars, the passing Martian days (sols) are tracked using a simple numerical count. The two Viking missions, Mars Phoenix, the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity, and InSight, and Mars 2020 Perseverance missions all count the sol on which the lander touched down as "Sol 0". Mars Pathfinder and the two Mars Exploration Rovers instead defined touchdown as "Sol 1". Each successful lander mission so far has used its own "time zone", corresponding to some defined version of local solar time at the landing site location. Of the nine successful Mars landers to date, eight employed offsets from local mean solar time (LMST) for the lander site while the ninth (Mars Pathfinder) used local true solar time (LTST). Viking Landers The "local lander time" for the two Viking mission landers were offsets from LMST at the respective lander sites. In both cases, the initial clock midnight was set to match local true midnight immediately preceding touchdown. Pathfinder Mars Pathfinder used the local apparent solar time at its location of landing. Its time zone was AAT-02:13:01, where "AAT" is Airy Apparent Time, meaning apparent (true) solar time at Airy-0. The difference between the true and mean solar time (AMT and AAT) is the Martian equation of time. Pathfinder kept track of the days with a sol count starting on Sol 1 (corresponding to MSD 43905), on which it landed at night at 02:56:55 (mission clock; 4:41 AMT). Spirit and Opportunity The two Mars Exploration Rovers did not use mission clocks matched to the LMST of their landing points. For mission planning purposes, they instead defined a time scale that would approximately match the clock to the apparent solar time about halfway through the nominal 90-sol primary mission. This was referred to in mission planning as "Hybrid Local Solar Time" (HLST) or as the "MER Continuous Time Algorithm". These time scales were uniform in the sense of mean solar time (i.e., they approximate the mean time of some longitude) and were not adjusted as the rovers traveled. (The rovers traveled distances that could make a few seconds difference to local solar time.) The HLST of Spirit is AMT+11:00:04 whereas the LMST at its landing site is AMT+11:41:55. The HLST of Opportunity is AMT-01:01:06 whereas the LMST at its landing site is AMT-00:22:06. Neither rover was likely to ever reach the longitude at which its mission time scale matches local mean time. For science purposes, Local True Solar Time is used. Spirit and Opportunity both started their sol counts with Sol 1 on the day of landing, corresponding to MSD 46216 and MSD 46236, respectively. Phoenix The Phoenix lander project specified a mission clock that matched Local Mean Solar Time at the planned landing longitude of 126.65°W (233.35°E). This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT-08:26:36. The actual landing site was 0.900778° (19.8 km) east of that, corresponding to 3 minutes and 36 seconds later in local solar time. The date is kept using a mission clock sol count with the landing occurring on Sol 0, corresponding to MSD 47776 (mission time zone); the landing occurred around 16:35 LMST, which is MSD 47777 01:02 AMT. Curiosity The Curiosity rover project specified a mission clock that matched Local Mean Solar Time at its originally planned landing longitude of 137.42°E. This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT+09:09:40.8. The actual landing site was about 0.02° (1.3 km) east of that, a difference of about 5 seconds in solar time. The local mean solar time is also affected by the rover motion; at 4.6°S, this is about 1 second of time difference for every 246 meters of displacement along the east-west direction. The date is kept using a mission clock sol count with the landing occurring on Sol 0, corresponding to MSD 49269 (mission time zone); the landing occurred around 14:53 LMST (05:53 AMT). InSight The InSight lander project specified a mission clock that matched Local Mean Solar Time at its planned landing site of 135.97°E. This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT+09:03:53. The actual landing site was at 135.623447°E, or 0.346553° (20.5 km) west of the reference longitude, so the lander mission clock is 1 minute and 23 seconds ahead of the actual mean local solar time at the lander location. The date is kept using a mission clock sol count with the landing occurring on Sol 0, corresponding to MSD 51511 (mission time zone); landing occurred around 14:23 LMST (05:14 AMT). Perseverance The Perseverance rover project has specified a mission clock that matches Local Mean Solar Time at a planned landing longitude of 77.43°E. This corresponds to a mission clock of AMT+05:09:43. The actual landing site was about 0.02° (1.2 km) east of that, a difference of about 5 seconds in solar time. The local mean solar time is also affected by the rover motion; at 18.4°N, this is about 1 second of time difference for every 234 meters of displacement in the east-west direction. The date is kept using a mission clock sol count with the landing occurring on Sol 0, corresponding to MSD 52304 (mission time zone); landing occurred around 15:54 LMST (10:44 AMT). Summary Years Definition of year and seasons The length of time for Mars to complete one orbit around the Sun in respect to the stars, is its sidereal year, and is about 686.98 Earth solar days (≈ 1.88 Earth years), or 668.5991 sols. Because of the eccentricity of Mars' orbit, the seasons are not of equal length. Assuming that seasons run from equinox to solstice or vice versa, the season Ls 0 to Ls 90 (northern-hemisphere spring / southern-hemisphere autumn) is the longest season lasting 194 Martian sols, and Ls 180 to Ls 270 (northern hemisphere autumn / southern-hemisphere spring) is the shortest season, lasting only 142 Martian sols. As on Earth, the sidereal year is not the quantity that is needed for calendar purposes. Similarly, the tropical year would likely be used because it gives the best match to the progression of the seasons. It is slightly shorter than the sidereal year due to the precession of Mars' rotational axis. The precession cycle is 93,000 Martian years (175,000 Earth years), much longer than on Earth. Its length in tropical years can be computed by dividing the difference between the sidereal year and tropical year by the length of the tropical year. Tropical year length depends on the starting point of measurement, due to the effects of Kepler's second law of planetary motion and precession. There are various possible years including the March (northward) equinox year, June (northern) solstice year, the September (southward) equinox year, the December (southern) solstice year, and the tropical year based on the mean sun. (See March equinox year.) On Earth, the variation in the lengths of the tropical years is small, with the mean time from June solstice to June solstice being about a thousandth of a day shorter than that between two December solstices, but on Mars it is much larger because of the greater eccentricity of its orbit. The northward equinox year is 668.5907 sols, the northern solstice year is 668.5880 sols, the southward equinox year is 668.5940 sols, and the southern solstice year is 668.5958 sols (0.0078 sols more than the northern solstice year). (Since, like Earth, the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars have opposite seasons, equinoxes and solstices must be labelled by hemisphere to remove ambiguity.) Seasons begin at 90 degree intervals of solar longitude (Ls) at equinoxes and solstices. Year numbering For purposes of enumerating Mars years and facilitating data comparisons, a system increasingly used in the scientific literature, particularly studies of Martian climate, enumerates years relative to the northern spring equinox (Ls 0) that occurred on April 11, 1955, labeling that date the start of Mars Year 1 (MY1). The system was first described in a paper focused on seasonal temperature variation by R. Todd Clancy of the Space Science Institute. Although Clancy and co-authors described the choice as "arbitrary", the great dust storm of 1956 falls in MY1. This system has been extended by defining Mars Year 0 (MY0) as beginning May 24, 1953, and so allowing for negative year numbers. Martian calendars Long before mission control teams on Earth began scheduling work shifts according to the Martian sol while operating spacecraft on the surface of Mars, it was recognized that humans probably could adapt to this slightly longer diurnal period. This suggested that a calendar based on the sol and the Martian year might be a useful timekeeping system for astronomers in the short term and for explorers in the future. For most day-to-day activities on Earth, people do not use Julian days, as astronomers do, but the Gregorian calendar, which despite its various complications is quite useful. It allows for easy determination of whether one date is an anniversary of another, whether a date is in winter or spring, and what is the number of years between two dates. This is much less practical with Julian days count. For similar reasons, if it is ever necessary to schedule and co-ordinate activities on a large scale across the surface of Mars it would be necessary to agree on a calendar. American astronomer Percival Lowell expressed the time of year on Mars in terms of Mars dates that were analogous to Gregorian dates, with 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December marking the southward equinox, southern solstice, northward equinox, and northern solstice, respectively; Lowell's focus was on the southern hemisphere of Mars because it is the hemisphere that is more easily observed from Earth during favorable oppositions. Lowell's system was not a true calendar, since a Mars date could span nearly two entire sols; rather it was a convenient device for expressing the time of year in the southern hemisphere in lieu of heliocentric longitude, which would have been less comprehensible to a general readership. Italian astronomer Mentore Maggini's 1939 book describes a calendar developed years earlier by American astronomers Andrew Ellicott Douglass and William H. Pickering, in which the first nine months contain 56 sols and the last three months contain 55 sols. Their calendar year begins with the northward equinox on 1 March, thus imitating the original Roman calendar. Other dates of astronomical significance are: northern solstice, 27 June; southward equinox, 36 September; southern solstice, 12 December; perihelion, 31 November; and aphelion, 31 May. Pickering's inclusion of Mars dates in a 1916 report of his observations may have been the first use of a Martian calendar in an astronomical publication. Maggini states: "These dates of the Martian calendar are frequently used by observatories...." Despite his claim, this system eventually fell into disuse, and in its place new systems were proposed periodically which likewise did not gain sufficient acceptance to take permanent hold. In 1936, when the calendar reform movement was at its height, American astronomer Robert G. Aitken published an article outlining a Martian calendar. In each quarter there are three months of 42 sols and a fourth month of 41 sols. The pattern of seven-day weeks repeats over a two-year cycle, i.e., the calendar year always begins on a Sunday in odd-numbered years, thus effecting a perpetual calendar for Mars. Whereas previous proposals for a Martian calendar had not included an epoch, American astronomer I. M. Levitt developed a more complete system in 1954. In fact, Ralph Mentzer, an acquaintance of Levitt's who was a watchmaker for the Hamilton Watch Company, built several clocks designed by Levitt to keep time on both Earth and Mars. They could also be set to display the date on both planets according to Levitt's calendar and epoch (the Julian day epoch of 4713 BCE). Charles F. Capen included references to Mars dates in a 1966 Jet Propulsion Laboratory technical report associated with the Mariner 4 flyby of Mars. This system stretches the Gregorian calendar to fit the longer Martian year, much as Lowell had done in 1895, the difference being that 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December marks the northward equinox, northern solstice, southward equinox, southern solstice, respectively. Similarly, Conway B. Leovy et al. also expressed time in terms of Mars dates in a 1973 paper describing results from the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter. British astronomer Sir Patrick Moore described a Martian calendar of his own design in 1977. His idea was to divide up a Martian year into 18 months. Months 6, 12 and 18, have 38 sols, while the rest of the months contain 37 sols. American aerospace engineer and political scientist Thomas Gangale first published regarding the Darian calendar in 1986, with additional details published in 1998 and 2006. It has 24 months to accommodate the longer Martian year while keeping the notion of a "month" that is reasonably similar to the length of an Earth month. On Mars, a "month" would have no relation to the orbital period of any moon of Mars, since Phobos and Deimos orbit in about 7 hours and 30 hours respectively. However, Earth and Moon would generally be visible to the naked eye when they were above the horizon at night, and the time it takes for the Moon to move from maximum separation in one direction to the other and back as seen from Mars is close to a Lunar month. Czech astronomer Josef Šurán offered a Martian calendar design in 1997, in which a common year has 672 Martian days distributed into 24 months of 28 days (or 4 weeks of 7 days each); in skip years an entire week at the end of the twelfth month is omitted. Moore's 37-sol period 37 sols is the smallest integer number of sols after which the Mars Sol Date and the Julian date become offset by a full day. Alternatively, it can be viewed as the smallest integer number of sols needed for any Martian time zones to complete a full lap around Earth time zones. Specifically, 37 sols are equal to 38 Earth days plus 24 minutes and 44 seconds. Remarkably, the 37-sol period also accidentally almost divides several time quantities of interest at the same time. In particular: One Martian year is approximately equal to 18 × (37 sols) + 2.59897 sols Two Earth-Mars synodic periods are approximately equal to 41 × (37 sols) + 1.176 sols One Earth decade is approximately equal to 96 × (37 sols) + 2.7018 sols This makes the 37-sol period useful both for time synchronization between Earth and Mars timezones, and for Martian calendars, as a small number of leap sols can be straightforwardly added to eliminate calendar drift with respect to either the Martian year, Earth-Mars launch windows, or Earth calendars. List of notable events in Martian history Martian time in fiction The first known reference to time on Mars appears in Percy Greg's novel Across the Zodiac (1880). The primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary divisions of the sol are based on the number 12. Sols are numbered 0 through the end of the year, with no additional structure to the calendar. The epoch is "the union of all races and nations in a single State, a union which was formally established 13,218 years ago". 20th century Edgar Rice Burroughs described, in The Gods of Mars (1913), the divisions of the sol into zodes, xats, and tals. Although possibly the first to make the mistake of describing the Martian year as lasting 687 Martian days, he was far from the last. In the Robert A. Heinlein novel Red Planet (1949), humans living on Mars use a 24-month calendar, alternating between familiar Earth months and newly created months such as Ceres and Zeus. For example, Ceres comes after March and before April, while Zeus comes after October and before November. The Arthur C. Clarke novel The Sands of Mars (1951) mentions in passing that "Monday followed Sunday in the usual way" and "the months also had the same names, but were fifty to sixty days in length". In H. Beam Piper's short story "Omnilingual" (1957), the Martian calendar and the periodic table are the keys to archaeologists' deciphering of the records left by the long dead Martian civilization. Kurt Vonnegut's novel The Sirens of Titan (1959) describes a Martian calendar divided into twenty-one months: "twelve with thirty sols, and nine with thirty-one sols", for a total of only 639 sols. D. G. Compton states in his novel Farewell, Earth's Bliss (1966), during the prison ship's journey to Mars: "Nobody on board had any real idea how the people in the settlement would have organised their six-hundred-and-eighty-seven-day year." In Ian McDonald's Desolation Road (1988), set on a terraformed Mars (referred to by the book's characters as "Ares"), characters follow an implied 24-month calendar whose months are portmanteaus of Gregorian months, such as "Julaugust", "Augtember", and "Novodecember". In both Philip K. Dick's novel Martian Time-Slip and Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy (1992–1996), clocks retain Earth-standard seconds, minutes, and hours, but freeze at midnight for 39.5 minutes. As the fictional colonization of Mars progresses, this "timeslip" becomes a sort of witching hour, a time when inhibitions can be shed, and the emerging identity of Mars as a separate entity from Earth is celebrated. (It is not said explicitly whether this occurs simultaneously all over Mars, or at local midnight in each longitude.) Also in the Mars Trilogy, the calendar year is divided into twenty-four months. The names of the months are the same as the Gregorian calendar, except for a "1" or "2" in front to indicate the first or second occurrence of that month (for example, 1 January, 2 January, 1 February, 2 February). 21st century In the manga and anime series Aria (2001–2002), by Kozue Amano, set on a terraformed Mars, the calendar year is also divided into twenty-four months. Following the modern Japanese calendar, the months are not named but numbered sequentially, running from 1st Month to 24th Month. The Darian calendar is mentioned in a couple of works of fiction set on Mars: Star Trek: Department of Temporal Investigations: Watching the Clock by Christopher L. Bennett, Pocket Books/Star Trek (April 26, 2011) The Quantum Thief by Hannu Rajaniemi, Tor Books; Reprint edition (May 10, 2011) In Andy Weir's novel The Martian (2011) and its 2015 feature film adaptation, sols are counted and referenced frequently with onscreen title cards, in order to emphasize the amount of time the main character spends on Mars. Formulas to compute MSD and MTC The Mars Sol Date (MSD) can be computed from the Julian date referred to Terrestrial Time (TT), as MSD = (JDTT − 2405522.0028779) / 1.0274912517 Terrestrial time, however, is not as easily available as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). TT can be computed from UTC by first adding the difference TAI−UTC, which is a positive integer number of seconds occasionally updated by the introduction of leap seconds (see current number of leap seconds), then adding the constant difference TT−TAI = 32.184 s. This leads to the following formula giving MSD from the UTC-referred Julian date: MSD = (JDUTC + (TAI−UTC)/86400 − 2405522.0025054) / 1.0274912517 where the difference TAI−UTC is in seconds. JDUTC can in turn be computed from any epoch-based time stamp, by adding the Julian date of the epoch to the time stamp in days. For example, if is a Unix timestamp in seconds, then JDUTC = / 86400 + 2440587.5 It follows, by a simple substitution: MSD = ( + (TAI−UTC)) / 88775.244147 + 34127.2954262 MTC is the fractional part of MSD, in hours, minutes and seconds: MTC = (MSD mod 1) × 24 h For example, at the time this page was last generated (): JDTT = MSD = MTC = See also Astronomy on Mars Universal Time Coordinated Universal Time Notes References External links Martian Time MARS24 Application NASA Algorithms Earth Date to Mars Date Converter NASA Mars Clock (Curiosity Rover) mclock - Command Line Mars Clock TED Talk - What Time Is It On Mars Mars Mars	6,463
