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The <unk> looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while <unk> and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their <unk> altered significantly .
Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe <unk> by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war .
= = Background = =
In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers .
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the <unk> @-@ <unk> Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic .
= = Destruction of Polish culture = =
= = = German occupation = = =
= = = = Policy = = = =
Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of <unk> Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the <unk> of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political <unk> . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be <unk> , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government .
Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at <unk> on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or <unk> ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by <unk> . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began .
In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( <unk> für <unk> und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( <unk> Propaganda ) . Further <unk> issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . <unk> of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn .
In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " <unk> " ( <unk> ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . <unk> on education , theater and music performances were eased .
Given that the Second Polish Republic was a <unk> state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , <unk> tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and <unk> . In <unk> , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz <unk> , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish <unk> , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and <unk> , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . "
= = = = <unk> = = = =
In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . <unk> art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ <unk> , <unk> units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of <unk> Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of <unk> <unk> and paintings by Raphael , <unk> , Leonardo da Vinci , <unk> and <unk> . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned <unk> in <unk> , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos .
= = = = Destruction = = = =
Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact .
Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as <unk> @-@ <unk> . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous <unk> <unk> and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its <unk> and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was <unk> altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi <unk> : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . "
As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the <unk> <unk> , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for <unk> .
To <unk> the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials <unk> that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . <unk> @-@ SS Heinrich <unk> wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , <unk> , and Lithuanian . In the <unk> <unk> region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % .
The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows :
Pupils sit <unk> together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty <unk> school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour .
In the General Government , the remaining schools were <unk> to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was <unk> , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers .
The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden <unk> there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland .
Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the <unk> Estate Library , the <unk> Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the <unk> Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of <unk> rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war .
Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In <unk> , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities .
= = = = <unk> and propaganda = = = =
The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and <unk> novels .
<unk> at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . <unk> literature included maps , <unk> and <unk> and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public <unk> of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Bolesław <unk> , Stefan <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , Władysław <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Julian <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leopold Staff , Eliza <unk> and Maria <unk> . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . <unk> @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and <unk> — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed .
Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . <unk> , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda <unk> . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " <unk> <unk> <unk> w <unk> " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " <unk> . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract <unk> inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate .
Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in <unk> and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and <unk> , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally <unk> by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . <unk> museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes .
The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at <unk> anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes .
= = = Soviet occupation = = =
After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " <unk> " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ <unk> million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of <unk> Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " .
The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to <unk> concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the <unk> massacres .
The Soviets quickly <unk> the annexed lands , introducing compulsory <unk> . They proceeded to confiscate , <unk> and <unk> private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the <unk> unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , <unk> , <unk> , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , <unk> , <unk> , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society .
The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in <unk> , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr <unk> noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland .
All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in <unk> and <unk> were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government .
The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of <unk> . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the <unk> policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland .
Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy <unk> , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leon <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Stanisław Jerzy <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , Juliusz <unk> , Jan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Karol <unk> , Leopold <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Leon <unk> , Julian <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz <unk> , Włodzimierz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Stern , Julian <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Leopold <unk> , Wanda <unk> , Stanisław <unk> , Adam <unk> , Aleksander <unk> and Bruno <unk> .
Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet <unk> and instead published underground : <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Juliusz <unk> . Some writers , such as Władysław <unk> , after <unk> with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet <unk> secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan .
= = Underground culture = =
= = = <unk> = = =
Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław <unk> ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social <unk> ( under Jan Stanisław <unk> and , later , Stefan <unk> ) and a Department for <unk> of the Effects of War ( under Antoni <unk> and <unk> <unk> ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These <unk> oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan <unk> that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( <unk> ) of works by Winston Churchill and <unk> <unk> and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school <unk> and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts .
Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish <unk> , who likewise supported artists and <unk> Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan <unk> and a former politician , <unk> <unk> ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan <unk> , Zbigniew <unk> and the <unk> publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war .
= = = Education = = =
In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( <unk> <unk> <unk> , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by <unk> <unk> , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , <unk> and <unk> ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance .
In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw <unk> under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 <unk> . <unk> University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław <unk> , a leading Polish philosopher , and <unk> <unk> , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research .
The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably <unk> resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp .
= = = Print = = =
There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the <unk> <unk> of Armia Krajowa and <unk> of the Government Delegation for Poland . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , <unk> i <unk> ) . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of <unk> <unk> printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published <unk> and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading <unk> and lowering morale among the Germans . Books were also sometimes printed . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats .
The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy <unk> ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na <unk> was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . ( Na <unk> was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground <unk> distributed the publications . According to some statistics , these <unk> were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans .
Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , <unk> Kamil <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , <unk> <unk> , future Nobel Prize winner <unk> <unk> , Zofia <unk> , Jan <unk> , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz <unk> , and Jerzy <unk> . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty <unk> <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Leon <unk> , Andrzej <unk> and Marian <unk> ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria <unk> , Halina <unk> , Zofia <unk> ( <unk> ) , Tadeusz <unk> , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian <unk> ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them <unk> Kamil <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz <unk> , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz <unk> @-@ <unk> , Stefan <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Halina <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Antoni <unk> , Włodzimierz <unk> , Leon <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> @-@ <unk> and Bruno Schulz .
= = = Visual arts and music = = =
With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret <unk> Council . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the <unk> 's <unk> prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Henryk Borowski , <unk> <unk> , Władysław <unk> , Stefan <unk> , Tadeusz <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jan <unk> , Adam <unk> , Andrzej <unk> , Leon <unk> , Arnold <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Edmund <unk> , Maria <unk> , Karol <unk> ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian <unk> , Jerzy <unk> and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners .
Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam <unk> , Zbigniew <unk> , Jan <unk> , Barbara <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Andrzej <unk> , Piotr <unk> , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia <unk> , Jerzy <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> , Maria <unk> , Bolesław <unk> , Mira <unk> ) performed in restaurants , <unk> , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while <unk> German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as <unk> , <unk> , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Jewish musicians ( e.g. Władysław <unk> ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre <unk> in the United States , and Eddie <unk> and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union .
Visual arts were practiced underground as well . <unk> , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Polish underground artists included <unk> <unk> , Stanisław <unk> @-@ <unk> , Stanisław <unk> @-@ <unk> , and Konstanty Maria <unk> . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example <unk> ) . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and <unk> <unk> , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German <unk> on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Underground <unk> stamps were designed and issued . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and <unk> , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture .
= = = Warsaw Uprising = = =
During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory <unk> to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . <unk> by Antoni <unk> , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three <unk> and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle .
<unk> <unk> took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; <unk> Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy <unk> some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived .
= = Culture in exile = =
Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . <unk> <unk> , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the <unk> Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior <unk> wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Other writers working abroad included Jan <unk> , Antoni <unk> , Kazimierz <unk> and Julian <unk> . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a <unk> <unk> cabaret were Henryk Wars and <unk> Anders . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the <unk> <unk> na Monte Cassino ( The Red <unk> on Monte Cassino ) , composed by <unk> <unk> and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr <unk> , Adam <unk> , Marian <unk> , Bolesław <unk> and Stefan Knapp .
= = Influence on postwar culture = =
The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Norman Davies wrote in God 's <unk> : " In 1945 , as a prize for <unk> sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . The <unk> nation was no more .
The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of <unk> " . The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland .
Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Hanna <unk> and others ; films , including those by Andrzej <unk> ( A Generation , <unk> , Ashes and Diamonds , <unk> , A Love in Germany , <unk> , <unk> ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( <unk> <unk> ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Polish historian <unk> <unk> wrote in 1996 :
Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Probably no other country marks <unk> related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly .
= Arihant @-@ class submarine =
The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of <unk> ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . They were developed under the US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines .
The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council .
= = History = =
In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to <unk> India . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from <unk> to trail the US task force . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . Following the 1974 <unk> Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( <unk> ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project <unk> ) .
The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . Then Defence Minister George <unk> confirmed the project in 1998 . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at <unk> Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad .
= = Description = =
The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) <unk> water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged .
The submarines have four launch tubes in their <unk> and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 <unk> missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . The submarines are similar to the <unk> @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS <unk> , an <unk> @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 .
= = Development = =
The submarines are powered by a <unk> water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . The <unk> version of the reactor was designed and built by the <unk> Atomic Research Centre ( <unk> ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( <unk> ) in <unk> . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The reactor <unk> were tested at the Machinery Test Center in <unk> . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established .
The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & <unk> 's submarine design center at their <unk> shipbuilding facility . Tata Power <unk> built the control systems for the submarine . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by <unk> Industries . The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included <unk> tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials .
= = Ships in class = =
<unk> number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by <unk> . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS <unk> is being prepared for sea trials . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 <unk> and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . A larger follow on class to the <unk> class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles .
= = Timeline = =
= SMS Markgraf =
SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English <unk> , or Marquess .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay .
= = Construction and design = =
Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz <unk> and built at the AG <unk> shipyard in <unk> under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . <unk> @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million <unk> .
Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ <unk> t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ <unk> enlisted sailors .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Markgraf 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank .
In the aftermath of the loss of SMS <unk> at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von <unk> from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to <unk> on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a <unk> operation off <unk> . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October .
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the <unk> . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of <unk> unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly <unk> were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the <unk> and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent <unk> @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of <unk> , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . The main deck was <unk> and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul <unk> in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Markgraf fired both her 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking .
Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was <unk> downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , <unk> upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Warrior <unk> on the trip back to port the following morning .

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