doc-en-11633_0	Alexander Lavelle Harris is a fictional character created for the action-horror/fantasy television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003). He was developed by Joss Whedon and portrayed throughout the television series by Nicholas Brendon and in two episodes by his twin brother, Kelly Donovan. He was conceived as an everyman and a male character for series heroine Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar) to interact with, and to provide comic relief in the series. Xander is one of several friends of Buffy who assist her in saving the world against numerous supernatural events that plague Sunnydale, California, a town built over a doorway to hell. Xander is based in part on Whedon himself, particularly in his high school years; as such, he is often the most geeky as well as witty and verbose of Buffy's characters. The character's overriding arc through the series has been his struggle towards maturity and earning the respect of others. In the canonical comic book continuation of the series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (2007–2011), Xander comes to achieve these goals in becoming the tactical leader of a global army of Vampire Slayers alongside Buffy. Academic attention to the character has frequently come in the form of gender studies or with a focus on social class, reflecting Xander's working class home life and his fears of inadequacy. However, Xander's unique position as both outside and within the main group enhances his insight into the other characters, especially as the series continues; in Season Eight, he is Buffy's unofficial "Watcher", who watches over her and has a clear perspective. Critics have noted that although Xander frequently exhibits a struggle of masculinity, his storylines often focus on his romantic conquests. Following his unreciprocated love for Buffy, these include the tumultuous relationship with rich girl Cordelia Chase (Charisma Carpenter), brief fling with his best friend Willow (Alyson Hannigan) and his long-term relationship with ex-demon Anya (Emma Caulfield). In Season Eight, the character's older-brother relationship with Buffy's little sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) also develops along romantic lines, too late for Buffy to realize her compatibility with Xander. The character of Xander Harris also appears in numerous items in the series Expanded Universe, such as comic books, tie-in novels and video games. Appearances Television Xander Harris is introduced in season one's (1997) two-part premiere "Welcome to the Hellmouth"/"The Harvest". Xander meets Buffy Summers (Gellar), the Slayer, on her first day at Sunnydale High, as well as her Watcher Rupert Giles (Anthony Head). While in the library, he secretly listens in on a and conversation between Buffy and Giles in which she idenitifies herself as, the Slayer. After his friend Jesse (Eric Balfour) is made a vampire, Xander accidentally kills him, resulting in him resenting vampires. Xander and his best friend Willow (Hannigan) become Buffy's reliable sidekicks. He pines for Buffy's romantic affection, oblivious to Willow's affections for him, and distrusts Buffy's boyfriend, the ensouled vampire Angel (David Boreanaz). In the season finale, "Prophecy Girl", Xander saves Buffy's life by administering CPR after she is drowned by the Master (Mark Metcalf). In season two (1997-8), Xander begins a turbulent and ambiguous relationship with popular girl Cordelia Chase (Carpenter) after they are thrown together in several life-or-death situations. He tells Willow that she is his best friend but that he has no romantic feelings for her, to Willow's dismay. Xander is briefly turned into a soldier in the episode "Halloween", and retains extensive military knowledge and training thereafter; in "Innocence", this knowledge proves essential to helping Buffy defeat a demon known as The Judge who had been believed practically invincible. In times, Xander gradually honed his fighting capabilities after a chain of events against supernatural and human threats. When Cordelia decides she needs to break up to preserve her social status, Xander coerces witch Amy Madison (Elizabeth Anne Allen) to cast a love spell, which misfires; Cordelia is unaffected but, seeing how much Xander loves her, reunites with him in defiance of her former friends, in "Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered". The episode "Go Fish" focuses on Xander, after he joins the swim team to investigate the disappearances of Sunnydale High swimmers. In the season finale "Becoming, Part Two", Xander decides not to tell Buffy about Willow's plan to re-ensoul Angel—who has lost his soul and is going to bring about the apocalypse— so that she will not hesitate to kill him in order to save the world. Buffy is surprised and grief stricken when Angel regains his soul moments before she must kill him. Season three (1998-9) begins with Xander and his friends slaying demons since Buffy ran away to Los Angeles. Xander sees Angel and Buffy together and rushes to tell Giles of Angel's return in "Revelations". Xander along the others confront Buffy, angry that she concealed Angel's return. While still angry, Xander tells Faith that Angel is alive. When Faith decides to slay Angel, Xander is eager to join her. When Cordelia catches Xander kissing Willow in "Lovers Walk", she dumps him, though they ultimately part as friends. "The Zeppo" is a comedic episode focusing on Xander: the episode begins with Cordelia mocking him as a "loser", which upsets him. A solo adventure begins when the rest of the Scoobies insist he stay away from the dangerous fight with the Sisterhood of Jhe; he borrows his uncle's classic car, loses his virginity to mentally unstable rogue Slayer Faith (Eliza Dushku), and single-handedly stops a band of zombies from destroying Sunnydale High School. His calm handling of the incident significantly enhances his self-confidence and, when again mocked by Cordelia, is unperturbed. Xander takes Anya (Caulfield), formerly vengeance demon Anyanka, to his prom in "The Prom", and his military training proves useful in defeating the evil Mayor (Harry Groener) in season finale "Graduation Day". In season four (1999–2000), Xander's feelings of inferiority and isolation increase, as he has not enrolled in college with his friends. Outside the core group, Xander strengthens his relationship with Anya and the two eventually fall in love. In the season four climax "Primeval", Xander becomes the "heart" in the spell, which conjoins him with Buffy, Willow and Giles to defeat Adam (George Hertzberg), a part-demon, part-human, cyborg monster. Finale episode "Restless" delves into the characters' psyches through dream sequences; Xander's dream involves his erotic attraction to Buffy's mom (Kristine Sutherland), Willow and her girlfriend Tara (Amber Benson), his fear of his abusive father, and features a re-enactment of 1979 film Apocalypse Now. In season five (2000-1), Xander matures; he becomes a carpenter and construction worker, and moves into his own apartment with Anya. He comes under the thrall of Dracula in premiere episode "Buffy vs. Dracula", becoming his Renfield. The episode "The Replacement" focuses on the two aspects of Xander: the emotionally sensible, driven man, and the comedic buffoon. Xander-centric episode "Triangle" sees him defend Willow and Anya equally from Anya's ex-boyfriend Olaf the Troll (Abraham Benrubi) when ordered to choose between them. In the season finale, he asks Anya to marry him; he uses a wrecking ball to assist Buffy in fighting the season's villain, hell-goddess Glory (Clare Kramer). In season six (2001-2), Xander and his friends resurrect Buffy; this has consequences, and Buffy sinks into depression. Xander's doubts about his future with Anya are expressed when he summons the all-singing demon Sweet (Hinton Battle), in the musical episode "Once More, with Feeling". A demon exploits these fears in "Hell's Bells"; Xander leaves Anya heartbroken at the altar, and she returns to her old job as a vengeance demon. In the season finale, when a grief-stricken Willow tries to end the world, only Xander's compassion and love for her is able to stop her. In season seven (2002-3), when Buffy's little sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) mistakenly believes herself to be a Potential Slayer, Xander empathizes with her disappointment over not being the one in the spotlight, in "Potential". Season seven episode "Conversations with Dead People" is the only Buffy episode in which Xander does not appear. In the episode "Dirty Girls", Xander's left eye is gouged out by the evil preacher Caleb (Nathan Fillion), and he begins wearing an eyepatch. Though he and Anya get back together, in the series finale, "Chosen", Anya is killed by a Bringer's sword. Andrew (Tom Lenk), the only witness to her death, tells him Anya died saving his life. Xander responds, "That's my girl. Always doing the stupid thing." Though Brendon does not portray Xander again subsequent to "Chosen", the Angel episode "Damage" (2004) mentions that Xander is in Africa, recruiting newly activated Slayers for Buffy's team. Between 2001 and 2004, Joss Whedon and Jeph Loeb developed a 4-minute pilot episode for Buffy the Animated Series, which was set during the show's first season. Had the series been picked up by a network, it would have featured Xander (voiced by Nicholas Brendon) in more adventures set during Buffy'''s first season. Following a 2008 leak of the pilot to YouTube, Loeb expressed some hope that the series may be resurrected in some form. Literature Concurrent with the television series, Xander appears in canonical tie-ins to the television series. Xander appears in most Buffy comics and novels (those set within Buffy's Sunnydale years), and is the featured character of several. The Xander Years, Vol 1. and Vol. 2 for instance are each novelization of three key Xander episodes from the show's first three seasons, spanning "Teacher's Pet" to "The Zeppo". The 2004 comic "Antique" depicts Xander resuming his position as Dracula's loyal manservant at the vampire's Translyvanian castle for several months, before Buffy and two new Slayers rescue Xander. Subsequently, the character appears three years later in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight series of comic books. Xander appears from the premiere issue, "The Long Way Home" (2007) by Joss Whedon. In Season Eight, Xander leads the Slayers and operates their central command in Scotland; Buffy describes him as her unwilling "Watcher". Xander invites comparison to Marvel Comics' character Nick Fury. Xander's new relationship with Slayer Renée is cut short when she is killed in "Wolves at the Gate" (2008) by Drew Goddard. Goddard's story is also a continuation to "Antique"; Xander ends his friendship with Dracula. In Jane Espenson's "Retreat" story arc (2009), as Buffy begins to realize she has developed a romantic attraction to Xander, she discovers his newfound romantic relationship with Dawn; Xander had previously been her confidante throughout Season Eight. Buffy tries to explain her feelings to Xander in Joss Whedon's "Turbulence" (2010), though he dismisses this feelings as her need for stability; Xander admits to Buffy, that he truly loves Dawn. In its final arc, "Last Gleaming" (2011), Xander witnesses a possessed Angel kill Giles in the ruins of Sunnydale, as well as Buffy's destruction of the source of all magic. Subsequently, he and Dawn settle down and move to San Francisco, where they allow Buffy to stay with them while she waitresses and hunts vampires by night. In the follow-on comic book, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine (2011–14), Buffy has moved out of Xander and Dawn's home, and they have less contact with her than before. Following the events of Season Eight, Xander struggles to control his anger. In "Welcome to the Team" (2012–13), Dawn falls ill and begins to die as a result of magic's absence. What's more the world, including Xander and Buffy, is slowly forgetting she ever existed. In "The Watcher" (2013), the season's villains, mystical 'Siphon' Severin and rogue Slayer Simone persuade Xander to assist them in their plot to turn back time and avert Twilight. In the final arc, "The Core," Xander supplies them with information from an ancient tome on vampires Buffy owns. Acting on the same information, Buffy and Willow decide that the Deeper Well in England—a prison for ancient demons—may contain enough magic to save Dawn, and Xander travels with them. While entering the Well, Xander confesses his betrayal to Buffy and informs her of Severin's plan to use the magic in the Well to turn back time, which could destroy the universe. He stands beside Buffy when they discover Simone's ulterior motive for entering the Well; she has allowed herself to be sired by the very demon which created the first vampire, transforming herself into a powerful vampire/Slayer hybrid. During battle in the Well Severin dies as he explodes with power. The energy is absorbed by the new Seed of Wonder Willow had created, restoring magic to the world. Buffy dusts Simone and Willow returns everyone to San Francisco and saves Dawn with magic and Buffy's blood. Xander thinks Dawn feels different and is guiltily convinced she somehow knows about his betrayal, despite Buffy forgiving him and telling him he is being too hard on himself. In Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten (2014–16), Xander has more of a starring role, and the first arc, "New Rules," is co-written by his former portrayer, Nicholas Brendon. Following Season Nine, Xander and Dawn's relationship is strained. Xander, wracked with guilt, is convinced something is odd about her, and has begun talking to possibly hallucinated visions of his ex-girlfriend Anya. He does not know, as Dawn later confesses to Buffy, that she is experiencing intense emotional anguish from reliving her entire life at the moment Willow brought her back. When Dracula rolls in to town to help the Slayer combat the threat of new, more powerful vampires with powers like his, Xander slips back into the manservant role and confesses to Dawn that he knows she does not really love him, which Dawn tearfully admits is true. After Xander is freed from Dracula's influence Dawn admits the truth of her emotional state to him and they agree to end their relationship. However, Xander pledges he will get Dawn to fall in love with him once again. Video games Xander appears in video games based on Buffy. Brendon lent his voice for Xander in the 2002 Buffy game for Xbox and the multi-console 2003 video game Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Chaos Bleeds, in which Xander is a playable character. In the 2002 game, Xander is not a playable character, but Buffy can acquire weapons from him over the course of the game. Chaos Bleeds is set in season five of the television series; in Xander's levels, he is sent to an alternate universe. After the level at Sunnydale High, he has to do battle with an alternate universe Anyanka, the level's boss; a magical tophat that releases rabbits evens their playing field slightly. Following the level at the zoo featured in "The Pack", Buffy battles against an evil alternate reality version of Giles, styled "Ripper". Chaos Bleeds prompted prequel comic books published by Dark Horse and a novelisation, which treats it as a "lost" episode of season five. Casting Nicholas Brendon's twin brother Kelly Donovan would often stunt double for Xander in the series, most notably in the episode "The Replacement", where dual Xanders appear on-screen at the same time. They both use stage names; their surname is Shultz; as children, they were inseparable. Before landing the role of Xander, Brendon had hit "rock bottom": his girlfriend had left him, he was working as a waiter and could barely afford his rent, and had almost given up on getting good work. After buying the wrong kind of Pop Tarts for his co-workers, his boss fired him and told him "You should be acting." Brendon was attracted to the pilot script for Buffy because of how much he had hated high school. Brendon recognised that Xander was based on Joss Whedon when he had attended high school, accounting for why Xander "gets all the good lines". Brendon did not get much acting work after Buffy finished, and went into an alcoholism rehabilitation centre in 2004. As of 2007, as Niki Stafford notes in her Unofficial Guide, the actor has had comparatively more work since with stage productions. For the season five episode "The Replacement", where a demon splits Xander into two people along the lines of his immature and his more adult characteristics, Donovan is cast to play the "other" Xander in scenes where both appear onscreen together. Both actors found playing the character together to be a fun experience. Development One academic analysis of the series finds that Xander has much in common with the Harry Potter character Ron Weasley. The writer cites his proximity to the main character, his comparative working class status to best friend Willow (as with Weasley and Hermione), his status as an object of mockery in school. For both Xander and Ron, their comparative lack of special gifts "accentuates the loyalty and bravery... [each] offers as a friend" given that the characters often place themselves in mortal danger. Cordelia's statement to Xander in the Zeppo, which compares him to Superman character Jimmy Olsen, is noted as another example qualifying Xander's everyman status. Though Xander is often "the heart" of the Scooby Gang, in "The Zeppo" he is excluded from their battle against a hydra-like demon. Through the use of jump cuts between melodramatic scenes with Buffy, and for instance, informant Willy the Barkeeper (Saverio Guerra) to Xander and a gang of zombies in a drunken car journey, Xander is used as a vehicle to point out the ways in which Buffy ordinarily avoids being "over the top" by integrating Xander (as the show's source of humour) into the main narrative rather than separating the two. His loss of his virginity to Faith, for example, is musically cued as an anti-romantic parallel to the swelling, symphonic romance scene that Xander oversees between Buffy and Angel; on his departure from the carnal bed, the music is re-cued. The episode depicts Xander single-handedly saving the school, and potentially the world (given the Hellmouth beneath it) from an explosion in simultaneity against glimpses of the other Scoobies' struggles with the hydra demon. As the episode draws to a climax, the two settings begin to erode into one, as the demon breaks through walls in the basement and enters into the episode's Xander scenes. Stevenson notes that it is fitting for the character to have his most heroic moment in the school basement, given that in season four he will be reduced to living in his parents'; Xander's fears in "Restless" explore his feeling of being "trapped" in that basement. Wilcox argues that the basement is a representation of the subconscious, and that young carefree zombie Jack O'Toole (Channon Roe) represents Xander's id, his inner desires. The episode brings to light how the basis for heroism rests in the subconscious, and also how as the two battles increasingly merge, his friends cannot hope to save the world and save others unless Xander's battle with the Self is also won. In his confrontation with Jack, just as in his confrontation with Dark Willow in season six's "Grave", Xander saves the world through his words. As the "warrior of words", Wilcox feels that this makes Xander the character who most clearly represents series creator Joss Whedon. Throughout the series, Xander's family are seen to be highly dysfunctional and composed of alcoholics. In "Homecoming", he admits to swallowing his pride to borrow a tuxedo from his cousin Rigby, from a wealthier branch of the family, who, as Xander puts it "shun us... as they should". Xander relates in "Amends" that he sleeps outside at Christmas to avoid the family quarrels. This leads him to seek a surrogate family in his friendships with Buffy, Willow and Giles. Xander lacks Giles's and Willow's academic intelligence, and Buffy's physical prowess. Cordelia is initially ashamed to be Xander's girlfriend. Throughout the series, Xander struggles to contribute meaningfully to the group dynamic. His dissatisfaction reaches a nadir in season four: Xander's physical dislocation from his college friends leads to a profound sense of being useless. In "Restless", his menial jobs and degrading habitat rise to the surface of his dream narrative. Before falling asleep, he begins to watch Apocalypse Now with Willow, Buffy and Giles, who comments, "Oh, I'm beginning to understand this now. It's all about the journey, isn't it." Xander's dream, in turn, is one of intense self-exploration. In his dream, Xander goes to use the bathroom, and is emasculated and infantilized by Buffy asking him if he needs any help: this scene shows Xander's "sense of insecurity and powerlessness". Nevertheless, he becomes lost and finds himself in his parents' basement. From there, he finds himself in his ice cream truck, where Anya asks if he knows what he is doing, underlining the aimlessness of his journey; he is in the basement once again. When suddenly he is in the army and Principal Snyder (as a character in Apocalypse Now) asks where he comes from, he says, "The basement, mostly." He fears that his military interrogator is correct in saying that he is "the whipping boy" and "set on a sacrificial stone". (This position of being less "chosen" for social inclusion and great things than his peers makes him uniquely able to comfort Dawn in season seven's "Potential".) Although "The Replacement" sets up its narrative as an evil twin television narrative trope, its catch is that both Xanders are in fact the real Xander. In this episode, Xander uncovers that he has the power within himself to be the adult, suave and confident man whom he had spent the episode envying. "The dual Xanders", Stephens argues, "represents the duality in all of us." The episode demonstrates that Xander is not defined by his weaker personality traits but by the core personality that is a merger of his stronger and weaker traits. Xander's costume choices in various Halloween episodes show the audience his desire for macho credence: he comes, variously, as a cowboy, a soldier and as James Bond. As a soldier, he was in fact magically turned into his costume, and got to retain his macho status along with the useful military knowledge. Following this incident, his choice of costume represents explicitly whom he would like to actually become. Various episodes highlight Xander's intense bravery; for example, he faces down evil Angelus (Boreanaz) at Buffy's hospital door in the episode "Killed by Death", and he offers his life in place of Willow's in "Inca Mummy Girl". When Buffy prepares to face Angelus in the season two finale, he arrives with a rock in hand saying "Cavalry's here. Cavalry's a frightened guy with a rock, but it's here." Stephens argues that this makes up the essence of Xander's character; though powerless, he is always both loyal and brave. As his relationship with Dawn in "Potential" and his support of Buffy show, Xander finds that his real calling seems to be in his role as the "eternal supporter". One journalist describes the character as a modern-day Greek Chorus, always an outsider looking in, and a version of Joss Whedon himself. One author writes that the focus of Xander's character development has always been his quest for maturity. While their characters were an item, Brendon was close friends with Charisma Carpenter, who portrays Cordelia. When they broke up on the show, and Cordelia transitioned to the spin-off Angel, he commented that they had hardly spoken due to being in different scenes all the time. This felt like a real-life breakup in many ways. When Xander got to become serious with Anya in season five, the actor commented that it was nice to see Xander mature after four years of playing the "nerd". Lorna Jowett feels that Xander's romances throughout the season almost seem to "make up" for the character's shortcomings, which Stafford attributes to Xander's origin as Whedon's author surrogate in the show. Anya comments that Xander is "a Viking in the sack" in "The Yoko Factor", indicating not just masculinity but also virility. Within the show, gay character Larry mistakes Xander for being gay, and Xander's unguarded comments towards Spike have led some fans who write fan fiction to depict Xander as being gay. Jowett attributes this to Xander's internal struggles (which concern a crisis of masculinity and his role amongst his friends) do not contain a readily accessible solution for viewers to hold onto. She argues that some fans see this as a "stumbling block", perhaps unconsciously, to recognising the character's masculinity and at a wider level, in constructing a notion of contemporary masculinity. In the DVD commentary for the episode "Dirty Girls", writer Drew Goddard mentions there was talk of killing off Xander towards the end of Season Seven and having the First Evil assume Xander's appearance when conversing with Buffy for the remainder of the season. This was ultimately rejected since Xander was thought to be too important to the series, and his death occurring so late in the season would leave little time to deal with it correctly, and that throughout the series' run, Xander was the one character who never wavered, and to punish that characteristic with death would send a message the staff wasn't trying to convey. Instead of killing Xander, he was blinded in one eye. Reception For his role as Xander, Brendon was nominated for Saturn Award in 1998 and 1999 for Best Genre TV Actor and in 2000 for the Supporting Actor. At least one later critique of Xander's character regarded him less sympathetically as a "Nice Guy™". Impact "The Zeppo" in season three was a Xander-centric episode, which only featured the other characters in humorous aside glimpses of their struggle to save the world. This episode has proved very influential on later television writers. In his "Production Notes: Doodles in the Margins of Time" in 2007, Doctor Who executive producer Russell T Davies cites "The Zeppo" along with Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Lower Decks" as an influence on his 2006 Doctor Who episode "Love & Monsters". The episode provided a television format that came to be known as the "Doctor-lite episode", an annual tradition for Doctor Who from 2006 to 2008, often featuring a significant guest star carrying the bulk of the acting responsibilities as Doctor Who has a much smaller cast than Buffy''. References Further reading External links The BtVS Writers' Guild - Main character page for The BtVS Writers' Guild featuring Xander's various incarnations and relationships. Each page features character profiles, essays on the character and writing, as well as fan fiction and links. Buffyverse Dialogue DB:: Xander - Character profile for Xander Harris including his main story arcs and a detailed list of episodes and script lines. American male characters in television Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters Fictional characters from California Fictional construction workers Fictional members of secret societies Fictional soldiers Fictional vampire hunters Television characters introduced in 1997 Fictional demon hunters Horror television characters Teenage characters in television	6,295
doc-en-11658_0	Mary H J Henderson (born 1874 – 6 November 1938) was an administrator with Elsie Inglis's Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service in the Balkans in World War I, earning five medals. She founded social work and civic groups led by women, in Dundee, Aberdeen and London and served on charitable bodies including Dundee War Relief Fund, and worked for women's suffrage. She was also a war poet. Life Mary Helen Jane Henderson was born in Old Machar in 1874, the daughter of William Low Henderson, an Aberdeen architect, and had a twin brother; they were cousins of Lady Dunedin. She had lived in a cottage near Queen Victoria's Balmoral Castle and had frequently played there with the Royal grandchildren. She was later to write more about her encounters with Queen Victoria, who presented her with a portrait photograph in 1887, and about John Brown, the Scottish manservant, whom Henderson thought was rude. She had also lived in Italy for some years. Based in Broughty Ferry, Dundee, for much of her life, Henderson was leading in a number of civic and social organisations in the city for women's suffrage, or war relief efforts or for temperance, and in the care of women and children. She raised funds for the Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service before joining the service herself as administrator for the Serbian unit. Through illustrated talks and her poetry she shared her war experience, after the war and ( some) women had won the vote, Henderson continued to establish women's citizenship groups. She died as the result of a car accident in 1938. Roles in civic society In 1913, Henderson proposed and was asked to proceed, on behalf of Dundee branch of the National Union of Women Workers, in adding a 'lady representative' onto the board of the Dundee Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. She was a founder of the Dundee Infant Hospital, but later was indignant that women doctors were being dismissed (in 1919), despite the service being founded by women's efforts originally. Her letter to the press was of no avail, as men were to be given preference in medical as in other employment after the war. Henderson was one of the three women standing in the 1914 Dundee School Board elections; her role at the women's suffrage society was given with her image in the press. A fellow suffragist, Agnes Husband was successfully elected, but although Henderson had more individual votes than the lead candidate (Rev. George Smart), she was not elected due to the current plural voting rights 'plumper' system. Henderson led the Dundee Women's Suffrage Society from 1913, and was on the Dundee Women's War Relief Executive Committee from 1914 and secretary for the Scottish Women's Hospital for Foreign Service (SWH), before being asked by Dr Inglis to act as the administrator for a new unit to work with the Serbian Army in the war zone in 1916. Prior to leaving for the front, she had held social events for women and children whose men were away, had organised demonstrations for temperance (calls to ban alcohol during the war), and had organised a recruitment drive for more men volunteers to join the forces, and she established a women's debating organisation, the Steeple Club. She later was among those who formed the London Women's Forum. She was presented to the King and Queen at Buckingham Palace for her war service, when His Majesty shared with Henderson, his condolences for the loss of Dr. Elsie Inglis, founder of SWH. Role in the women's suffrage movement In 1913, whilst Henderson was honorary secretary of the Dundee Women's Suffrage Society (which was non-militant and non-party), the group gained 40 new members, reaching a total of two hundred and five. Henderson claimed 'increased public support' would eventually bring about enfranchisement of women, but the national (NUWSS) policy review would need to move from having 'educated individual members' to having to 'educate the parties'. That year Henderson held a cafe chantant, which hosted suffragist Alice Crompton, who described the growth of the non-militant movement to '60 branches, and almost 40,000 members across Scotland'. Lady Baxter gave a supportive speech before the entertainment and refreshments. In January 1914, Henderson chaired a joint meeting of Dundee NUWSS and the Independent Labour Party. She had become Parliamentary Secretary of the Scottish Women's Suffrage Societies, and the speaker Ethel Snowden held a large audience in 'rapt attention'. The militant campaign for women's suffrage was suspended at the start of the World War I. Henderson wrote to the Lord Provost offering Dundee Women's Suffrage Society's members' services, its premises and resources to help organise the war relief effort without 'overlapping, such as unfortunately occurred at the time of the Boer War'. It was agreed to form a Dundee Women's War Relief Executive Committee (DWWREC) with Henderson appointed as its first secretary. She informed the Dundee WSS in August 1916 that their branch had raised the largest contribution to the work of the Scottish Women's Hospitals 'of any individual Suffrage Society in the United Kingdom'. By March 1918, £3,641 was the total. Henderson's view in 1916 was that 'public opinion was just now sympathetic towards granting women the vote' but she wondered whether this view would remain 'when it became a question of practical politics' after the war. War relief executive As the first secretary of Dundee Women's War Relief Executive Committee (DWWREC), Henderson agreed that each city ward was to be given its own local committee. She led the voluntary women's employment initiative with her group, including establishing a toy factory paying female workers and supporting unemployed women with financial grants. The Prince of Wales Fund Executive (convened by the Lord Provost) then made Henderson's 'large number of ladies' volunteering, into an official committee after hearing praise from Mary Paterson, secretary of the Scottish Committee on Women's Employment. The women's paid work was seen as a 'nucleus' of a viable industry for employing unemployed girls, offering training in typing and dressmaking, and the toys made were to be sold. Henderson's volunteers had been 'collecting and distributing comforts to the soldiers and sailors, organising clubs for local troops, and social evenings for the women'. Popular periodical The People's Journal reported Henderson's update that the women of Dundee had donated large volumes of articles, to Black Watch, RNVR and others, and the DWWRC donations grew throughout the war. The Courier noted in October 1914, that '15,834 pairs of socks, over 200 shirts, cholera belts, mitts, cuffs, mufflers and helmets' had been reported by Henderson as sent to the front. She continued to report regularly to the DWWREC on the cumulative totals of donations which were being co-ordinated (by November 1916 over 148,000 articles) for the 'comfort' of the troops. Just before Christmas 1914, Henderson said 36,000 articles per month were being donated, and that letters of appreciation were received from the front, and the toys sold had raised £50. The Edinburgh Women's Emergency Corps. visited to learn the techniques of toy manufacture. Her committee had another novel idea for Primrose Day i.e. charging for a 'charming girl' to pin a 'beautiful blossom' onto lapels to raise funds 'for providing soldiers with shirts, socks and other comforts.' Henderson also explained some of the cash collected went to Dundee and Tayport Red Cross, and the group were considering opening a 'dry' (i e non-alcoholic) canteen. Prohibition and abstention proposal Henderson was a keynote speaker after thousands of women and supporters had paraded through Dundee promoting temperance , demanding a war-time alcohol prohibition, which she said would be 'a patriotic act'. Lady Baxter, Salvation Army and Girl Guides and temperance organisations led with banners and a plea for non-abstainers to give up alcohol during the war. Henderson said that (as a non-abstainer herself) she had been convinced 'by incontrovertible facts' that 'it was best for the country' for alcohol manufacture and sales to be banned during the war and for 'a period of demobilisation''. Mr Mackay of Glasgow said that the Dundee women had the right to make these demands because ' they had given of their best, their sons, for the defence of our freedom. and they had the right to demand in return that the country would defend their sons'. Henderson heard that research had shown that women, anxious for men at the front, were turning to drink as a way of coping, leading to inebriation and a risk of abuse of children, in half of the cases referred to the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in 1916, and she asked for a women's committee to be established. Economic constraints to help the war effort (closing museums, reducing printing of books, newspapers) were discussed, with a suggestion at the meeting that it needed a Czar-like 'total ban on whisky' to reduce the risk to the 'lives of children'. Social support for women, and recruitment drive Henderson's interest in the welfare of mothers and children included supporting a social event for the families attending the Blackscroft Clinic in Dundee. Prizes were given for regular attendance, and for the care of 'delicate' children. She thanked the hostesses and praised the mothers for their 'true patriotism by doing their very best to bring up a strong, healthy and happy race'. She presided over a musical and sketch entertainment for the Dundee troops at the Overgate soldiers' and sailors' canteen formal opening in 1915, and had mingled with the wives and adult daughters of the troops at a recruiting innovation - 2,000 women again marching 'with flags and bannerettes' with slogans encouraging young men to 'join up' as their own husbands and fathers and sons had done. Involvement with the Scottish Women's Hospitals (SWH) In June 1915, Henderson became honorary secretary of the Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service and her fundraising effort took place in large and small venues, encouraging organisations to raise funds or to sponsor named beds e.g.'Broughty Ferry St. Margaret's School Bed', and the Montrose Girls Club Bed (at SWH Royaumont, France). Having returned from visiting SWH units in France, Henderson gave lantern talks and presided over an entertainment for the wives and children of the active service troops. Another large audience heard from Henderson as to why these 'brave women' were treating Allies and not their own wounded (because the British Army and Red Cross had told Dr. Elsie Inglis that the women were not needed), but the women's hospital services were welcomed by the Belgian, French and Serbian Allies. She reported that the SWH operation had grown to 250 staff covering 1,000 beds. Henderson remarked that the French General Joffre had donated 300 of the 1000 francs given for French hospitals to the SWH. Dundonians had raised £1,500 and local people were at SWH; Dundee university graduates: Dr Laura Sandeman, Dr Lena Campbell in Serbia and Dr Keith Proctor in France; Miss Shepherd and ex-Provost Lindsay of Broughty Ferry's daughter. Later that year Henderson spoke in Brechin, and at the local suffrage society in Cupar, who sponsored a 'Cupar-Fife bed (in SWH Serbia); Dr. Inglis was herself a Scottish suffragist. In March 1916, Henderson presented 'the grand mission' of SWH at a well attended local fund-raising concert, and chaired an event with Dr Alice Hutchison speaking on the SWH in Serbia (in the place of Dr Inglis in April 1916). The news of her departure to join Dr Inglis herself, was said to have 'disturbed' the 'wonted even tenor' of the DWWREC, as they would miss her dedicated service, but there was public recognition in the city and in national suffrage societies that her skills would be of benefit to Dr Inglis's unit. Before going, Henderson had founded the Dundee women's civic group, the Steeple Club. In August 2016, the Dundee Women's War Relief Executive Committee gave Henderson practical gifts: an attache case, tartan blanket, pens and paper, as well as flowers. She thanked them for the praise for her relief work, which she said was due to a good team. Role as administrator in the Serbian SWH Unit Henderson then served as an administrator in Serbia and Russia with a new unit of Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service, organising and working in dangerous circumstances during the gruelling retreat of the Serbians, with Evelina Haverfield as the unit commandant. The Unit set sail from Liverpool on 30 August 1916, and Henderson sent a postcard saying 'all well' on 21 October 1916. In November 1916, Henderson had sent a postcard from Odessa. A month later, she was home on a short leave, and in an interview with The Scotsman, she explained that 75 Scottish, English and Irish women made up the 'self-contained' staff of the hospital unit and the transport unit (ambulance drivers). She told of the 'equanimity and cheerfulness' despite the dangers and hardships and said that ' the girls were splendid'. Henderson described the efforts of their journey and setting up as a hospital so rapidly to be able to receive 100 patients in less than one day from arrival. A week later they were moving on to a field hospital (tents) closer to the front at Boulboulmink; but when the fighting got too close, the group moved on again mixing with retreating Serbian and Rumanian troops and peasants, with their livestock, on the road to Mejidia and beyond, through snow, mud and darkness, with shelling no more than a mile away. A more detailed account of the mishaps of Henderson and SWH's journey, the feelings of fear of capture by the Bulgars and of responsibility for the girls under her care, were related to Common Cause, the suffragist journal, as the next episode of her war experiences. Henderson had left the group with a small team to find Dr Chesney's unit but the women got separated from the Serbian forces, sleeping in the open air, before reaching 'civilization' with the Russian authorities, at Reni. Then they travelled by rail with Dr Inglis group although she said with overcrowding on the train, she saw a Russian doctor prevent a soldier with cholera from boarding, which she said was the most 'pathetic' thing she had seen in her experiences, 'that poor man put off the train and left in the darkness'. The train was also almost bombed by enemy aircraft, but for the quick-thinking of the train driver. Challenges arose in crossing occupied country, and Henderson remarked that, despite the group being in mortal danger, very little equipment was lost. The next tent hospital at Boulboulja was exposed to enemy aircraft by sitting on a wide plain. Again the women in the transport teams worked as soon as they had 'scarcely arrived' to bring in the wounded for urgent treatment, despite their lack of sleep. Henderson's stories about the Serbian (Rumanian) retreat were featured in The People's Journal and she said that in grey khaki uniforms, and with a military demeanour it was 'almost impossible' for local 'peasants.. at first glance to guess their sex.' She said Serbians and Rumanians 'knew' the people from the Scottish Women's Hospital as 'angels in disguise'. The Telegraph and Guardian reported her return to London in 1917, from Dobrudja and her trials during the Serbian retreat, mentioning that she was in Constanza, a city full of wounded soldiers, so had only left the day before the Germans occupied the city. Also in Bucharest, the hospitals were being evacuated en route. The volumes of the injured that the nurses were dealing with was 1,000 to 3,000 per day, and Henderson's view was of 'success of the British Military Mission' in that area.<ref>{{Cite news\|date=2 January 1917\|title=The War - In the Dobrudja - Story of a Brave Englishwoman - Work of the Scottish Women's Hospital Unit\|page=3\|work=The Guardian\|quote=refers to 'an interview with the 'Daily Telegraph}}</ref> She was back home to organise equipment supplies following the retreat, travelling via Norway. In November 1917, Henderson gave another lecture in Dundee and 'held the attention of a large audience' with her 'power of description' and images of the work of the hospitals, and she emphasised the importance of the allies in Belgium, Serbia and Rumania to the overall war effort. She said that of 60,000 boys (over 11 years old) who had left during the Serbian retreat, only 15,000 had survived. 45,000 had died on the road, or later from exposure. She then spoke in Manchester, in July 1917, in aid of the Rumanian Red Cross. Writing about the war Henderson wrote about her experiences, as some other women in the SWH did, in war diaries and she wrote poetry. Her poems were described as a 'vision of war seen from the inside, and finding expression through the woman-poet's mind', and she called the nurses 'her sisters'. Describing the mundane efforts of bringing supplies by The Cargo Boat, one critic described it as ' worthy of Kipling at his best'. In another poem, The Incident (probably a culmination of many such incidents she witnessed), she compares the injured soldier to a crucified Christ and his nurse to a mother or the Virgin Mary and she composed to a similar theme in A Young Serbian'.In another poem she dedicated 'to the rank and file of the Elsie Inglis Unit', titled Like That, based on a quote from the Prefect of Constanza: 'No wonder Britain is so great if her women are like that' , Henderson writes of the war nurses as being as heroic as the men under fire, in November 1916I've seen you kneeling on the wooden floor, Tending your wounded on their straw-strewn bed, Heedless the while, that right above your head The Bird of Menace scattered death around. ... I've seen you, oh my nurses, 'under fire', While in your hearts their burned but one desire - What British men and women hold so dear - To do your duty without any fear. In Russia just after the Soviet revolution Henderson found herself in Petrograd on the 18th March 1917, days after the February Russian Revolution. She told the Dundee Courier reporter that she was impressed by ' the wonderful order' in the streets, kept by volunteers (all armed) and reported that there was joyful singing in Russian of the revolutionary song, the Marseillaise, and also her surprise at 'cartoons and caricatures of Emperor, the Empress and Rasputin' openly on sale. She gave her political opinion that 'the strength of Russia' lay in M. Kerensky, their Minister of War and her view that the sheer size of the country was a challenge to alliance to the new regime, but that she was convinced 'the women do not fail' in understanding patriotism in its widest sense. Post-war Women Citizens Association In 1918, the Representation of the People's Act gave some women - such as those over the age of 30 or with certain property conditions - the right to vote. Henderson was one of the speakers at the inauguration meeting of a branch of the Women Citizens Association, in April 1918. It was said that every space was occupied and every class - 'leisured, educational and industrial' represented. She was elected to the committee, and the organisation's aim was not just to engage 'new voters' but to represent and encourage debate from all women. Henderson said that 'one of women's supreme privileges was the preservation of the race'. In a later debate with the Dundee Council, on housing, she asked 'the key question' - What proportion of wages should be paid as rent? Councillors could not answer, which led Henderson to plead for the Women Citizens Association to undertake research into the proportions of rent to income that were currently pertaining, and she pressed the city for a permanent woman's centre rather than ad hoc venues, which would, she argued, help to ensure 'the hundredfold increase of the effective power of the women of the city. Establishing other women's civic society groups The Steeple Club she had formed before her SWH service, met on 23 November 1917. Henderson expound her belief that the 'like minded' women were 'city mothers' comparable with the 'city fathers' and the group 'had proved itself to be worthwhile'. She felt that 'civic consciousness or communal sense was simply an expression of the home-making instinct - the widening of womanliness - to include not only the individual roof-tree but the home life of the city and the State'. In its second year, Steeple Club was deemed a success, with 58 meetings or events, an exhibition of women artists work, in aid of the Dundee Prisoners of War Fund. In its third year, it had held over 100 events. Henderson was re-elected as president, despite departing for London for a period and the press reported the Steeple Club had grown in its 'sense of civic consciousness' Henderson was one of the founders of the Ladies' Forum Club, London, owned and controlled by women, and she served on the inaugural committee with fellow Scot, Janie Russell. It was noted that she 'was well known and esteemed for her public service', had served in Serbia and Russia at the Scottish Women's Hospitals and crossed the North Sea four times in a year, and her poem Judith and Holofernes was considered 'a serious poem', 'welcomed by discerning critics'. She attended the opening event in uniform with Florence Haig, the suffragette activist. In 1925, Henderson was back in Scotland, and began and then became managing director of the Ladies' Town and County Club, in Aberdeen. Now living in Lumsden, she became involved with the local hospital executive, District Nursing Association and the local Women's Rural Institute (W.R.I.). She was also a member of the Soroptomist Club. Unexplained death and funeral Henderson was aged 64 when she died on 6 November 1938 in the Nicoll Hospital, Rhynie, where she had served on the executive. She had been seriously injured, with a fractured skull, the previous day in an unexplained motor accident. This happened in Strathdon, after travelling back home from Ballater. A passing motorist had found her lying injured near the overturned car, but she was said to be initially conscious saying 'something went wrong'. When she died her twin brother was living in Wales; and her nephew Alexander Whyte Henderson was a pall-bearer at her funeral in Clova chapel, preceded by a Requiem Mass. Henderson's five war medals were displayed at her funeral. There was a large local attendance, including representatives from groups she had served, such as the WRI, District Nursing Association and the hospital. She is buried in Auchindoir Churchyard. One of her poems, My Desire says: 'Oh lay me where the morning mist Lies softly on the hill, Where the light and shade of summer cloud Flits to and fro at will.' Poetry books and reviews Henderson's In War and Peace: Songs of a Scotswoman was published in 1918, with a foreword by John Oxenham in which he said that she wrote a 'conspicuous' poem on Dr. Elsie Inglis (see below), and other poems 'musically express' her observations in Russia and Rumania, as well as 'thoughtful, sympathetic and strong verses' in contemplation 'or religious exaltation' resulting from her experience of war. It was described as 'exquisite little war vignettes' and overall of a 'very high level' and sold to raise funds for the SWH. She recognised the long term impact on women of the 'lost generation' of men in World War I as a form of 'desolation' in another poem, A Grave in France.Her 1929 book of poems in Warp and Woof - a recommended Christmas gift - had mixed reviews: her 'love of nature and sparing and effective use of the Scottish idiom' (in My Desire); 'a little preoccupied with grief and death, and a calm religious spirit pervades her work'; some 'maternal war poems', or An Episode, about unemployment were called 'full of pathos'; but she was said to be 'real blythe' in A Summer Ecstasy where she 'imitates in her rhythm the song of a bird'; and The Bud of the Cross, was 'one of the loveliest' poems. Her poems in blank verse on Biblical subjects were 'particularly successful'. Henderson's poetic tribute to SWH colleagues like Dr Laura Sandeman, and Dr Elsie Inglis, Magdalene, says:'The hands indeed, which minister where there was need; The hands we loved, may not touch ours again, May not alleviate our mortal pain, They lie quiescent in the hands of God'. See also Women's suffrage in Scotland Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service War poet External links A reading of Henderson's The Incident recorded for Armistice Day 2014 for the centenary of the start of World War I. An open essay comparing The Incident with Wilfred Owen's war poem, Strange Meeting.'' References 1874 births 1938 deaths Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service Scottish suffragists People associated with Dundee War poets	5,701
doc-en-11690_0	The Chicago Sky are an American professional basketball team based in Chicago, playing in the Eastern Conference of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The franchise was founded prior to the 2006 WNBA season. The Sky experienced a period of success from 2013 to 2016, making four playoff appearances and playing in the 2014 WNBA Finals. They experienced a second period of success starting in 2019, and won their first championship in the 2021 WNBA Finals against the Phoenix Mercury. The team is owned by Michael J. Alter (principal owner) and Margaret Stender (minority owner). Unlike many other WNBA teams, it is not affiliated with a National Basketball Association (NBA) counterpart, although the Chicago Bulls play in the same market. Franchise history Franchise origin In February 2005, NBA Commissioner David Stern announced that Chicago had been awarded a new WNBA franchise, temporarily named WNBA Chicago. On May 27, 2005, former NBA player and coach Dave Cowens was announced as the team's first head coach and general manager. The team home would be the UIC Pavilion. On September 20, 2005, the team name and logo formally debuted at an introduction event held at the Adler Planetarium. Team President and CEO Margaret Stender explained the team colors of yellow and blue represent "[a] beautiful day in Chicago between the blue sky and bright sunlight to highlight the spectacular skyline." The event was highlighted by the appearance of several star players, including Diana Taurasi, Temeka Johnson, Sue Bird, and Ruth Riley. In November 2005, the team held an expansion draft to help build its roster of players. Among the notable selections were Brooke Wyckoff from the Connecticut Sun, Bernadette Ngoyisa from the San Antonio Silver Stars, Elaine Powell from the Detroit Shock, and Stacey Dales (who had retired prior to the 2005 season) from the Washington Mystics. On February 28, 2006, the team announced that two of the minority shareholders of the team are Michelle Williams, from the vocal group Destiny's Child, and Mathew Knowles, father of Destiny's Child lead singer Beyoncé Knowles. Early years and limited success (2006–2012) In their first season, the Sky achieved a 5–29 record and finished last in the Eastern Conference. After the season, head coach Dave Cowens resigned to join the coaching staff of the Detroit Pistons. University of Missouri-Kansas City women's head basketball coach Bo Overton was named the Sky's new head coach and general manager on December 12, 2006. The Sky once again recorded a league-worst 5–29 record in 2006. Despite having the highest odds of drawing the first pick in the 2007 WNBA draft lottery, the Sky ended up with the third overall pick, which they used to select Armintie Price. The team was vastly improved in the 2007 season, but still finished with a 14–20 record and were two games behind the final playoff spot in the Eastern Conference. Price was named the 2007 WNBA Rookie of the Year. On March 12, 2008, the Sky announced that Overton had resigned his position of coach/general manager. Assistant coach Steven Key was named head coach/general manager. With the second overall pick in the 2008 WNBA Draft, the Sky selected Sylvia Fowles. In the 2008 season, the Sky would once again fail to make the playoffs, posting a 12–22 record, finishing 5th in the East. Fowles was injured for most of the season (she was, however, selected to play on the winning U.S. team at the 2008 Summer Olympics, where she average 13.4 points and 8.4 rebounds per game). In the 2009 WNBA Draft, the Sky selected point guard Kristi Toliver with the third overall pick. Toliver had recently won the NCAA Women's Basketball Championship with the University of Maryland, where she had shot a game-tying three-point basket to send the game into overtime. In the 2009 season, the Sky contended for a playoff position, but finished with a record of 16-18 and lost a three-team tiebreaker to the Washington Mystics for the final playoff position. Entering the 2010 season, the Sky moved to Allstate Arena in the suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. The team's roster underwent several changes, highlighted by the trading away of Candice Dupree and Kristi Toliver and the acquisition of Shameka Christon and Cathrine Kraayeveld. At one point during the season, they were at .500, just a few games back for the final playoff spot. However, they lost eight of their final ten games and were eliminated from playoff contention, finishing with a 14–20 record. Key resigned as GM and coach, and was replaced on October 28, 2010, by former LSU head coach Pokey Chatman. In 2011, the Sky were led again by Fowles, who averaged a double-double (20 points and 10.2 rebounds per game). The Sky once again finished the season at 14-20 but were encouraged by going 10-7 at home. The Sky selected Shey Peddy with the 23rd pick and Sydney Carter with the 27th pick in the 2012 WNBA draft. Peddy and Carter were both eventually waived on May 14, 2012. The Sky began the 2012 season 7-1, but finished 14–20 for the third consecutive season. The Sky remained the only WNBA franchise to never make the playoffs. Playoff runs (2013–2016) The 2013 season was a turning point for the Sky. In the draft, they selected Elena Delle Donne with the second overall pick. Delle Donne became the first rookie to lead All-Star voting, averaging 18.1 points per game (fourth in the league) and leading the Sky to a 24-10 record and first place in the Eastern Conference. Delle Donne was named Rookie of the Year, Fowles was named Defensive Player of the Year and led the league in rebounds, and teammate Swin Cash received the Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award. Chatman finished a close second for Coach of the Year, Delle Donne narrowly missed the MVP award, and Fowles and Delle Donne were named to the All-WNBA first and second teams. Reaching the playoffs for the first time, the Sky lost in the conference semifinals to the Indiana Fever. In the 2014 season, the Sky posted an unimpressive 15-19 regular season record, but qualified for the playoffs as the 4th seed in the Eastern Conference. Guard Allie Quigley, who had grown up in nearby Joliet, Illinois, was named Sixth Woman of the Year. In the playoffs, they won two best-of-three series in the conference semifinals and finals to reach the WNBA Finals for the first time. In the best-of-five series, they were swept by the Phoenix Mercury in three games. In February 2015, the Sky acquired Chicago native Cappie Pondexter from the New York Liberty in a straight-up trade for Epiphanny Prince. At the end of the 2015 season, they posted a 23-11 record and earned second place in the Eastern Conference. Delle Donne was named the league's Most Valuable Player, point guard Courtney Vandersloot led the league in assists, and Quigley was once again named Sixth Woman of the Year. Despite their improved regular season performance, the Sky fell to the Indiana Fever in the conference semifinals. In the 2016 season, under the WNBA's new playoff format where teams were seeded regardless of conference, the Sky finished 4th in the league and returned to the playoffs, but lost 3-1 in the semifinals to the Los Angeles Sparks. Rebuilding (2017–2018) The Sky hired Amber Stocks as head coach and general manager, replacing Chatman, on December 6, 2016. During the 2016–17 offseason, in what was called one of the biggest trades in league history, the Sky traded Delle Donne to the Washington Mystics, receiving Kahleah Copper, Stefanie Dolson, and the Mystics' second overall pick in the 2017 WNBA draft. In the 2017 season, the Sky posted a 12–22 record and missed the playoffs for the first time in five seasons. In the ensuing 2018 WNBA draft, they selected Diamond DeShields and Gabby Williams in the first round. In the 2018 season, they posted a 13–21 record and missed the playoffs for a second consecutive season. On August 31, 2018, the Sky relieved Stocks as head coach and general manager. During these seasons, Courtney Vandersloot led the league in assists (setting a new assists-per-game record in 2017) and Allie Quigley won back-to-back Three-Point Contests at the All-Star Game. Return to the playoffs and first championship (2019–present) In November 2018, the Sky hired James Wade as the team's new head coach and general manager. The Sky selected Katie Lou Samuelson in the first round of the 2019 WNBA draft and traded away Alaina Coates. The 2019 season would be a turnaround for the Sky, as they finished with a 20–14 record and entered the playoffs as a fifth seed. Wade received the WNBA Coach of the Year Award for the regular season, and Courtney Vandersloot exceeded her own assists-per-game record for the second straight season. Vandersloot, Allie Quigley, and Diamond DeShields were all named All-Stars, and DeShields won the All-Star Game Skills Challenge. In the playoffs, they defeated the Phoenix Mercury in the first round, but then lost to the Las Vegas Aces on the road on a buzzer-beater in the final seconds. In the 2020 season, which was shortened and held in a bubble in Bradenton, Florida due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Sky showed promise early in the season but battled injuries and ended the season with a sixth-seeded 12–10 record. They lost a first round single-elimination game to the Phoenix Mercury. On February 1, 2021, the Sky announced the signing of free agent Candace Parker, a two-time WNBA MVP and WNBA Finals MVP. Parker, who had grown up in Naperville, Illinois and played her first 12 seasons in the league with the Los Angeles Sparks, stated that she wanted to return to her hometown team. The Sky had a volatile 2021 season, including a seven-game losing streak and a seven-game winning streak, which they ended with a 16-16 record. They entered the playoffs as the 6th seed, winning two single-elimination games and a semifinals series against the Connecticut Sun on their way to the Finals. On October 17, 2021, the Sky won their first WNBA Championship after defeating the Phoenix Mercury 3-1 in the 2021 WNBA Finals. Kahleah Copper was named the Finals MVP. A parade and rally to celebrate the team were held on October 19, 2021. Since the new playoff format was adopted, the Sky became the lowest-seeded team and first team without a winning record to win the championship. Name, logo, and uniforms Uniforms 2006–2010: At home, white with light blue on the sides. Collar is light blue. On the road, light blue with gold on the sides. Collar is gold. 2011–2012: At home, white with light blue stripes on the sides. Collar is light blue. On the road, light blue with gold stripes on the sides. Collar is gold. In addition, both the home and away uniforms feature the team nickname and numbers in gold. 2013–2014: A new number and name font was introduced, while the basic uniform design was retained. 2015: Magellan Corporation introduced as new Jersey sponsor. Unlike most teams with jersey sponsors, the Sky opted to emblazon the Magellan logo on the left shoulder in place of the team's alternate logo. 2016: As part of a league-wide initiative, all games featured all-color uniform matchups. Therefore, the Sky unveiled a gold uniform in addition to their regular light blue road uniform. Magellan was retained as the uniform sponsor. 2018: Magellan was joined by University of Chicago Medicine as jersey sponsors. Season-by-season records Players Current roster Former players Cappie Pondexter (2015–2017) Imani Boyette (2016–2017) Tamera Young (2009–2017) Monique Currie (2007) Stacey Dales (2006–2007) Elena Delle Donne (2013–2016), now a member of the Washington Mystics Érika de Souza (2015–2016) Clarissa dos Santos (2015-2016) Candice Dupree (2006–2009), now a member of the Indiana Fever Sylvia Fowles (2008–2014), now a member of the Minnesota Lynx Cathrine Kraayeveld (2010–2011) Stacey Lovelace-Tolbert (2006) Nikki McCray (2006) Chasity Melvin (2006–2008) Bernadette Ngoyisa (2006–2007) Chelsea Newton (2006) Jia Perkins (2006–2010) Elaine Powell (2006) Ashley Robinson (2006) Brooke Wyckoff (2006–2009) Coaches and staff Owners Michael J. Alter and Margaret Stender (2006–present) Head coaches General managers Dave Cowens (2006) Bo Overton (2007) Steven Key (2008–2010) Pokey Chatman (2011–2016) Amber Stocks (2017–2018) James Wade (2019–present) Assistant coaches Steven Key (2006–2007) Roger Reding (2007) Stephanie White (2007–2010) Michael Mitchell (2008–2010) Jeff House (2011–2012) Christie Sides (2011–2016) Tree Rollins (2013–2015) Jonah Herscu (2016) Carlene Mitchell (2017) Awvee Storey (2017) Carla Morrow (2018–2019) Bridget Pettis (2019) Olaf Lange (2020–present) Emre Vatansever (2020–present) Tonya Edwards (2021–present) Statistics \|- \| 2006 \| C. Dupree (13.7) \| B. Ngoyisa (5.7) \| J. Perkins (3.2) \| 68.3 vs 79.0 \| 30.5 vs 36.4 \| .394 vs .452 \|- \| 2007 \| C. Dupree (16.7) \| C. Dupree (7.7) \| D. Canty (4.1) \| 74.3 vs 76.8 \| 34.3 vs 36.0 \| .406 vs .429 \|- \| 2008 \| J. Perkins (17.0) \| C. Dupree (7.9) \| D. Canty (4.1) \| 72.7 vs 73.8 \| 33.1 vs 34.1 \| .428 vs .416 \|- \| 2009 \| C. Dupree (16.7) \| C. Dupree (7.9) \| D. Canty (3.2) \| 75.7 vs 79.2 \| 31.9 vs 34.0 \| .435 vs .442 \|- \|- \| 2010 \| S. Fowles (17.8) \| S. Fowles (9.9) \| D. Canty (3.4) \| 76.1 vs 76.8 \| 31.7 vs 33.4 \| .437 vs .444 \|- \| 2011 \| S. Fowles (20.0) \| S. Fowles (10.2) \| C. Vandersloot (3.7) \| 74.2 vs 75.2 \| 33.8 vs 32.6 \| .438 vs .418 \|- \| 2012 \| E. Prince (18.1) \| S. Fowles (10.4) \| C. Vandersloot (4.6) \| 75.2 vs 75.5 \| 34.9 vs 30.1 \| .431 vs .429 \|- \| 2013 \| E. Delle Donne (18.1) \| S. Fowles (11.5) \| C. Vandersloot (5.6) \| 79.4 vs 73.6 \| 37.1 vs 33.2 \| .420 vs .404 \|- \| 2014 \| E. Delle Donne (17.9) \| S. Fowles (10.2) \| C. Vandersloot (5.6) \| 76.2 vs 78.2 \| 34.1 vs 35.6 \| .434 vs .420 \|- \| 2015 \| E. Delle Donne (23.4) \| E. Delle Donne (8.4) \| C. Vandersloot (5.8) \| 82.9 vs 78.8 \| 36.6 vs 33.6 \| .446 vs .425 \|- \| 2016 \| E. Delle Donne (21.5) \| E. Delle Donne (7.0) \| C. Vandersloot (4.7) \| 86.2 vs 85.6 \| 35.6 vs 32.9 \| .462 vs .436 \|- \| 2017 \| A. Quigley (16.4) \| J. Breland (6.3) \| C. Vandersloot (8.1) \| 82.1 vs 87.2 \| 33.8 vs 36.5 \| .461 vs .435 \|- \| 2018 \| A. Quigley (15.4) \| Ch. Parker (5.8) \| C. Vandersloot (8.6) \| 83.8 vs 90.1 \| 33.1 vs 36.5 \| .453 vs .462 \|- \| 2019 \| D. DeShields (16.2) \| J. Lavender (6.9) \| C. Vandersloot (9.1) \| 84.6 vs 83.3 \| 36.4 vs 35.4 \| .448 vs .418 \|- \|- \| 2020 \| A. Quigley (15.4) \| Ch. Parker (6.4) \| C. Vandersloot (10.0) \| 86.7 vs 84.1 \| 33.6 vs 32.2 \| .491 vs .453 \|- \| 2021 \| K. Copper (14.4) \| Ca. Parker (8.4) \| C. Vandersloot (8.6) \| 83.3 vs 81.9 \| 35.0 vs 35.9 \| .441 vs .433 \|- Media coverage Currently, some Sky games are broadcast locally on The U Too. Select games are broadcast nationally on ESPN or NBA TV. Broadcasters for the Sky games are Lisa Byington and Stephen Bardo. The Sky was on radio for two seasons on WVON-AM 1690 with Les Grobstein on play-by-play and Tajua Catchings (whose sister Tamika Catchings is a star with the Indiana Fever) handling color. After 2008, WVON did not carry games any longer over a financial disagreement, and the Sky has not been on radio since.Their Home game only were carried on line during the 2008 season,but no Radio type play by play has been on since. All games (excluding blackout games, which are available on ESPN3.com) are broadcast to the WNBA LiveAccess game feeds on the league website. Furthermore, some Sky games are broadcast nationally on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC. The WNBA has reached an eight-year agreement with ESPN, which will pay right fees to the Sky, as well as other teams in the league. All-time notes Regular season attendance A sellout for a basketball game at UIC Pavilion (2006–2009) is 6,972. A sellout for a basketball game at Allstate Arena (2010–2017) is 17,500. A sellout for a basketball game at Wintrust Arena (2018–present) is 10,387. Draft picks 2006 Expansion Draft: Jia Perkins, Brooke Wyckoff, Elaine Powell, Kiesha Brown, Deanna Jackson, Laura Macchi, Stacey Lovelace, DeTrina White, Ashley Robinson, Chelsea Newton, Bernadette Ngoyisa, Francesca Zara, Stacey Dales 2006: Candice Dupree (6), Jennifer Harris (20), Kerri Gardin (34) 2007 Charlotte Dispersal Draft: Monique Currie (1) 2007: Armintie Price (3), Carla Thomas (10), Stephanie Raymond (20), Jessica Dickson (21), Jenna Rubino (27) 2008: Sylvia Fowles (2), Quianna Chaney (19), Angela Tisdale (33) 2009 Houston Dispersal Draft: Mistie Williams Bass (3) 2009: Kristi Toliver (3), Danielle Gant (16), Jennifer Risper (29) 2010 Sacramento Dispersal Draft: Courtney Paris (4) 2010: Epiphanny Prince (4), Abi Olajuwon (28) 2011: Courtney Vandersloot (3), Carolyn Swords (15), Angie Bjorklund (17), Amy Jaeschke (27) 2012: Shey Peddy (23), Sydney Carter (27) 2013: Elena Delle Donne (2), Brooklyn Pope (28) 2014: Markeisha Gatling (10), Gennifer Brandon (22), Jamierra Faulkner (34) 2015: Cheyenne Parker (5), Betnijah Laney (17), Aleighsa Welch (22) 2016: Imani Boyette (10), Jordan Jones (34) 2017: Alaina Coates (2), Tori Jankoska (9), Chantel Osahor (21), Makayla Epps (33) 2018: Diamond DeShields (3), Gabby Williams (4), Amarah Coleman (28) 2019: Katie Lou Samuelson (4), Chloe Jackson (15), María Conde (27) 2020: Ruthy Hebard (8), Japreece Dean (30), Kiah Gillespie (32) 2021: Shyla Heal (8), Natasha Mack (16) Trades June 29, 2006: The Sky traded Ashley Robinson to the Seattle Storm in exchange for Cisti Greenwalt and a second-round pick in the 2007 Draft. March 23, 2007: The Sky traded Chelsea Newton and the 21st pick in the 2007 Draft to the Sacramento Monarchs for the 10th pick in the 2007 Draft. May 24, 2007: The Sky traded Monique Currie to the Washington Mystics in exchange for Chasity Melvin. August 12, 2009: The Sky traded Armintie Price to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Tamera Young. March 30, 2010: The Sky traded Candice Dupree to the Phoenix Mercury and a second-round pick in the 2010 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for Shameka Christon and Cathrine Kraayeveld from New York. New York also received Cappie Pondexter and Kelly Mazzante from Phoenix. May 13, 2010: The Sky traded Kristi Toliver to the Los Angeles Sparks in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2011 Draft. April 20, 2011: The Sky traded Jia Perkins to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Michelle Snow. June 1, 2011: The Sky traded a second-round pick in the 2012 Draft to the Los Angeles Sparks in exchange for Lindsay Wisdom-Hylton. January 2, 2012: The Sky traded the second pick in the 2012 Draft to the Seattle Storm in exchange for Swin Cash, Le'coe Willingham, and the 23rd pick in the 2012 Draft. March 14, 2012: The Sky traded a third-round pick in the 2013 Draft to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Sonja Petrovic. May 7, 2014: The Sky traded Swin Cash to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Courtney Clements. February 16, 2015: The Sky traded Epiphanny Prince to the New York Liberty in exchange for Cappie Pondexter. July 27, 2015: The Sky traded Sylvia Fowles and a second-round pick in the 2016 Draft to the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for Erika de Souza from Atlanta. Atlanta also received Damaris Dantas, Reshanda Gray, and a first-round pick in the 2016 Draft from Minnesota. February 2, 2017: The Sky traded Elena Delle Donne to the Washington Mystics in exchange for Kahleah Copper, Stefanie Dolson, and the #2 overall pick in the 2017 Draft. February 27, 2017: The Sky traded Clarissa Dos Santos to the San Antonio Stars in exchange for Astou Ndour. May 20, 2019: The Sky traded their second round pick in the 2020 Draft to the Los Angeles Sparks in exchange for Jantel Lavender. May 21, 2019: The Sky traded Alaina Coates to Minnesota in exchange for Minnesota's third round pick in the 2020 Draft. February 12, 2020: The Sky traded Astou Ndour to Dallas in exchange for Dallas' first round pick in the 2021 Draft. February 12, 2020: The Sky traded Kaite Lou Samuelson and a first round pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for Azurá Stevens. February 9, 2021: The Sky traded their second round pick in the 2022 Draft for the 16th pick in the 2021 Draft (from Dallas). May 9, 2021: The Sky traded Gabby Williams to the Los Angeles Sparks in exchange for Stephanie Watts and the rights to Leonie Fiebich. June 2, 2021: The Sky traded, Shyla Heal, their third round pick in the 2022 Draft, and the option to swap pick positions in the first round of the 2022 Draft to the Dallas Wings in exchange for Dana Evans. All-Stars 2006: Candice Dupree 2007: Candice Dupree 2008: No All-Star Game 2009: Candice Dupree, Sylvia Fowles, Jia Perkins 2010: Sylvia Fowles 2011: Sylvia Fowles, Epiphanny Prince, Courtney Vandersloot 2012: No All-Star Game 2013: Elena Delle Donne, Sylvia Fowles, Epiphany Prince 2014: Jessica Breland, Elena Delle Donne 2015: Elena Delle Donne, Cappie Pondexter · 2016: No All-Star Game 2017: Stefanie Dolson, Allie Quigley 2018: Allie Quigley 2019: Diamond DeShields, Allie Quigley, Courtney Vandersloot 2020: No All-Star Game 2021: Kahleah Cooper, Candace Parker, Courtney Vandersloot Olympians 2008: Sylvia Fowles 2012: Swin Cash, Sylvia Fowles 2016: Elena Delle Donne, Erika de Souza (BRA), Clarissa Dos Santos (BRA) 2020: Astou Ndour (ESP), Stefanie Dolson Honors and awards 2006 All-Rookie Team: Candice Dupree 2007 All-Rookie Team: Armintie Price 2008 All-Defensive Second Team: Sylvia Fowles 2008 All-Rookie Team: Sylvia Fowles 2010 All-WNBA First Team: Sylvia Fowles 2010 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles 2010 All-Rookie Team: Epiphanny Prince 2010 Stars at the Sun Game MVP: Sylvia Fowles 2011 All-WNBA Second Team: Sylvia Fowles 2011 Defensive Player of the Year: Sylvia Fowles 2011 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles 2011 All-Rookie Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2012 All-WNBA Second Team: Sylvia Fowles 2012 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles 2013 Rookie of the Year: Elena Delle Donne 2013 Defensive Player of the Year: Sylvia Fowles 2013 All-Rookie Team: Elena Delle Donne 2013 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles 2013 Peak Performer (Rebounding): Sylvia Fowles 2014 WNBA Sixth Woman of the Year: Allie Quigley 2014 All-Defensive Second Team: Sylvia Fowles 2015 WNBA MVP: Elena Delle Donne 2015 WNBA Sixth Woman of the Year: Allie Quigley 2015 Peak Performer (Scoring): Elena Delle Donne 2015 Peak Performer (Assists): Courtney Vandersloot 2015 All-WNBA First Team: Elena Delle Donne 2015 All-WNBA Second Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2016 All-Rookie Team: Imani Boyette 2017 Peak Performer (Assists): Courtney Vandersloot 2018 All-WNBA Second Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2018 All-Rookie Team: Diamond DeShields 2018 Peak Performer (Assists): Courtney Vandersloot 2019 Peak Performer (Assists): Courtney Vandersloot 2019 Coach of the Year: James Wade 2019 All-WNBA First Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2019 All-WNBA Second Team: Diamond DeShields 2020 Peak Performer (Assists): Courtney Vandersloot 2020 All-WNBA First Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2021 All-WNBA Second Team: Courtney Vandersloot 2021 Finals MVP: Kahleah Copper Arenas UIC Pavilion (2006–2009) Allstate Arena (2010–2017) Wintrust Arena (2018–present) Notes References Sources February 28, 2006 Chicago Sky press release announcing Michelle Williams on its ownership group Steven Key named Head Coach/General Manager External links WNBA Official Website Chicago Sky Schedule 2005 establishments in Illinois Basketball teams in Illinois Basketball teams established in 2005 Women's National Basketball Association teams Sky Events in Chicago Events in Rosemont, Illinois	6,775
doc-en-11702_0	The Second German Antarctic Expedition of 1911–1913 was led by Wilhelm Filchner in the exploration ship . Its principal objective was to determine whether the Antarctic continent comprised a single landmass rather than separated elements, and in particular whether the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea were connected by a strait. In addition, an extensive programme of scientific research was undertaken. The expedition failed to establish a land base, and the ship became beset in the Weddell Sea ice, drifting north for eight months before reaching open water. The expedition was marred by considerable disagreement and animosity among its participants, and broke up in disarray. The expedition secured the patronage of Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, who formed a fundraising committee which organised, among other activities, a public lottery. After leaving Germany early in May 1911, the expedition carried out a thorough oceanographic survey of the Atlantic Ocean before arriving in South Georgia in October. Subsequently, despite being hampered by heavy sea ice, Deutschland penetrated the Weddell Sea beyond the southernmost point reached by James Weddell in 1823. It discovered new land which it named Prinzregent Luitpold Land (otherwise "Luitpold Coast"), and reached the southern limit of the Weddell Sea at the Filchner Ice Shelf. Attempts to set up their land base at a small inlet which they named Vahsel Bay failed when they chose a site on insecure ice which broke away, taking the camp with it. Although much equipment was salvaged, further attempts to establish a land base also failed. By then, Deutschland was unable to escape from the ice, and began its long drift northwards. During the drift, scientific observations continued, and a brief sledge journey showed that the supposed "New South Greenland", reportedly seen by Benjamin Morrell in 1823, did not exist. Morale had meanwhile collapsed, and by the time the ship was freed and reached South Georgia, the expedition was in considerable disarray. Some members returned to Germany forthwith; Filchner hoped, nevertheless, to reconstitute the expedition and return to Antarctica in the following season. However, he was recalled to Germany to explain the expedition's failure to its backers. In the subsequent inquiry, Filchner was largely exonerated, but had lost his taste for Antarctic exploration, and never went again. The First World War deflected interest from the Antarctic, but in due course the expedition's geographical and scientific discoveries were acknowledged and respected. Filchner did not reveal in his lifetime details of the personal antagonisms that marred the expedition, but a memorandum or exposé, written just before his death in 1957, was published in 1985. Background: Germany in Antarctica The first German visit to the sub-Antarctic region occurred during International Polar Year, 1882–83, when a team of scientists established a station at Royal Bay on the island of South Georgia. Over the year they carried out an extensive research programme, and observed the Transit of Venus on 6 December 1882. By the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, exploration of the Antarctic mainland had begun in earnest, with expeditions from Belgium, Britain and Sweden. Germany entered the field with the first German Antarctic Expedition, 1901–03, led by Erich von Drygalski in the ship Gauss. Drygalski discovered land south of the Kerguelen Islands, but his ship became trapped in the ice at 66°7'S 89°38'E, while still 85 km (46 nautical miles (nmi) from the land. He named this distant coast Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and an extinct volcano, also observed, was called Gaussberg. Most of the scientific work of the expedition was carried out in a winter station established on the sea ice. When after more than a year Gauss was freed, Drygalski tried but was unable to take the ship further south. Hence, when he returned to Germany, in an era when geographical achievements were valued more than scientific results, he found that the expedition was compared unfavourably with Robert Falcon Scott's concurrent Discovery Expedition, which had achieved a farthest south mark of 82°17'. Drygalski's scientific results, published over three decades, would retrospectively be recognised as of outstanding importance, but the immediate reaction to his expedition was one of a national failure. At that time, little was yet known about the nature of the Antarctic continent – whether it was a single landmass, a group of islands or, as the geographer Albrecht Penck believed, two large landmasses, West and East Antarctica, separated by a frozen strait. This issue interested a young army officer and seasoned explorer, Wilhelm Filchner. Born in 1877, Filchner had visited Russia, had ridden on horseback through the Pamir Mountains, and after a period of studies in surveying and geography had led an expedition to Southern China and Tibet in 1903–05. Though lacking in polar experience, Filcher resolved to lead an expedition which would determine the truth or otherwise of Penck's hypothesis. Organisation Plans and financing Filchner's original plan involved a two-ship strategy, in which one party would establish a base in the south Weddell Sea area, while another would go to the Ross Sea, on the opposite side of Antarctica. Shore parties from each group would then cross the terrain, to rendezvous at the Geographic South Pole or thereabouts, thereby resolving the one-or-two landmasses conundrum. The plan, costed at around two million marks (about £97,500), was received positively by the Berlin Geographical Society in 1909, and was endorsed by Penck. The expedition would also carry out a scientific research programme that included a detailed study of the nature of the oceans, how they linked together in the southern seas, and how they impacted on the world's climate. Filchner and his backers sought the approval of the Kaiser, necessary if they were to obtain state funding. But when approached, Wilhelm II, who had supported Drygalski's earlier expedition, was dismissive. He thought that Count Zeppelin's airships would "do in a couple of days what takes you three years". Filchner found his patron in the aged Prince Regent Luitpold of Bavaria, who readily gave his support to the enterprise. The lack of state funding, however, meant that Filchner's plan had to be scaled back; the Ross Sea component had to be given up. Filchner would take a single ship as far south as possible in the largely unexplored Weddell Sea, and concentrate his investigations in that area. The cost of this revised plan was estimated at 1.1 million marks (about £58,500), and under Luitpold's patronage an organising committee was set up to raise this amount. The most successful of its activities was a public lottery, and by the end of 1910 the required sum had been secured. Although the German government would not provide funding, they were supportive in other ways, arranging for various agencies and organisations to loan essential scientific equipment, and were willing to meet the cost of the harbour fees for the expedition's anticipated lengthy stays in Buenos Aires. Ship Filchner found a suitable ship, the Norwegian-built whaler and sealer Bjørn. In 1907, Ernest Shackleton had wanted her for his forthcoming Antarctic expedition, but the price, £11,000 (roughly £1.1 million in 2018 terms), was too high. Since then, Bjørn had worked in the Arctic under Captain Bjørn Jørgensen, and had acquired a good reputation as an ice ship. The price had risen to £12,700 (£1.3 million), which Filchner nevertheless considered a bargain. The sale completed, the ship was renamed Deutschland, and taken to the Framnaes shipyard in Sandefjord for extensive modification. According to measurements supplied by the polar historian Rorke Bryan, Deutschland was in length, with beam , and draught forward, aft. Her gross tonnage was 598.2, net 343.8. Built in 1905 entirely of wood, the outer hull was reinforced with 3¼ inch greenheart sheathing, and the inner hull given a further 6 inches of protection. Rigged as a barque, Deutschland was capable of speeds of 9 or 10 knots under full sail. Her auxiliary engine provided 300 horsepower with a maximum speed of 7.2 knots, consuming coal at a daily rate of 6 tons. While the ship lay at Sandejford, Shackleton visited to give further advice on the preparation for a long sojourn in the ice. This included the addition of iron plating to protect the stem, and the construction of a well that enabled the propeller and rudder to be lifted on to the deck when not in use. The ship's interior was rebuilt, with sixteen cabins for officers and scientists, and an enlarged fo'c'sle to provide accommodation for the crew. A laboratory for scientific work was built on the main deck, and electric lighting would be provided by a generator. Personnel The expedition attracted a large number of applications. Among the scientists selected were a young geographer, Heinrich Seelheim, as Filchner's deputy; Carl Wilhelm Brennecke, one of Germany's leading oceanographers; the astronomer Erich Przybyllok; and an Austrian biologist and experienced alpinist, Felix König. Filchner wanted Jorgensen, Deutschlands former commander, as captain, but was pressurised by the German naval authorities to appoint a German to the post. Their choice was Richard Vahsel, who had served as second officer on the Gauss expedition. Although Drygalski strongly recommended him, Gausss former captain, Hans Ruser, warned that Vahsel was "greedy for power and an out-and-out schemer". Filchner's agreement to this appointment was, according to Bryan, "a disastrous mistake". Vahsel had a drink problem and an aggressive manner; he was also ill with an advanced form of syphilis, which may have affected his behaviour. He brought with him several officers and crew from the Gauss, forming a clique that would eventually poison relationships throughout the expedition. Vahsel's position was strengthened by Filchner's agreement to sail under the German naval flag, placing Deutschland under naval regulations that gave the captain supreme decision-making authority. The expedition was thus afflicted from the start by what Roald Amundsen would later describe as a fateful weakness, that of a divided command. Vahsel was quick to flaunt his apparent advantage, boasting while drunk that he would clap Filchner in irons if he didn't toe the line. Filchner chose to disregard this threat as a "tasteless slip". Aware that his scientists lacked experience of polar conditions, in August 1910 Filchner led a training expedition to Svalbard (Spitsbergen). He and six others crossed the glaciers of central Spitsbergen, in tough conditions. It was also a work-out for the equipment. However, apart from Filchner, only two of the Svalbard party – Przybyllock and the meteorologist Erich Barkow – eventually made the journey to the Antarctic. Expedition Germany to Buenos Aires In early May, 1911, Deutschland sailed from Bremerhaven, bound for Buenos Aires. Filchner remained in Germany to deal with outstanding expedition business, and would join the expedition in Argentina. Meanwhile, Seelheim acted as scientific director. The voyage extended over four months, and covered with stops at the Azores, at St Paul's Rocks and at Pernambuco. Around 100 oceanographic studies were carried out, special attention being given to the confluence of the warm Brazil Current and the cold Falklands Current. Deutschland arrived in Buenos Aires on 7 September. Although successful from a scientific standpoint, the voyage was marred by personal disagreements; Seelheim and Vahsel argued constantly. While en route to Buenos Aires in the steamer Cap Ortega, Filchner received a message that Vahsel was resigning. He then persuaded Alfred Kling, Cap Ortegas first officer, to accept the captaincy of Deutschland, but on arrival found Vahsel still in post and Seelheim gone. Nevertheless, Kling agreed to remain with the expedition as an extra watch-keeping officer. In Buenos Aires, the expedition received a consignment of Greenland dogs, and a number of Manchurian ponies; Filchner had been persuaded by Shackleton of the usefulness of horses as pack animals. While in Buenos Aires, Deutschland was joined by Fram, Amundsen's ship, returning from the Antarctic after depositing Amundsen and his shore party at the Bay of Whales in Antarctica, prior to their successful attempt on the South Pole. The men from the two ships fraternised well – Deutschlands crew contained a number of Scandinavians – and the crew of Fram gave a rousing send-off when Deutschland departed for South Georgia on 4 October. South Georgia Deutschland arrived in Grytviken, South Georgia, on 21 October, to be welcomed by Carl Anton Larsen, the manager of the whaling station there. As the seas to the south remained icebound, Filchner embarked on a coastal survey of South Georgia, with the help of Larsen who lent his yacht Undine for this task. In the course of these surveys they revisited the now derelict research station at Royal Bay, reopened it, and kept it manned for a month while taking regular readings to determine magnetic field changes in the intervening years. While the coastal survey progressed, Deutschland went on a journey to the South Sandwich Islands, to test the theory of the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce, that the islands in the so-called Scotia Arc were geologically linked with the Antarctic Peninsula and the South American mainland. The trip was blighted by bad weather and rough seas, with waves reaching in height. The ship proved her seaworthiness, but no landing was made, and little scientific work could be done. In South Georgia, the expedition suffered two losses of personnel. One of the two medical doctors, Ludwig Kohl, was stricken with appendicitis and had to remain on the island. More tragic was the fate of the third officer, Walter Slossarczyk, who disappeared while fishing in King Edward Cove, off Grytviken. His empty boat was later found in Cumberland Bay. Whether this was an accident or, as some suspected, a suicide, was never established. Either way, Filchner considered the death a bad omen for the expedition. Weddell Sea voyage Having been restocked with equipment, the now heavily loaded Deutschland left Grytviken on 11 December 1911 carrying 35 men, 8 ponies, 75 Greenland dogs, 2 oxen, 2 pigs and several sheep. She first encountered ice three days out from Grytviken, at 57°S, and from then on, progress southwards was intermittent, with ice-bound periods interspersed with stretches of open water. Between 17 and 31 December, a mere were covered, and the generator was switched off to save coal. On 14 January 1912, at 70°47'S, the ship was trapped in solid ice, but four days later she enjoyed one of her best day's run, covering . On 27 January, now deep into the Weddell Sea, came the first intimation of land; seabed samples produced blue clay, remnants of glacial deposits that would not be found far from shore. On 28 January a wide stretch of water appeared, extending southward to the horizon: "No one had expected an open Weddell Sea behind a pack ice girdle of roughly 1,100 nautical miles", wrote Filchner. By 29 January, the ship was beyond the location of Bruce's 1904 sighting of Coats Land, and had passed Weddell's southernmost mark of 74°15'S. The water was now becoming rapidly shallower in depth, showing the imminent approach of land; light surf was visible in the distance to the south. The next day land was observed in the form of ice cliffs, up to in height, behind which rose a gentle slope of ice and snow to a height of above . "Under this mass of ice", wrote Filchner, "undoubtedly lay hidden the Antarctic continent". This first geographical discovery of the expedition was named by Filchner as "Prinzregent Luitpold Land" (or "Luitpold Coast"), after the expedition's principal patron. Following the coastline as it first tended south-westwards, then west and north-west, on 31 January at 77°48'S, they discovered a vast ice barrier, evidently the southern boundary of the Weddell Sea. Filchner christened it the Kaiser Wilhelm Ice Barrier; later, at the Kaiser's insistence, it was renamed after Filchner. At the conjunction of Luitpold Land and the ice barrier was a small inlet, which Filchner named Vahsel Bay. Behind the bay, nunataks (protruding rocks) confirmed the presence of land south of the bay. At Vahsel Bay Filchner landed survey parties at Vahsel Bay, to examine the location as a possible landing site, and they reported that it looked feasible. However, Vahsel showed a reluctance to make a landing there, arguing that, having passed Weddell's southern limit, the main task of the expedition was now done and they should return to South Georgia. This, as David Murphy in his expedition account observes, was inexplicable since Deutschlands equipment, provisions and animals clearly provided for extensive work on shore. On 1 February, hoping to resolve the impasse, Filchner agreed to search along the barrier for a better landing place, but none could be found, and by 5 February Deutschland was back at Vahsel Bay. Vahsel wanted the camp placed on a large and durable-looking iceberg attached to the ice shelf, which the ship could reach easily. Filchner preferred to have the camp further from the ice edge, and only agreed to Vahsel's wish after the captain assured him that the expedition's ice pilot, Paul Björvik, had approved the site. The unloading process began on 9 February and continued over the next several days. By 17 February the hut had been erected and most of the equipment and animals had been transferred to the iceberg. Meanwhile, Filchner learned from Björvik that he had not been consulted, and would not have recommended the site which he described as "very bad". On 18 February a high spring tide caused a surge of water, which sundered the iceberg from the ice barrier and sent it floating into the Weddell Sea. A frantic process of recovery began, as the ship's lifeboats were used to retrieve as much as possible from the base. By this means, most of the material was saved. Filchner continued his efforts to establish a shore base, and on 28 February, Brenneke and the geologist Fritz Heim were landed on the barrier and began to erect a depot some from the edge, and about above sea level. However, Vahsel was by now insistent that the ship return to South Georgia before being irretrievably frozen in. Filchner reluctantly accepted this; the depot was marked with black flags to await the expedition's return in the following season. Drift On 4 March the ship turned north, and the journey back to South Georgia began. Progress was initially minimal; on 6 March, under full steam, Deutschland advanced just , and by 15 March she was trapped firmly. Efforts to free her with dynamite failed, and Filchner resigned himself to a long winter's drift: "We now devoted ourselves to scientific work", he wrote. A research station was set up on the ice for meteorological and magnetic work, and the wildlife – penguins, other birds, whales and seals – was observed, recorded and sometimes eaten. A programme of entertainment and sporting activities was maintained on the ship and on the ice, but these diversions could not overcome the increasing divisions and hostility between the opposing groups, worsened by the excessive use of alcohol. The debacle at Vahsel Bay had destroyed morale, and there were long mutual recriminations. In June, Filchner was desperate to escape from the poisonous ambience of Deutschland. He calculated that the drift was taking them close to where, in 1823, the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell claimed to have encountered land, known generally as "Morrell's Land" or "New South Greenland". Morrell described a long stretch of coastline, with distant snow-covered mountains, abundant seal, and "oceanic birds of every description". Morrell's writings were typically full of exaggerations and provable errors, and he had a reputation for vagueness concerning positions and dates, but his claims had remained uninvestigated. Filchner saw an opportunity of adding to his expedition's achievements by proving or disproving the existence of Morrell's Land. On 23 June, about east of Morrell's reported sighting, Filchner, König and Kling set out from Deutschland with supplies, sledges and dogs to find the spot, travelling much of the time by moonlight. The terrain was difficult; shifting ice with open water, and piled-up ice floes. Another problem was that the drifting ship would be in a different position when they returned. As they approached the location of Morrell's supposed sighting, they dropped lead weights to test the sea depth. Finding no evidence of shallowing, and no visible signs of land, they concluded that Morrell had most likely seen a mirage. On the return journey, through skilful navigation, they intercepted Deutschland on 30 June; it had drifted a distance of since they left. On 8 August, Vahsel died, his health having recently deteriorated. He was buried in the ice two days later, and was succeeded as captain by Wilhelm Lorenzen, the first officer. The atmosphere did not improve; Lorenzen was no conciliator, and his relationship with Filchner was no better than Vahsel's had been. The mood rapidly became not merely unpleasant but dangerous; guns were being waved around, with threats of shooting – König claimed he had been shot at. Filchner considered his own life at risk, and slept with a loaded gun by his side. The drift continued; by mid-September, open leads were appearing in the distance, but it was not until 26 November, with the help of dynamite, that Deutschland finally broke free of the ice. The drift had provided initial evidence for the existence of the Weddell Gyre, a circulating ocean current rotating clockwise round the sea. A slow run through heavy loose pack finally brought Deutschland to Grytviken on 19 December 1912. Dissolution In Grytviken, open fighting broke out among the two factions. The crew had heard a rumour that they would not be paid, and turned on Filchner. When Larsen's attempts to mediate failed, he housed the more mutinous members in the whaling station before sending them home on a steamer. As replacement captain Filchner appointed Kling, who took Deutschland to Buenos Aires, where she was temporarily lent to the Argentine government to relieve the Argentinian weather station at Laurie Island. Filchner, at this stage, had not given up on continuing his expedition. He informed the American Geographical Society that, after a period in dry dock for essential work, "...the second trip to the newly discovered land can be made again, and the explorations in the Antarctic continued according to the original program". However, the dissident members who had returned to Germany reported poor leadership and morale, and the organising committee ordered Filchner home. There, he faced a Court of Honour which, after hearing the various accusations and testimonies of witnesses, largely absolved him from blame. His opponents continued to denounce him; when von Goeldel, the former ship's doctor, called Filchner dishonourable, Filchner challenged him to a duel, and von Goeldel withdrew the comment. Despite his official vindication, Filchner was wearied of the Antarctic, and never returned. Deutschland was acquired by König, who was organising an Austrian expedition to complete the work begun by the German expedition. Filchner was invited to join him, but declined; he likewise refused an invitation from Amundsen to accompany him on an expedition to the North Pole. He wrote: "Many experiences had convinced me that truly great successes in the polar ice are granted only to members of those nations where polar research has traditions ... I have decided to return to my original field of work: Central and East Asia". Aftermath In apportioning responsibility for the perceived failure, Penck and others blamed Vahsel, as did the Kaiser, who had opposed the expedition but now gave Filchner his backing. On the other hand Albert Ballin of the Hamburg America Line, Vahsel's former employers, defended the captain: "The geographical discoveries of the expedition are solely Vahsel's credit, who pursued the goals cited for him with the greatest energy, steadfast loyalty and devotion". Controversies around the expedition were forgotten with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. König's expedition was cancelled, while Deutschland, which König had renamed Osterreich, was requisitioned by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, and used as a minesweeper until she was torpedoed and sunk in the Adriatic Sea. During the war, Filchner served in the German army. Afterwards, he wrote an account of his expedition, published in 1922, in which he barely mentions the animosities that had affected it. He chose to ignore continuing denigration from his opponents, and resumed his travels, leading expeditions to Central Asia in 1926–28 and 1934–38. His last expedition, to Nepal in 1939, was interrupted by illness and the Second World War, after which he retired to Zurich. Shortly before his death in 1957, Filchner wrote an exposé, not published until 1985, which revealed the truth about his Antarctic expedition's failure. Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, aiming for a transcontinental crossing, had entered the Weddell Sea in January 1915. Before he could land, his ship Endurance was beset, and carried in the ice by the Weddell Gyre until she was crushed and sunk in October 1915. The expedition thereafter became an epic of survival and rescue. The first land crossing of the Antarctic continent was not achieved until the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1957–58. The co-leaders, Vivian Fuchs and Edmund Hillary, followed Filchner's original two-ship plan: starting respectively at the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea, they met at the South Pole on 19 January 1958. They acknowledged Filchner as "the first to reach the head of the Weddell Sea", but they named their Vahsel Bay base camp after Shackleton whom, they said, had "intended to establish his base there". Assessment Notwithstanding the sense of failure and recriminations, the Second German Antarctic Expedition recorded some significant geographical achievements. It found new land, the Luitpold Coast, and reached the southern limit of the Weddell Sea. Its discovery of the Filchner Ice Shelf provided strong evidence, if not outright proof, that Penck's theory of a strait separating two Antarctic landmasses was wrong. The winter journey of Filchner, Kling and König proved the non-existence of Morrell's "New South Greenland". There were significant scientific findings, including the first evidence of the clockwise Weddell Sea gyre. The detailed oceanographic investigations revealed the temperature distribution in the waters of the southern Atlantic. Four alternating layers were identified, carrying warmer and colder streams south and north respectively, a process in which the Weddell Sea played a central role. Owing to the commencement of the First World War, and the lack of a formal presentation of the results, the expedition's findings made little immediate impact on the international scientific community. However, the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research later rated the expedition's discoveries as equal with those of James Clark Ross in the 1840s, and in later years the Weddell Sea became the most favoured area for German polar research. The expedition's personnel are honoured in the naming of various geographical features in the Antarctic region. As well as the Filchner Ice Shelf and Vahsel Bay, these include the Filchner Trench, on the seabed in the south-eastern corner of the Weddell Sea; the Filchner Mountains in Queen Maud Land, named by a later German expedition in 1938–39; the Filchner Rocks in South Georgia, charted during the 1911 coastal survey; Cape Vahsel on South Georgia; the König Glacier, surveyed in 1928–29 during an expedition led by Ludwig Kohl-Larson, formerly a member of Filchner's expedition; and Mount Kling in South Georgia, surveyed and named in the period 1951–57. Notes and references Notes Citations Sources Books Journals Websites 1911 in Germany 1912 in Antarctica Antarctic expeditions Expeditions from Germany Germany and the Antarctic History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration	6,341
doc-en-8525_0	The COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland has impacted the country's judicial system. Several people were arrested for COVID-19-related offences, while prisoners were released. Two operations, Operation Fanacht and Operation Navigation, were launched. Overall context The Garda Síochána (Irish police) announced differences to the way its shifts would operate to allow for increased presence of its officers in public, that hundreds of student gardaí would be sworn in to the force earlier than would otherwise have been the case and that more than 200 private hire cars would be deployed to assist vulnerable citizens in rural areas after being branded with the Garda sign and crest. In addition, a supply of masks would be maintained to distribute within the prison system if inmates showed symptoms of the virus. It also set up a national COVID-19 unit located at its Phoenix Park headquarters. On 20 March, Minister for Justice Charles Flanagan announced that immigration permissions set to expire from 20 March to 20 May would be granted a two-month extension. He also announced the temporary release of prisoners. The Irish Naturalisation and Immigration Service on Dublin's Burgh Quay shut due to the virus and applications instead went online. Asylum seekers in the east of the country were rendered homeless after spending time in hospital with the virus; "health sources" informed the Irish Examiner that one man was forced to spend further time in hospital than he needed and a second man was "left to fend for himself". On 18 April, after persistent rumours, an outbreak of the virus was confirmed amongst asylum seekers who had recently been housed in a hotel in the southwestern town of Cahersiveen; management agreed to confine the asylum seekers to the hotel so as to protect the local population, though they had been using local supermarkets and pharmacies before this date, to the annoyance of local business and community leaders whom the HSE had promised it would notify of any outbreak but who did not find out until they approached the hotel. Locals protested, asked for it to be shut and called for an inquiry into how the asylum seekers had been moved there from elsewhere amid a pandemic. Flanagan's private secretary wrote a letter to a local politician informing him that those managing such centres had been asked to improve their standard of cleaning. Asylum seekers in Cahersiveen continued to display symptoms and test positive for the virus into May. In mid-May, Minister Flanagan issued an open letter to the people of County Kerry, with particular reference to the residents of Cahersiveen, acknowledging the hardship they had experienced as a result of the presence of the asylum seekers in their town and outlining the infection control measures that were in place to deal with the problem. Local newspapers in the county carried the letter. The letter was four pages in length and the Irish Examiner called it an "unprecedented" apology. Prisoners were reported to be willing to work with prison officers to prevent their exposure to the virus. Social distancing measures in prisons included visible marks, the closing of gyms and recreation halls, inmates being fed in smaller groups and visits from outside disallowed. Deep cleaning occurred, the plates and mugs were replaced with hot food in single use cardboard containers. Another consequence of the virus was that less drugs found their way into the system, or as one prisoner put it: "It's not only harder to get the drugs in, it's harder to get the drugs, full stop". This was attributed both to the restrictions and the heavier garda presence on streets. On 7 April, Minister for Health Simon Harris signed regulations under provisions inserted in emergency legislation passed earlier, to restrict movement of persons and the holding of events, effective 8 to 12 April. This move, which Harris confirmed on Prime Time, gave gardaí extra powers to coincide with the Easter period. On 10 April, these measures were extended to 5 May. On 28 April, it was reported that 76 people had been arrested for failing to comply with gardaí policing the pandemic. On 12 May, gardaí reported having had to use their emergency powers on 192 occasions between 8 April (the first day) and 9 May. On 19 May, gardaí reported using emergency powers 241 times between 8 April and 16 May. On 13 May, Garda HQ circulated a letter announcing the suspension for budgetary purposes of overtime available to serving officers in certain cases. On the morning of 18 March, masks were distributed to gardaí, with instructions to wear them during time spent in enclosed spaces (such as in vehicles or on public transport) and during prolonged contact with others (though not in the open air or at checkpoints). On 10 June, it was announced that not a single prisoner among the country's prison population of 3,705 had tested positive for COVID-19. On 22 August, a 23-year-old woman in Dóchas Centre became the first prisoner in Ireland to test positive for COVID-19. On 29 September, following crime figures published by the Central Statistics Office, the number of burglaries dropped by 52.8% between March and June, coinciding with the imposition of COVID-19 restrictions. On 30 October, the Irish Prison Service confirmed an outbreak of COVID-19 at the Midlands Prison after five inmates tested positive for COVID-19. On 5 January 2021, the Irish Prison Service announced that five prisoners in Loughan House Open Centre in County Cavan tested positive for COVID-19. On 17 February, the Irish Prison Service announced that three prisoners in the Midlands Prison tested positive for COVID-19. On 10 May, the Irish Prison Service confirmed that an outbreak of 19 cases of COVID-19 had been identified at Mountjoy Prison. On 10 November, Cloverhill Prison in Dublin announced that it was responding to a suspected COVID-19 outbreak, after the Irish Prison Service confirmed that one prisoner tested positive for COVID-19. Assaults Assaults of coughing and spitting were rife. They occurred nationwide, in the capital city Dublin, and were also recorded in the counties of Cavan, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Kildare, Louth, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary, Waterford. On 23 March, a man appeared at Blanchardstown Hospital, saying he had COVID-19 symptoms and wanted to be tested. He proceeded to either spit or cough at a nurse, who was then forced into self-isolation—it later emerged that her attacker was COVID-19 positive. On 24 March, a man and a woman launched a coughing attack into the face of Minister for Health Simon Harris near Government Buildings, his assailants then running off laughing. On 28 March 32-year-old Tariq Jagoe from Killiney spat at others on board a Dublin Bus and told gardaí he would give them COVID-19 when they were called to the scene of the disruption at Lord Edward Street in the city centre; a judge cited the virus in his objection to bail and ordered Jagoe to be given a COVID-19 test when he learned that he had not yet received one. Rachel Conway from Caltragh in County Sligo coughed at a garda and was sentenced to 28 days imprisonment, meaning she was the first person jailed for a COVID-related offence. Gardaí ordered 16,000 spit hoods (to cover the face of suspects inclined towards these acts), and warned the public that anyone caught would be charged with assault. On 28 April, Garda Commissioner Drew Harris said that—since 8 April—gardaí had been spat at or coughed-on on 31 occasions and that spit hoods had been required on 15 occasions. On 5 May, Harris said that between 8 April and 2 May, gardaí had been spat at or coughed on on 52 occasions and that spit hoods had been required on 28 occasions. On 9 June, Harris said that between 8 April and 6 June, gardaí had been spat at or coughed-on on 93 occasions and that spit hoods had been required on 70 occasions. On 14 March 2021, two men in their 20s were charged after three Gardaí were assaulted following a house party in Milford, County Donegal on 13 March. Other offences On 21 March, Gardaí in Longford were called to a house where a 21st birthday party was underway to disperse dozens of young people who gathered in violation of social distancing. A burglary in late-March on the LÉ George Bernard Shaw—docked at Sir John Rogerson's Quay along the River Liffey in Dublin to offer assistance to the Health Service Executive—led to the arrest of a man and a prompt appearance before court. On 31 March, €70,000 of suspected heroin was seized during a COVID-19 patrol on the M8 motorway in Fermoy, and one man arrested. On 6 April, more than €51,000 of suspected cocaine was seized during a COVID-19 patrol in Waterford, and one man arrested. An underage session being conducted by the GAA via Zoom was "hacked and bombarded with pornographic images" in early April; gardaí received word of the incident. In mid-April, Martin Stokes of Clondalkin, who had failed to reappear at court three years previously to face charges of tax fraud dating from 2006, 2008 and 2011 (and to which he had pleaded guilty), was arrested while travelling around during the restrictions in April; the judge refused bail. On 15 April, 24-year-old Denis Constantin of Enniscorthy in the southeast of the country became the first person charged with breaching the two-kilometre movement restriction when he appeared before a court in Gorey; the judge refused bail after gardaí had twice stopped him while driving over the previous (Easter) weekend in a position that was more than two kilometres from his home: close to Bunclody on Good Friday and close to New Ross on the morning of Easter Monday. He was also charged for driving with no licence or insurance while disqualified. He was jailed for 3 months for breaching the two-kilometre movement restriction. On the morning of 16 April, a man was arrested and charged following a public order and assault incident at a checkpoint in Muckmoyne, Boyle, County Roscommon; the man would not co-operate and became aggressive, including spitting. On 21 April, suspected drugs worth €230,000 were seized during a COVID-19 patrol in Limerick, and two people were arrested. On the morning of 24 April, a man from Ballymun was arrested and later charged with four breaches of the Health (Preservation and Protection and other Emergency Measures in the Public Interest) Act 2020. On 19 May, it was reported that a "serial offender" and driver of a Škoda, who continued to steal fuel from petrol stations in breach of COVID-19 travel restrictions so that he could service his cocaine debt, was banned from driving for two years and received a four-month suspended sentence. On 27 May, four men from Brazil were arrested and charged with two charges of possession of firearms and a breach of COVID-19 travel restrictions. They were arrested at 12 midnight near Clara, County Offaly, while travelling in two vehicles. All four men were brought separately to Portlaoise District Court on the morning of 29 May. On 18 June, it was reported that a 17-year-old teenager became the first juvenile to face court charges for breaching COVID-19 travel restrictions. The breaches are alleged to have occurred in Blanchardstown, Dublin, on 25 April, in County Limerick on 27 April and in Clondalkin, Dublin, on 28 April. On 2 October, as part of a policing plan at the University of Limerick, gardaí in Castletroy, Limerick shut down 35 student house parties, arrested 5 people for public order offences and trespassing offences, and issued 30 anti-social behaviour warnings and 70 on the spot ticket fines; 45 for alcohol consumption; 25 for illegal parking. On the night of 19 December, gardaí broke up an organised "car meet" of 800 people in more than 250 cars that breached COVID-19 regulations in Little Island, County Cork. On the night of 2 March 2021, three men in their 20s were arrested and more than 50 fixed payment notices were issued in Limerick after Gardaí broke up a street party involving large groups of students drinking, dancing, singing and setting of fireworks, near the University of Limerick. The next day on 3 March, one of the three men arrested was charged with public order offences, as the University of Limerick warned that any student who were found breaking the university's code of conduct could face temporary suspension or expulsion, while Minister for Justice Helen McEntee urged young people to comply with COVID-19 restrictions. On 12 March, Gardaí confirmed that two people were arrested and more than 80 fines were issued after around 300 people gathered for the funeral of a young Traveller man in Carrick-on-Shannon on 11 March, despite Level 5 restrictions limiting mourners to 10 people. On 29 May, four people were arrested for public order offences after large crowds gathered in parts of Dublin city centre, while Chief Medical Officer Tony Holohan stated that he was "absolutely shocked" by the crowds that gathered. On the night of 4 June, 14 people (including 5 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences and a Garda received hospital treatment, after violence broke out in Dublin city centre in which glass bottles were thrown at Gardaí, which resulted in a patrol car being damaged. Minister for Health Stephen Donnelly described the incidents as "thuggish behaviour and completely unacceptable". On the night of 5 June, 19 people (including 2 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences and two Gardaí received hospital treatment, after violence broke out in Dublin's south city centre for a second consecutive night in which a person was assaulted, a bin was set on fire and glass bottles were thrown, which resulted in a patrol car being damaged. On the night of 6 June, 14 people (including 3 juveniles) were arrested for public order offences, after violence broke out in Dublin's south city centre for a third consecutive night, while Gardaí arrested 8 people in Cork. On the night of 14 July, hundreds of people gathered outside the Convention Centre in Dublin to protest against the Government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic after the Dáil passed legislation to allow for the reopening of indoor dining. On 24 July, around 1,500 protestors gathered in Dublin city centre to protest against vaccines, new legislation allowing for the reopening of indoor dining and the Digital COVID Certificate. On 22 August, following crowds of people gathering after the 2021 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Final, Gardaí began investigating alleged breaches of COVID-19 regulations at a pub near Croke Park, while several pubs were temporarily shut by Gardaí due to anti-social behaviour and a lack of social distancing. On 5 November, 17 people were arrested following an investigation into suspected COVID-19 social welfare fraud at a number of business premises in Dublin. Anti-lockdown protests On 22 August, four men were arrested after around 500 people attended an anti-lockdown rally organised by the Yellow Vests Ireland group at Custom House Quay in Dublin. On 12 September, around 3,000 attended two anti-mask protests organised by the Yellow Vests Ireland group at Custom House Quay in Dublin. The next day on 13 September, gardaí began an investigation of an assault of an activist following clashes between an anti-mask group and a counter-protest outside Leinster House. On 10 October, two men were arrested after a total of 250 demonstrators attended an anti-lockdown protest organised by the National Party outside Leinster House in Dublin. On 27 February 2021, 23 people were arrested and 3 Gardaí were injured (including one hospitalised), as around 500 protesters took part in an anti-lockdown protest in Dublin city centre, with fireworks being fired at Gardaí, while St Stephen's Green and the Iveagh Gardens closed in advance of the protest. The protest was widely condemned by the gardaí and politicians. Taoiseach Micheál Martin stated that he "utterly condemned" the protest, which "posed an unacceptable risk to both the public and Gardaí" and also praised the Gardaí who moved quickly to make arrests and restore order. Tánaiste Leo Varadkar stated that he was horrified and that there was no excuse for violence to Gardaí or anyone, while Minister for Justice Helen McEntee stated that the situation was "completely unacceptable and was an insult to so many who had worked so hard in the fight against COVID-19 and to those who had died". The violent protest resulted in 13 people, including 12 men and 1 woman, charged and remanded in custody for public order offences, while Tánaiste Leo Varadkar stated that the violence on the streets of Dublin was "not a protest and was a riot". On 2 March, a man in his 30s was arrested in connection with the firework attack on Gardaí at the violent anti-lockdown protest on 27 February. The next day on 3 March, Jake Merriman, a 30-year-old man, appeared in court charged in connection with the firework attack on Gardaí. Seven months later on 28 October, Merriman was further charged with endangerment of life by launching a firework at Gardaí. He was accused of possessing glass bottles capable of causing serious injury, violent disorder, and endangering life by propelling a lighted firework causing a substantial risk of death or serious harm. On 6 March, Gardaí arrested 6 people (5 men and 1 woman) as around 450 people attended an anti-lockdown protest in Cork city centre that ended without incident. On St Patrick's Day, Gardaí arrested 21 people after around 700 protestors took part in a number of anti-lockdown protests in Dublin city centre, Herbert Park and at the RTÉ campus in Donnybrook. One day later on 18 March, it was confirmed that 7 Gardaí were injured (including five hospitalised) after being kicked, punched and spat at during the separate violent anti-lockdown protests that took place on St Patrick's Day. On 20 March, Gardaí arrested 11 people and issued a number of fines after around 200 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest in the Phoenix Park in Dublin city centre. On 3 April, around 300 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest at the National Monument on the Grand Parade in Cork city centre. One day later on 4 April (Easter Sunday), Gardaí arrested 8 people as part of a policing plan around an anti-lockdown protest planned in Dublin city centre. On 1 May, around 370 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest at the National Monument on the Grand Parade in Cork city centre. On 3 July, more than 300 protestors took part in an anti-lockdown protest in Dublin city centre. On 27 November, thousands of people attended a protest against COVID-19 restrictions and vaccine passports at the GPO on Dublin's O'Connell Street. On 22 January 2022, despite the easing of almost all COVID-19 restrictions, around 1,000 people gathered at the Garden of Remembrance in Dublin city centre calling for the end of all restrictions and the end of face masks for children in schools. Operation Fanacht Operation Fanacht (; , "staying") commenced at 12 noon on Wednesday 8 April and continued until the night of Monday 13 April, lasting therefore for the busiest part of the Easter period. Its purpose was to enforce travel restrictions which had then only recently been imposed to combat the virus. The Garda Síochána described it as follows in its statement announcing the end of the operation: "Every day of Operation Fanacht, An Garda Síochána conducted 150 permanent checkpoints on major routes, over 500 shorter and mobile checkpoints, as well as a large number of high visibility patrols at tourist locations, natural beauty spots, and parks and beaches". Also as part of Operation Fanacht, the Garda Air Support Unit (GASU) confirmed its helicopters were conducting aerial surveillance of locations suspected as being used by large numbers of people while not adhering to social distancing. Gardaí declared Operation Fanacht a success after only seven arrests. One of these was a 36-year-old man who drove from Derry (in the north of the country) to Kerry (in the southwest of the country), his initial purpose being as an employee of a security firm (for which he had no evidence), while his second excuse was the purchase of two puppies; gardaí stopped him for the first incident at Dooneen outside Castleisland and for the second incident outside Killarney. He appeared at court in Tralee and was imprisoned for four weeks. Earlier, on 9 April, 20,000 unstamped cigarettes worth more than €10,000 were seized at a COVID-19 checkpoint in Bohola, County Mayo. On 10 April, more than €6,300 of cocaine was seized at a COVID-19 checkpoint. On 13 April (the Easter Monday public holiday), two women raced past a garda checkpoint in Lifford, County Donegal, and headed eastwards across the border. The PSNI seized their vehicle (abandoned near Clady, County Tyrone) and fined both ladies under the legislation, Health Protection Regulations NI 2020 (Coronavirus Restrictions), for good measure. In the early hours of 14 April, gardaí in Dublin arrested two men and one woman and seized two guns and €500,000 in cocaine at the conclusion of a car chase that got underway at a COVID-19 checkpoint on the Phibsborough Road. Operation Fanacht recommenced for the May bank holiday weekend, began at 7:00 am on Tuesday 28 April and continued until the end of Monday 4 May. It again involved large-scale checkpoints on many main routes, and thousands of mobile checkpoints on secondary routes and in towns and villages. One man was arrested after breaching the travel restrictions thrice on one day of the May bank holiday weekend; after being warned for being in the company of people from other households and while walking elsewhere in the same town, he was arrested after refusing to leave a house party in the south of the country. Another man, who was stopped in Dublin as he set out towards County Meath for a painting job, complained that he "would not be adhering to restrictions from a non-elected government". On the evening of 3 April, €9,000 of cocaine was seized at a COVID-19 checkpoint on the M6 motorway near Ballinasloe in County Galway, and one man arrested. Operation Fanacht recommenced for the June bank holiday weekend, began on Wednesday 27 May and continued until the end of Monday 1 June. It involved scaled-down checkpoints on many main routes, parks, beaches and beauty spots in towns and villages, focusing on road safety rather than enforcing the COVID-19 travel restrictions, after it was reported that sixty people had been killed in 56 crashes as of 27 May. Numerous checkpoints were mounted throughout Kerry, Cork and Wicklow after a number of motorists breached COVID-19 travel restrictions. On 28 May, it was reported that gardaí turned away over 100 cars in County Wicklow. On 29 May, Gardaí reported several vehicles illegally parked on double yellow lines at a beach in County Wicklow. Operation Fanacht recommenced on 8 August in counties Kildare, Laois and Offaly following the reimposition of lockdown measures in the three counties. It again involved large-scale checkpoints on many main routes near the borders of the three counties to ensure the public are complying with the new government restrictions announced by Taoiseach Micheál Martin on 7 August. Operation Fanacht recommenced on 19 September in Dublin City and County following the imposition of Level 3 restrictions in the capital. It involved targeted patrols, checkpoints to monitor compliance with the public health measures and high levels of garda visibility on foot, in car and on bike to monitor social distancing and gatherings in large groups at amenities and open spaces. Operation Fanacht recommenced on the night of 25 September in Donegal following the imposition of Level 3 restrictions. It involved targeted patrols, checkpoints to monitor compliance with the public health measures and high levels of garda visibility on foot, in car and on bike to monitor social distancing and gatherings in large groups at amenities and open spaces. Operation Fanacht recommenced on the night of 6 October across the entire country following the imposition of Level 3 restrictions. It involved large-scale checkpoints mounted per day on many main routes, and thousands of mobile checkpoints on secondary routes and in towns and villages. Operation Fanacht recommenced on 22 October across the entire country following the imposition of Level 5 lockdown restrictions. It involved 132 large-scale checkpoints mounted per day on many main routes, parks, natural beauty spots and public amenities, and hundreds of rolling checkpoints on secondary routes and in towns and villages, as well as over 2,500 gardaí on duty, with the primary focus being on checkpoints and high visibility patrolling. On the night when Level 5 restrictions began, €450 of cannabis and a grinder was seized at a COVID-19 checkpoint in Cork City. After restrictions eased in early December 2020, a third wave of COVID-19 rapidly arrived in Ireland following the Christmas period which resulted in the reimposition of full Level 5 lockdown restrictions. Operation Fanacht recommenced at 7:00 am on Thursday 7 January 2021 across the entire country, which involved additional static checkpoints on national routes and supported by local mobile checkpoints nationwide. On 14 January, Gardaí issued 29 fines to people breaching the 5 km travel limit over the previous 7 days including three people who travelled 80 km to "collect burgers from a takeaway" in Ringsend, Dublin. On the evening of 24 March, a man was arrested after €140,000 worth of suspected cannabis herb was seized during a checkpoint operation in County Cork. On 16 March 2021, the Garda Síochána urged people to stay at home for St Patrick's Day as a significant policing operation was put in place to deal with planned protests in Dublin city with 2,500 Gardaí being deployed across the country. Gardaí continued to carry out checkpoints focused on non-essential travel, patrolling at public amenities, road safety activity, managing any large gatherings that may occur and providing support for the vulnerable, including victims of domestic violence. Operation Navigation Operation Navigation commenced at 7:00pm on Friday 3 July when gardaí began conducting checks of licensed premises throughout the country to check if they are adhering to the public health guidelines for COVID-19. Under phase three of the government's roadmap of easing restrictions, pubs that only serve food are allowed to open, and patrons must show proof of having eaten a meal costing at least €9 if gardaí arrive for an inspection. From 3 July to 12 July, Garda Síochána conducted 2,785 checks on licensed premises nationwide. Pub owners began breaching COVID-19 restrictions on 9 July when gardaí found 26 breaches in 37 individual cases during the first weekend of inspections. On 15 July, a further 11 breaches were found by gardaí, bringing the total number of breaches to 37. On 29 July, it was announced that the majority of the incidents relate to a lack of evidence that food was being served or consumed and no evidence of receipts to show that food had been sold. On 21 December, the Garda Síochána announced it continues to detect breaches of COVID-19 regulations at licensed premises nationwide while a pub in the northwest of Ireland was given the first "Immediate Closure Order" by Gardaí under the COVID-19 Enforcement Powers Act 2020. References 2020 crimes Crime in the Republic of Ireland 2020 in the Republic of Ireland 2021 in the Republic of Ireland Ireland Crime 2020 crimes in Europe	6,012
doc-en-7376_0	Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani () is an Indian television drama series that aired from 21 December 2020 to 24 July 2021 on StarPlus. The series was a remake of Star Jalsha's Bengali series Mohor. Produced under DJ's Creative Unit, it starred Debattama Saha as Anokhi Bhalla and Karanvir Sharma as Shaurya Sabherwal. Plot Shaurya Sabherwal belongs to an affluent family in Chandigarh and is a professor at Sabherwal Institute of Arts & Commerce (SIAC). While teaching is his passion and he wants his students - both boys & girls to succeed, he wants his wife to prioritize family over career because his mother left him as a 4 year old to pursue her career as told to him by his uncle and aunt. On the other hand, Anokhi Bhalla is an ambitious and headstrong girl, willing to make a mark in the society. Having a completely different ideology, she feels that society is patriarchal and women should strive to live on their terms. The story begins with Shaurya's engagement with his long-time girlfriend, Shagun. However, on the engagement day, Shagun reveals to Shaurya that she is willing to go to Cambridge to study further even though she earlier had reached a middle ground with Shaurya where he had agreed for her to continue as a guest professor at SIAC. A reluctant Shaurya asks her to choose between her married life and Cambridge. As Shagun chooses Cambridge breaking their previous consensus, Shaurya decides to call off the engagement. On the other hand, it's seen that Anokhi studies in the same college in which Shaurya's mother, Aastha, is a professor. Aastha is highly supportive of Anokhi. Anokhi participates and wins in a debate competition where she is awarded by none other than Shaurya, who is the Guest of Honor of the competition. After the competition, Aastha approaches Shaurya and tries to talk to him but they end up arguing and ultimately hurt as Anokhi interferes in the matter. Anokhi's father fixes her marriage with an orthodox and alcoholic person, Monty; much to Anokhi, Babli, and Rama's reluctance. Anokhi's in-laws permit her to continue her studies after marriage in Toronto, Canada. But, the actual intentions of the family are revealed when she overhears Monty's conversation wherein he addresses wives as 'Glorified Servants' and reveals his unwillingness to allow Anokhi to study. Anokhi begs her father to stop her marriage, but he locks her in her room. Later, Babli and Rama learn of Monty's ugly side. They free Anokhi from this forced marriage and help her escape. Anokhi escapes and arrives at Aastha's house. Aastha facilitates her admission at Sabherwal Institute of Arts and Commerce (SIAC) by requesting her estranged husband , Shaan. Anokhi arrives at Chandigarh where on the very first day she is caught by the police who misunderstand her to be engaged in illegal activities but Shaurya helps to rescue her. The next day at the college admission interview, Shaurya bombards Anokhi with questions, but she does well and gets selected. Aastha arrives at SIAC to help Anokhi get admission by arranging for her documents and fees where she meets Shaan & Shaurya after 25 years. Shaurya gets hurt seeing his mother fighting for a random girl while she never cared or fought for her. He reminisces his childhood memories and craves the motherly love. On the very first day of college, Anokhi is ragged by her classmates who insult her and then lock her in the classroom, traumatizing her. Shaurya rescues her and helps to catch and punish the culprits. Elsewhere, an agitated Raja shoots Aastha, who is later rushed to a local hospital by Anokhi's parents. Shaan moves her to a hospital in Chandigarh. Aastha is then operated on. Anokhi and Shaan worry about Aastha as the latter's health deteriorates. Shaurya deep inside wishes to meet Aastha but is stopped by Devi. Aware of Aastha's deteriorating health, Gayatri insists Shaurya to meet Aastha. Deep in the night, Shaurya goes to meet Aastha secretly, revives her and leaves silently with only Aastha noticing him. Later, an enraged Devi confronts Aastha. Shaurya overhears their conversation and misunderstands Aastha and hurls accusations at her. Anokhi, who was hearing all this, defends Aastha. Back home, Devi blackmails Shaan to give divorce to Aastha. Aastha tells Anokhi about Shaurya's approaching birthday. Anokhi plans to bring together Shaurya and Aastha for the celebration and pesters Shaurya for the same who sternly refuses. Later, Aastha comes to Shaurya after his birthday party to pour her heart out to him. Shaurya, who was being constantly pestered by Anokhi regarding Aastha since long time also bursts out his buried pain and anger. Depressed Aastha checks out from the Hospital and leaves without telling anyone. While searching for Aastha, Shaurya & Anokhi come across ACP Ahir. When Shaurya and Anokhi go to search Aastha in a market, a riot breaks out where an explosion there injures Anokhi. Shaurya rescues her and has her hospitalized. But she credits Ahir and blames Shaurya for leaving her. This hurts Shaurya who cared for Anokhi ignoring his own injury but later she gets to know the truth. Elsewhere, Shaan finds Aastha. When Aastha is found, Shaurya apologizes for his harsh words but tells Aastha to have no hopes of betterment of their relation. To separate Shaurya from Aastha and Anokhi, Tej plans to appoint him as the chairman of their college's new branch at Patiala. This is when Shaurya realizes that he is falling for Anokhi. He resigns as a professor from SIAC. Later in the night he saves Anokhi from being kidnapped. Next day, when Anokhi and Shaurya go to file a complaint seeing Ahir flirting with Anokhi and Anokhi not recognizing it irks Shaurya, and the latter vents his frustration on Anokhi when she insisted to know what's bothering him. Anokhi couldn't tolerate the insult and decides to return to her hometown, Kapurthala. To stop Anokhi from leaving for Kapurthala, Shaurya asks her to appear for the Economics Preliminary examination. She tops the examination but is accused of cheating. She was on the verge of rustication, but Shaurya proves her innocence fighting against his own family. Even though she was proven innocent and despite Shaurya's insistence, she doesn't change her decision to leave the college. Elsewhere, Aastha and Shaan file for a divorce. Even though they separate legally, Shaan decides to start afresh with Aastha. On the other hand, Shaurya convinces Anokhi to continue her studies at SIAC and arranges for a room in the college hostel for her to stay. Devi afraid of Shaurya-Anokhi's growing closeness contacts Shagun who was already in Chandigarh for some reasons. Amidst this, Shaurya decides to tell his feelings to Anokhi and goes to Anokhi's hostel when she doesn't pick her calls. Drenched in the rain, he falls sick in her room and couldn't express. Later Shaurya decides to confess his love to Anokhi on Holi. However, his plans are spoiled because of ACP Ahir who arrests Shaurya out of his personal grudge against him after Shaurya accidentally hits Ahir's car. At the police station, ACP Ahir reveals to Shaurya that he has feelings for Anokhi. Shaurya warns him to stay away from Anokhi. On the day of Holi, Anokhi eagerly anticipates Shaurya's arrival. However, she begins to worry when she sees Shaurya's family arrive at the college without him. She calls Shaurya to know his whereabouts but she is surprised to hear ACP Ahir's voice on the other line, who tells her that Shaurya is in lock-up. Anokhi, flabbergasted, travels to the police station, confronts ACP, has a conversation with Shaurya and leaves. Anokhi returns to the college and soon finds Shaurya there as well (released from jail after apologizing to ACP Ahir just for the sake of Anokhi). Shaurya and Anokhi have a great time celebrating Holi which is seen by Shagun. Seeing that Shaurya has moved on and is smitten with someone else, she prepares to go. However, Devi convinces her to stay. Devi helps Shagun take up the vacant seat of the professor for Economics at SIAC. Shaurya, though reluctant, agrees for the betterment of the institution and the students. Shagun confesses his feelings to Shaurya and asks him to reconsider their relationship. Shaurya tries to explain that he likes Anokhi now and offers Shagun to either leave for UK or stay as a colleague only at SIAC. Later, Shaurya asks Anokhi to dine with him on a date. Anokhi, ecstatic, agrees. After which, Devi makes a plan and sends Shagun to the date where Anokhi misunderstands Shaurya and runs away. Shaurya arranges the date again but Anokhi isn't ready to join him. Out of frustration and despair, Shaurya confesses his feelings to Anokhi, but she thinks that he is playing with her feelings and taking revenge on her. A heartbroken Shaurya goes to Goa to have some space. Kanchan explains Anokhi about Shaurya's love and helps her reach Goa where Babli and ACP Ahir also arrive searching for her. In Goa, Shaurya arranges a lavish birthday party for Anokhi and plans to propose her, but Devi foils the plan. Anokhi misunderstands Shaurya and decides to cut-off ties. Shaurya tells Devi that he loves Anokhi and goes go to clear the misunderstanding but Anokhi refuses to hear him. Devastated Shaurya gets into an accident. Aastha comes to meet Shaurya and fights with Devi about her rights over Shaurya. Aastha comes to know about Shaurya and Anokhi relationship and is happy. Shagun brainwashes Anokhi against Shaurya, so she decides to move on from Shaurya even without giving him a chance to tell his side of the story. Shaurya fights his family to go and meet Anokhi, but goes missing on the way which worries the Sabherwals and Aastha. Shagun confronts Anokhi and asks her about Shaurya. Anokhi, having decided to move on from Shaurya ignores him being missing, but later learns that he was kidnapped by Vineet. She tells the Sabherwals that her sister's husband kidnapped Shaurya. After much effort, she finds Shaurya, where the Sabherwals arrive and leave with Shaurya while Anokhi leaves him behind alone and decides to go back to Chandigarh. The next day, Shaurya searches for Anokhi, but the receptionist tells him that she has left. Shaurya tries to go follow Anokhi but receives the news of Devi's minor heart attack and rushes to the villa. Devi asks Shaurya to get engaged to Shagun, but he denies it. Devi feigns a heart attack, and blackmails Shaurya to get engaged to Shagun. However, the next day he goes to Chandigarh and meets Anokhi where they confess their love for each other. But later Anokhi not willing to risk her career and leaves Shaurya. Shaurya not willing to let Anokhi go fills vermilion in Anokhi's hairline, making her Mrs. Anokhi Shaurya Sabherwal. Even though Shaurya is happy about the marriage, Anokhi is furious at Shaurya for deciding without asking her. She puts a condition for him to accept his mother into his life for her to consider the marriage valid as she blames him for not fighting for his mother's rights without even knowing about Shaurya's abandonment & pain. Yet Shaurya agrees to all her conditions just for his love. Shaurya goes to bring back Aastha but refuses to return. Shaurya visits Anokhi to tell her about Aastha's decision where the couple shares a few romantic moments. Ahir proposes to Anokhi for marriage where she refuses and tells him the truth of her marriage. Elsewhere, Anokhi is selected for an Economics seminar in Delhi where Shaurya plans a romantic drive. Due to rain they get stuck in a deserted place where the couple shares romantic moments and Shaurya pours his heart out to Anokhi about why he hates his mother, Aastha. Later Shagun tracks down Shaurya and Anokhi, and learns about Shaurya's marriage with Anokhi. At the seminar, Shaurya motivates Anokhi and helps her win the competition and they both celebrate. Back to Chandigarh, Shagun tells the Sabherwals about Shaurya's marriage about which they confront Shaurya, but he remains firm and says that he loves Anokhi and thus married her. He then officially proposes Anokhi with a ring. Next day, Tej and Devi cunningly send Shaurya to Patiala, and in Shaurya's absence, they rusticate Anokhi from college and hostel. On the way to Patiala, Shaurya goes to meet Aastha and reconciles with her. When he learns of Anokhi's rustication, he gets mad at the Sabherwals and leaves back for Chandigarh. He confronts the Sabherwals but Tej refuses to accept Anokhi as the daughter-in-law, so Shaurya leaves Sabherwal mansion to stay with Anokhi. However, Tej meets Anokhi privately and blackmails her into leaving Shaurya or else claims that he will disown Shaurya and ruin his career. Anokhi gets influenced by Tej and decides to leave Shaurya. She hides in ACP Ahir's basement without the knowledge of Shaurya, who is desperately looking for her. With the help of ACP Ahir, he finds Anokhi. When he tries to talk to her, she shouts at him, stating that she does not accept their marriage and that he should go away. Shaurya reluctantly leaves and goes to the Sabherwal mansion, telling his family that the story of Shaurya and Anokhi is over, much to their delight. He then goes into his room and completely breaks down. The next day in college Anokhi gets dizzy and faints. Shaurya goes and holds her. He brings her back to consciousness. Shaurya drops Anokhi home and discovers that the reason behind the breakup is something else. Shaurya forces her to reveal everything. On hearing the truth while Anokhi tries to apologize to Shaurya, he is disappointed as Anokhi didn't take a stand for their love and decided to leave him just like his mother did. He proclaims that their relationship is over and leaves the house. Later on, Shaurya brings Shaan, Aastha, Babli and Ahir together and plan to marry Anokhi again with all the rituals and marital vows but they decide to keep it a secret from Anokhi for the time-being. While Anokhi regrets her actions for losing Shaurya forever, Shaurya goes to Kapurthala to meet the Bhallas to convince them for the marriage. They agree wholeheartedly. The next day, Shaurya confronts Tej and announces in front of the Sabherwals that he will marry Anokhi again, leaving everyone in a state of shock. He also informs that Aastha will be a part of the ceremony. Later at the college, Anokhi learns about Shaurya's marriage but is under the illusion that he is marrying Shagun. Shaurya then asks Anokhi if she would be able to prepare decorations for the wedding alongside Babli. Anokhi reluctantly agrees showing that she can move on. Wedding preparations and festivities begin. On the day of shagan, Kanchan tells Shaurya about Devi's fake heart attack leaving Shaurya completely broken. He confronts Devi and tells her that they have lost his trust. While Anokhi continues to believe that Shaurya will marry Shagun, Aastha and Babli conduct the rituals of shagan stealthily without making her feel suspicious about anything. The next day, for the Mehndi, Shaurya secretly makes the Mehndi artist write his name on Anokhi's hand, leaving her surprised. By the end of the ceremony, unable to handle herself, and on Reema's insistence, Anokhi ends up confessing her love for Shaurya and requests him to stop the wedding. At that moment, Shaurya reveals that it's their wedding and tells that this was a plan to make Anokhi realise that they cannot live without each other and shouldn't give up on their love. They embrace each other as both the Bhallas and the Sabherwals join in their happiness. During the haldi function Ramesh apologizes to his daughters and reconciles with them. On the other side, Devi who was so far away from the wedding ceremonies arrives as well. After the haldi function, both Shaurya and Anokhi prepare for their wedding. On the day of the wedding, Shaurya and his family arrive with baraat. Later, Tej arrives as well and Shaurya and Anokhi seek his blessings. Soon Anokhi gets a message that her Sociology exam has been preponed to the same date and time as the wedding mahurat. Anokhi gets worried and arrives at the Mandap sobbing. When Shaurya gets to know about the exam, he asks Anokhi to prioritize her exam over marriage. Anokhi sits for the exam, but she takes too long and it seems that she will miss the wedding but Shaurya ensures that doesn't happen by arranging for the wedding setup at the college itself. Shaurya and Anokhi get officially married. Anokhi chooses to live in Sabherwal House when asked by Shaurya where she intends to go after marriage. At the reception, a guest asks her about her planning for further studies, Devi intervenes and replies that she won't study anymore as she is now the daughter-in-law of their house, much to Anokhi's dismay. Later Shaurya assures Anokhi about her career and they consummate their marriage. A few days later Alok tries to molest a student, Priyanka, but she escapes and lodges a complaint against him. Anokhi supports her, to the Sabherwal family's dismay. Shaurya too supports Anokhi as he discovers the evidence against Alok. But Shagun supports Alok and asks Priyanka to make a false recording against Anokhi. The Sabherwals expel Anokhi from the house without Shaurya's knowledge who is busy collecting proofs in favor of Anokhi. He makes Priyanka blurt out the whole truth of the matter. Anokhi is proven innocent, Shagun is expelled from college. Shaurya leaves Sabherwal mansion to support and live with Anokhi. Thus, Sabherwals realise their mistake and throw Alok out from the house and apologise to Shaurya, Anokhi and Aastha. The Sabherwals reunite and the show ends from where it started, SIAC. Cast and characters Main Debattama Saha as Anokhi Bhalla Sabherwal: Rama and Ramesh's daughter, Babli and Raja's sister, Shaurya's student-turned-wife. She is industrious and believes in gender equality. She elopes from her forced wedding in order to make a career and be independent. Later she falls in love with her professor, Shaurya, and eventually marries him. (2020–2021) Karanvir Sharma as Shaurya Sabherwal: Aastha and Shaan's son, Devi and Tej's foster son, Anokhi's professor-turned-husband. He was a misogynist because he assumed that his mother abandoned him to pursue her career. Initially he hated Anokhi but later married her. He hated his mother but later accepted her. (2020–2021) Recurring Alka Kaushal as Devi Sabherwal: Tej's wife, Shaurya's aunt-turned-foster mother. She instigates Shaurya against Aastha by telling him that Aastha left him to focus on her career. Later she teams up with Shagun to remove Anokhi from Shaurya's life but fails. But later on, she started admiring Anokhi and Aastha.(2020–2021) Sooraj Thapar as Tej Sabherwal: Devi's husband, Shaurya's uncle-turned-foster father, Shaan and Alok's elder brother. He is the patriarch of the Sabherwal family and chairman of Sabherwal Institute of Arts and Commerce [SIAC]. He taunts Shaan for being an irresponsible father and an alcoholic. He later on started admiring Anokhi and Aastha. (2020–2021) Khalid Siddiqui as Shaan Sabherwal: Aastha's husband, Shaurya's father, Tej and Alok's brother. He has been addicted to alcohol after Aastha left him. As a result, he could not concentrate on neither work nor his son. (2020–2021) Deepa Parab as Aastha Sabherwal: Shaan's wife, Shaurya's mother, Anokhi's Professor turned mother-in-law. Though she left the Sabherwal house to take care of her parents, her son Shaurya believes that she left for her career. She loves Shaan and Shaurya and is Anokhi's mentor. (2020–2021) Rajvir Chauhan as Pawan "Raja" Bhalla: Rama and Ramesh's son; Anokhi's elder brother; Babli's younger brother (2020–2021) Hitesh Bharadwaj as ACP Ahir Chattwal: Shaurya and Anokhi's well-wisher. He loved Anokhi. (2021) Bhavna Chauhan / Swarda Thigale as Shagun Kapoor: Shaurya's former fiancée and lover, she plans with Devi to remove Anokhi from Shaurya's life. She returns from Cambridge to marry Shaurya but fails. On learning about the conspiracy she tried to make against Anokhi she was ousted from SIAC and the Sabherwal family. (2020–2021) Pankaj Kalra as Ramesh Bhalla: Rama's husband; Babli, Anokhi and Raja's father. He was an orthodox and assumes daughters to be a burden. But later he realized his mistake and began to support his daughters and respect his wife.(2020–2021) Pyumori Mehta Ghosh / Aparna Ghoshal as Rama Bhalla: Ramesh's wife; Babli, Anokhi's and Raja's mother. She helped Anokhi to elope from her forced marriage. (2020–2021) Falaq Naaz as Babli Bhalla: Rama and Ramesh's daughter; Anokhi and Raja's elder sister; Vineet's former wife. (2020–2021) Anuj Kohli as Vineet Bhatia: Babli's abusive ex-husband. (2020–2021) Ayushi Bhatia as Reema: Anokhi's college friend and well wisher. She is supportive of Anokhi. (2020–2021) Harsh Vashisht as Alok Sabherwal: Gayatri's husband; Yash, Kitty and Bebo's father; Tej and Shaan's younger brother. He is like Tej and Devi. (2020–2021) Eva Ahuja as Gayatri Sabherwal: Alok's wife; Yash, Kitty and Bebo's mother. She admires Aastha. (2020–2021) Gulshan Nain as Yash Sabherwal: Gayatri and Alok's son; Kitty and Bebo's elder brother; Kanchan's husband. (2020–2021) Reema Wohra as Kanchan Sabherwal: Yash's wife; Shaurya and Anokhi's well-wisher. (2020–2021) Trishala Idnani as Kitty Sabherwal: Gayatri and Alok's younger daughter; Yash and Bebo's younger sister; Shaurya's younger cousin sister (2020–2021) Sindhu Reddy as Bebo Sabherwal: Gayatri and Alok's elder daughter; Yash and Kitty's sister; Shaurya's younger cousin sister; Anmol's love interest. (2020–2021) Jitendra Nokewal as Anmol Arora: Kitty and Bebo's college friend; Bebo's love interest. (2020–2021) Poonam Sirnaik as Beeji: Babli, Raja and Anokhi's paternal grandmother; Ramesh's mother (2020–2021) Bhavna Chauhan as Shagun Kapoor: Shaurya's former fiancée (2020) Shilpa Kataria Singh as Mrs. Kapoor: Shagun's mother (2020) Lalit Singh as Friend: College friends of Anokhi (2021) Arup Pal as Mr. Kapoor: Shagun's father (2020) Gautam Handa as Monty Khanna: Anokhi's former fiancée (2020) Firoz Ali as Mr. Pratap Arora (Anmol's Father) Production Development Before its premiere, it was titled as Shaurya – Ek Anokhi Kahani and the first promo of the series was released, but soon, the earlier promo was discarded and the title was changed to Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani. On 20 December 2020, fire broke out on the sets of the series and the shoot was disrupted for a while. Training Debattama Saha who was cast as Anokhi preparing for which she said, "Punjabi as a language was new to me so I had to work hard on that. I improved my skills during various workshops I attended". Filming Based on the backdrop of Punjab, the series is mainly filmed at the sets at Film City in Mumbai while the initial sequences were shot in Patiala in early December 2020. On 13 April 2021, Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Uddhav Thackeray announced a sudden curfew due to increased COVID-19 cases, while the production halted from 14 April 2021. Soon, the team of the series decided to move their shooting location to Goa until the next hearing. After the sudden lockdown in Goa, the crew further shifted to Hyderabad to continue with their shooting until the next hearing. Release The first promo of the series was released on 2 December 2020 featuring the leads Debattama Saha and Karanvir Sharma. Cancellation Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani garnered average ratings but was the slot leader from its inception till May 2021. In June 2021, Colors TV's show in the same timeslot, Udaariyaan, saw its ratings surpass Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani's and became the slot leader. During this decline in ratings, the show was cancelled on television and was supposed to shift to OTT platform Disney+ Hotstar but, due to the show's high budget, it was cancelled, with the final episode aired on 24 July 2021. Reception Ratings In the UK, the series had its peak viewership with 76.2k viewers on 23 January 2021 being the second most watched Indian television series. The viewership further increased to 80.6k on 26 January 2021, occupying third position. Maintaining the same position, the series had a viewership of 82.8k on 26 February 2021. On the week ending 7 March 2021, it maintained its third position with 103.2k viewership. In India, however, owing to low TRP ratings, the show was axed by the channel with their last episode airing on July 24. Soundtrack Adaptations Awards and nominations References External links Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani on IMDb Shaurya Aur Anokhi Ki Kahani on Hotstar 2020 Indian television series debuts 2021 Indian television series endings Indian drama television series StarPlus original programming Hindi-language television shows Indian television soap operas Television shows set in Punjab, India	6,495

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